Mental Health Impacts of Racial Discrimination in Victorian Aboriginal Communities - The Localities Embracing and Accepting Diversity (LEAD) ...
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Mental Health Impacts of
Racial Discrimination
in Victorian Aboriginal
Communities
The Localities Embracing and Accepting
Diversity (LEAD) Experiences of Racism Survey
Angeline Ferdinand, Yin Paradies and Margaret Kelaher
‘The colour of my skin might be different but inside I’m the same as you’ by Heidi Knowles, a descendant of the Yorta Yorta tribe from Cummeragunja, Victoria About the Artwork ‘The two Longneck Turtles in the painting represent Peace and Harmony, while the People represent those on whom the research was based. They are surrounded by Spirit Figures, which represent the different nationalities living in the community, and if you look inside these figures you will see that each one has the same insides but different coloured skin. This means that no matter what the colour of your skin, inside we are all exactly the same and bleed the same colour.’
Mental Health Impacts of
Racial Discrimination
in Victorian Aboriginal
Communities
The Localities Embracing and Accepting
Diversity (LEAD) Experiences of Racism Survey
Angeline Ferdinand, Yin Paradies and Margaret Kelaher
© The Lowitja Institute and the individual authors
ISBN 978-1-921889-22-6
First published in January 2013
This work is copyright. It may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or training
purposes, or by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community organisations subject to
an acknowledgment of the source and no commercial use or sale. Reproduction for other
purposes or by other organisations requires the written permission of the copyright holder(s).
The project on which this report is based has been funded by the Lowitja Institute, which
incorporates the Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health.
Additional copies of this publication can be obtained from:
The Lowitja Institute
PO Box 650, Carlton South
Victoria 3053 AUSTRALIA
T: +61 3 8341 5555
F: +61 3 8341 5599
E: publications@lowitja.org.au
W: www.lowitja.org.au
Authors: Angeline Ferdinand1, Yin Paradies2 and Margaret Kelaher1
Managing Editor: Jane Yule
CRCATSIH Program Manager: Vanessa Harris
Artwork: ‘The colour of my skin might be different but inside I’m the same as you’ by Heidi Knowles
Design: Inprint Design
For citation: Ferdinand, A., Paradies, Y. & Kelaher, M. 2012, Mental Health Impacts of Racial Discrimination in Victorian
Aboriginal Communities: The Localities Embracing and Accepting Diversity (LEAD) Experiences of Racism Survey, The
Lowitja Institute, Melbourne.
Please note: For the purposes of this report, the term ‘Aboriginal’ has been used to denote Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander peoples.
1
Centre for Health Policy, Programs & Economics, School of Population Health, The University of Melbourne (a.ferdinand@unimelb.edu.au;
mkelaher@unimelb.edu.au)
2
Centre for Citizenship and Globalisation, Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University (yin.paradies@deakin.edu.au)Table of Contents iii
Acknowledgments iv
Executive Summary 1
Experiences of racism 1
Mental health Impacts of experiences of racism 1
Implications 1
Background 2
The Localities Embracing and Accepting Diversity (LEAD) Program 2
Contextual background 2
Definitions and concepts 2
Cultural diversity in Australia 3
Racism and health 3
Purpose of the survey 4
Survey Methods 5
Survey administration 5
Survey structure 5
Demographic items 5
Experiences of racism 5
Mental health 6
Data analysis 7
Results 8
Demographic data 8
Sense of belonging 9
Experiences of racism 9
Interpersonal racism: Types and frequencies of experiences 9
Interpersonal racism: Settings 10
Perpetrators 11
Responses to interpersonal racism 11
Factors affecting experiences of interpersonal racism 12
Internalised racism 14
Mental health and racism 14
Discussion 19
Prevalence and nature of racism experienced 19
Settings where racism was experienced 19
Racism and mental health 21
Responses to racism 21
Limitations 22
Implications 23
Conclusions 24
Strategies for change 24
References 25
Appendix 1. Statistics 30
Appendix 2. Experiences of Racism survey items 33List of Tables and Figures
Table 1: Demographic data 8
Table 2: Item regarding sense of belonging to local area/neighbourhood 9
Table 3: Witnessing racism 9
Table 4: Experiences of racism by demographic characteristics 13
Table 5: Item regarding internalised racism 14
Table 6: Items from the Kessler 5 Psychological Distress Scale 15
Table 7: Items regarding anticipation, worrying and avoidance 18
Table 8: Items regarding perceived impact of racism 18
Figure 1: Experiences of racism in past 12 months 10
Figure 2: Settings of racist experiences in past 12 months 10
Figure 3: Participant responses to interpersonal racism 11
Figure 4: Number of different responses used in reaction to last reported experience 12
Figure 5: Experiences of racism by setting and university education 14
Figure 6: Experiences of racism and mean K5 score 15
Figure 7: Experiences of racism and being above the threshold for high or very high
psychological distress on the K5 16
Figure 8: Types of experiences and odds of being above the threshold for high or very
high psychological distress on the K5 adjusted for frequency of exposure 16
Figure 9: Settings of experiences and odds of being above the threshold for high or
very high psychological distress on the K5 17
Figure 10: Responses to last experience and odds of finding the experience stressful
or very stressful 17
Acknowledgments
This report is based on research from the project program and beyondblue, Australia’s peak body
‘Understanding and addressing racism against for mental health issues. The Experiences of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians Racism survey was carried out as part of these two
through the LEAD (Localities Embracing and interrelated projects. The report authors are part of
Accepting Diversity) program’ funded by the the University of Melbourne LEAD evaluation team.
Lowitja Institute, Australia’s National Institute We would like to thank the community workers
for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health for their invaluable support in administering the
Research, which incorporates the Cooperative surveys. We would also like to thank Peter Streker
Research Centre for Aboriginal and Torres Strait and Pamela Rodriguez from VicHealth for their
Islander Health. The LEAD program is funded support and advice in compiling this report, as
by the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation well as Anna Ziersch and Donna Cormack for
(VicHealth), the Department of Immigration and reviewing the report.
Citizenship (DIAC) through its Diverse Australia
ivExecutive Summary 1
We surveyed 755 Aboriginal Australians in four of exposure into account. The items ‘felt left
communities across Victoria in 2011. out and avoided because you are Aboriginal’
and ‘having property vandalised because you
• Aboriginal people were asked about their
are Aboriginal’ were associated with being
background, experiences of racism and where
above the threshold for high or very high
they occurred, response strategies and the
psychological distress. Racism experienced
impact of racism on anxiety, mental distress
while seeking housing or dealing with real
(measured using the K5 scale for psychological
estate personnel and on public transport was
distress) and behaviour and the impact of racism
significantly associated with being above the
on their family and community.
threshold for high or very high psychological
• The surveys were conducted in consultation distress on the K5.
with local communities and the data were
• Accepting racism or just putting up with it
collected by local Aboriginal interviewers in
was associated with greater stress. Making
each community.
a legal complaint was also associated with
higher levels of stress although this association
Experiences of racism is potentially more likely to be due to more
severe experiences of racism than the effects
• Almost every Aboriginal Victorian who
of making a complaint.
participated in this survey had experienced
racism in the previous 12 months. • Talking to others about racism reduced the
stress associated with experiences of racism.
• Most people had experienced racism multiple
times, with more than 70 per cent experiencing • Thirty per cent of respondents reported
eight or more incidents a year. avoiding situations in daily life because of
racism often or very often. This suggests that
• Racism occurred across a broad range of
rates of racism would otherwise be much
settings. It was most commonly experienced in
higher than reported here.
shops (67%) and public spaces (59%).
• This method of coping restricts opportunities
• There were no differences in experiences of
for Aboriginal Australians to participate in
racism due to gender, age or rurality.
activities that many other Australians take for
• There were differences in experiences granted.
of racism due to education, with people
• Many participants were also worried about the
educated at Year 12 or above reporting more
impact of racism on their families and friends.
experiences of racism compared to people
with lower levels of education.
Implications
Mental health impacts of experiences • The mental health of Aboriginal Australians
can be improved if they are exposed to fewer
of racism incidents of interpersonal racism.
• Fifty per cent of all participants and 65 per
• Prevention is likely to be a more effective
cent of participants exposed to 12 or more
and efficient public health intervention than
incidents reported experiencing high or very
responding to harmful incidents.
high levels of psychological distress.
• Interventions targeting organisational and
• There was a dose effect – that is, the risk
community settings are needed to reduce
of high or very high levels of psychological
racism because of the high frequency of
distress increased as the volume of racism
experiences of racism in these settings.
increased.
• Effective anti-racism measures need to be
• Some types of racism seemed to be more
implemented to reduce racism.
harmful than others even taking frequency2 Background
The Localities Embracing and economic participation, specifically by working with
Accepting Diversity (LEAD) Program mainstream organisations in order to prevent race-
based discrimination from occurring and to promote
In 2007, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation the benefits of cultural diversity. VicHealth research
(VicHealth) published data from a survey of 4000 has found that this is the best way to reduce
Victorians in the report More than tolerance: discrimination and support diversity. By taking this
Embracing diversity for health.1 The findings show approach, LEAD aims to have a wide reach in the
that although most Victorians supported society community to generate long-lasting cultural change.
being made up of people from different cultures,
a small number (around 1 in 10) held views that are LEAD is a pilot program that works with local
blatantly racist (e.g. the notion that some groups governments to build fair and welcoming
are inferior to others or that people from different communities and to prevent discrimination and
‘races’ should not marry), while a substantial support cultural diversity within local communities
minority (around 1 in 3) held attitudes suggestive and organisations. It is being implemented in
of intolerance of ethnic difference (e.g. the belief two Victorian municipalities with assistance from
that there are groups that do not fit into Australian the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human
society, or resistance to people retaining what Rights Commission (VEOHRC), the Department of
makes them culturally distinctive). Immigration and Citizenship through its Diverse
Australia program, beyondblue, Australia’s
The Localities Embracing and Accepting Diversity peak body for mental health, and the Municipal
(LEAD) program was developed by VicHealth in Association of Victoria (MAV).
response to the More than tolerance findings,
and comprises a coordinated range of actions
within a specific locality. The design of the LEAD Contextual background
program is underpinned by Building on our Definitions and concepts
strengths: A framework to reduce race-based
discrimination and support diversity in Victoria,2 Racism can be broadly defined as the types of
and is being implemented in partnership with behaviours, practices, beliefs and prejudices that
local councils. underlie avoidable and unfair inequalities across
groups in society based on race, ethnicity, culture
In this report we examine exposure to interpersonal or religion. Race-based discrimination is those
racism and its impacts on the mental health of behaviours and practices that result in avoidable
Aboriginal Australians in four communities in and unfair inequalities across groups in society.2
Victoria using baseline survey data collected This definition encompasses not only racial violence
as part of the LEAD program evaluation. The or illegal forms of discrimination, but subtle forms
Experiences of Racism survey is part of the Lowitja of exclusion as well.
Institute-funded project, ‘Understanding and
addressing racism against Aboriginal and Torres Racism can occur at three conceptual levels,
Strait Islander Australians through the LEAD which overlap in practice:
program’. This project was developed to add an • interpersonal racism (i.e. racist interactions
enhanced Aboriginal perspective to the broader between people);
LEAD program of work by ensuring that those
components of concern to Aboriginal communities • internalised racism (i.e. the incorporation
are implemented appropriately and that the benefit of ideologies within the worldview of an
of LEAD is maximised for communities, mainstream individual who experiences racism which
policy makers and service providers with potential results in the unequal distribution of power
to impact positively on Aboriginal affairs. between racial, ethnic, cultural or religious
groups); and
The overall objectives of LEAD are to improve
health outcomes and reduce anxiety and • systemic or institutional racism (i.e. formal
depression among Aboriginal and migrant policies, practices, processes and conditions that
communities through increased social and serve to increase power differentials between
racial, ethnic, cultural or religious groups).3, 4Racism can be direct (or overt) or indirect (covert Federal government issued a formal apology to
or hidden). Direct racism is based in differential Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people over
treatment that results in an unequal distribution the forced removal of their children in 2008.5,6
of power, resources or opportunities across
In 1972 the Federal government introduced
different groups, such as a refusal to hire people
the policy of self-determination for Aboriginal
from a particular ethnic group. Indirect racism is
Australians, which was based on the rights of
equal treatment that impacts groups differently
Aboriginal people to maintain their cultural
and, therefore, results in an unequal distribution
and linguistic heritage and natural resources on
of power, resources or opportunities across
Australian land.5,6 However, despite the evolution
different groups. An example of indirect racism
of government policy towards the support of
is a policy that requires all employees to have
cultural diversity, the social changes necessary
their head uncovered while working: although the
to eliminate racist attitudes, actions and beliefs
policy is the same for all employees, it adversely
within individuals, and policies and processes
affects the opportunities of those who wear head
within organisations and institutions, are complex
coverings for religious or traditional reasons.2
and develop slowly.
Cultural diversity in Australia The relationship between Aboriginal and other
Australians has been heavily impacted by racist
From the early days of European settlement practice over many years and there continues to be
in Australia in 1788, racism against Aboriginal a need to address both the effects of past racism
people took the form of murder, exploitation and and ongoing forms of discrimination. In 2010
the dispossession of Aboriginal people’s land the University of Western Sydney’s ‘Challenging
and culture. The requirement or expectation that Racism Project’ reported that although a large
minority ethnic, cultural or religious groups should majority of Australians are positive about living in
strive to become culturally indistinguishable from a multicultural country, 41 per cent have a narrow
the majority population is an approach called view of who belongs in Australia.8 The ‘Challenging
‘assimilation.’ By contrast, ‘multiculturalism’ is a Racism Project’ echoed More than Tolerance in
policy that sees the retention of cultural, social finding that approximately one in 10 Australians
and linguistic distinctions as a private matter, hold blatantly racist views. Although more difficult
rather than being controlled by government. In to establish, there is also evidence of ongoing
1937, the Federal government developed an systemic discrimination in Australia, including
official policy of assimilation towards Aboriginal within health care settings and in responding to
Australians, detailing that Aboriginal people issues of child services.2,9,10
of mixed descent were to be assimilated into
white society regardless of individuals’ desires
Racism and health
while confining those not of mixed descent to
Aboriginal reserves. This policy led to the further The link between poorer physical and mental
destruction of Aboriginal culture, families and health and self-reported perceptions or
social structures, segregationist practices and the experiences of racism is well documented.11–14
removal of Aboriginal children from their families Racism can affect mental health in several
and Aboriginal people from their land.5, 6 ways. In particular, there is a risk that targets of
racism will develop a range of mental health
The denial of full citizenship rights to Aboriginal
problems such as anxiety and depression.11,14,15
and Torres Strait Islander people continued
Racism is understood to have a negative impact
until the Constitutional amendment of 1967,
on health for a number of reasons, including
which allowed for Aboriginal people to be
restricting access to resources required for health,
counted in the census and empowered the
stress and negative emotions having harmful
Federal government to legislate for Aboriginal
psychological and physiological effects, and injury
people. In 1969 all States repealed legislation
through racially motivated assault.2 People may
that had allowed the systematic forcible
experience anxiety when anticipating that they
removal of Aboriginal children under the
may be subject to racism in specific settings,
policy of ‘protection.’ However, the decades
and past experiences of racism may cause social
of removal and displacement of families and
isolation of both individuals and communities that
the institutionalisation of Aboriginal people
might in turn contribute to mental disorders. In
on reserves and missions continues to have
some cases, it may be that the racist experiences
long-standing effects, including the loss of
themselves do not contribute directly to poorer
cultural knowledge and Aboriginal identity
and attenuation of family relationships.7 The
health, but are mediated by other factors along 3the pathway. For example, if an individual Purpose of the survey
experiences racism that prevents them from
The Experiences of Racism survey attempted
finding adequate employment, the resultant
to understand Victorian Aboriginal community
un- or underemployment may then contribute to
members’ self-reported experiences of
poorer health outcomes. There is also evidence
interpersonal, systemic and internalised
that responses to racism may mediate the
racism, their responses and reactions to these
relationship between experiencing racism and
experiences and the association between these
poorer mental and physical health.16
experiences and measures of psychological
There is clear evidence that Aboriginal Australians distress. The survey was developed in conjunction
experience substantially lower levels of health in with the LEAD program evaluation and
comparison to the wider Australian population, administered as part of baseline data collection
including a reduced life expectancy of 11.5 years at the beginning of the LEAD program. The two
for males and 9.7 years for females.17 This has rural and two metropolitan local government
led to a number of studies examining racism areas (LGAs) surveyed have been de-identified
as a determinant of ill health in Aboriginal in this report in order to protect the affected
Australians.18–24 Collectively, these studies support communities. The surveyed LGAs were selected
the correlation between experiencing racism as areas that had a high level of racial and ethnic
and poorer mental and physical health outcomes diversity in which the local council recognised
for Aboriginal Australians. The studies also racism as a concern in the community and
address factors that may mediate the relationship demonstrated both a capacity and commitment
between experiencing racism and ill-health, to addressing it. Selection was not due to
including stress and social disconnectedness. particularly high levels of racism in comparison to
Many of these studies aim to develop an other Victorian communities.
understanding of how racism is experienced
by Aboriginal Australians, including specifying
details around incident settings, perpetrators
and individual responses in order to assist in
developing appropriate and effective approaches
to support the health of Aboriginal Australians.25
4Survey Methods 5
Aboriginal participants in the Experiences of (K6) questionnaire to assess psychological distress
Racism surveys were aged 18 years or older and in response to feedback from the community.
lived within Rural Council 1 (n=313), Metropolitan Only items that were included on all surveys are
Council 1 (n=90), Metropolitan Council 2 (n=57) or presented in this report.
Rural Council 2 (n=295) for at least one year.
Survey structure
Survey administration Demographic items
In each area, four (Metropolitan Council 1 and
The survey began with demographic questions,
Rural Council 2) or five (Rural Council 1 and
including age, gender, education and whether
Metropolitan Council 2) Aboriginal workers
the participant was Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait
were recruited to administer the surveys. The
Islander. Although a range of other factors such as
recruitment process included a consultation
existing chronic conditions and socio-economic
phase with relevant stakeholder groups in each
status can also be associated with health
council. This process was used to identify the
outcomes, these were not measured in the survey
most appropriate way of recruiting community
as it was believed that inclusion of additional
interviewers and to develop data governance
items would lead to an overly long survey and
protocols. Community workers were trained
reduce participant interest in completing it.
in ethical research practices and survey
administration by the LEAD evaluation team
and supported throughout the data collection Experiences of racism
period by frequent contact with evaluation The next section of the survey presented items
team members. Community workers distributed assessing participants’ sense of belonging within
surveys through their personal and professional their local area or neighbourhood, internalised
contacts as well as at local community events and racism, frequency of witnessing discrimination,
functions. Surveys were administered face-to-face frequency of anxiety around friends and family
in group or individual sessions. experiencing discrimination, and the level
The community workers who administered the of effect that racism has had on their own
surveys recorded both participants and people lives and the lives of their friends and family.
who were invited but declined to participate. The Internalised racism was assessed through the
reasons provided for declining to participate were item: ‘I feel good about being Aboriginal…’
recorded. Community workers also participated in using a subjective frequency scale (i.e. ‘very
a follow-up session for feedback and debriefing. often’/’often’/’sometimes’/etc.). For all other
Participants received a $20 supermarket gift items in this section, the response categories
voucher after completing the surveys. Surveys consisted of either Likert scales (i.e. ‘to a great
were administered between March and May 2011 extent’/’to a moderate extent’/’only slightly’/’not
in Rural Council 1, between January and April at all’) or objective frequency scales (e.g. ‘at
2011 in Metropolitan Council 1, between June least once a week’/‘a few times a month’ etc.).
and October 2011 in Metropolitan Council 2, and An additional item to assess internalised racism
between December 2010 and June 2011 in Rural by asking whether the respondent believed that
Council 2. Aboriginal people should think and act more
like other Australians was removed because
Consultation was conducted in each area to ensure communities felt that it could be construed as
that the relevant Experiences of Racism survey was offensive. ‘Local area or neighbourhood’ was
appropriate for each community. The Experiences not defined in the survey to allow participants to
of Racism survey varied slightly in each locality as interpret their local area in a way that reflected
wording was changed or items removed on advice their own experiences.
of local community members. Most significantly, in
the Experiences of Racism survey for Rural Council The next section in the survey recorded frequency
2, one question was removed from the Kessler 6 of exposure to systemic racism as well as the levelof distress caused by exposure. Participants were well the participant knew the perpetrator, how
asked to indicate the frequency and resulting stressful the incident was for the participant, and
stress level over the previous 12 months of actions that the participant took in relation to the
negative media exposure of Aboriginal people incident. An open-ended item gave participants
and communities, witnessing discrimination as a the opportunity to supply any other comments
result of policies or practices at work, in businesses about their experiences. The survey items and the
or in government agencies, exclusion from sources of the items are listed in Appendix 2.
decision-making opportunities or witnessing racial
tension or conflicts in the local area. Responses to Mental health
this section are not detailed in this report.
All participants were asked to indicate how
The survey assessed types of interpersonal racism frequently they anticipated and worried about
experienced in the past 12 months, and where experiencing racism as well as how often they
these incidents took place, using a grid that had took action to avoid racism.
experiences listed on the left and settings listed
across the top. Participants then indicated which Mental health was assessed through the inclusion
type of experience had occurred and where it of a modified version of the Kessler 6 (K6)
took place by marking the appropriate grid box. scale. The scale is a quantifier of non-specific
This method was based on a tool used previously psychological distress, which was derived from
with young Australians.26 the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) as
a simple measure of psychological distress. It
Experiences listed included racist name-calling has demonstrated excellent internal consistency
or teasing; verbal abuse or offensive gestures; and reliability as well as consistency across major
being told the participant does not belong, that socio-demographic sub-samples.27 The K6 involves
they should ‘go home’ or ‘get out’; being left six questions about emotional states, each with
out or avoided; being treated as inferior or less a five-level response scale. The measure can be
intelligent; being ignored, treated with suspicion used as a brief screen to identify levels of distress.
or treated rudely; having property vandalised; and The K6 can be given to participants to complete,
physical abuse or the threat of physical abuse. or alternatively the questions can be read to the
Settings listed were: participant by the administrator. The question ‘In
the past 4 weeks, about how often did you feel
• in a shop, store or mall worthless?’ was removed from the K6 in Rural
• while doing sport, recreational or leisure activities Council 2 on advice from the community that it
could be offensive. The five-question scale (K5)
• while seeking housing or in dealing with real has also been used by the Australian Bureau of
estate personnel Statistics for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
• in a bank or other financial institution people’s surveys, after consultation with the
creator of the K10.28–30
• in dealings with local council
The K5 is scored using the sum of answer
• in dealings with other government agencies
responses, where responses of ‘None of the
• at work, on the job or when looking for a job time’ are given a score of one to ‘All of the
time’ yielding a score of five. Thus, the range of
• at school, university or another educational
responses is 5–25. Low scores indicate low levels
setting
of psychological distress and high scores indicate
• in public spaces (on the street, beach, park etc.) high levels of psychological distress. There are
• with the police, courts or jails a number of different categories and groupings
used for analysis of the K10 and K6 scores.30,31
• in hospitals, health centres, at the doctor’s However, in most ABS and other Australian
office surveys, the data is presented according to four
• on public transport. categories (low, moderate, high and very high),
with a very high score of psychological distress
The participants who reported experiencing a possibly indicating a need for professional
racist incident over the past 12 months received a help.31 In 2003, data from the 1997–98 NSW
series of questions asking for details about their Health Survey were used to validate K5 scoring
most recent experience. These included how categories. According to these categories, scores
long ago it occurred, whether it had occurred in of 12 to 25 on the K5 indicate high or very high
the participant’s local neighbourhood, whether
6 the perpetrator was Aboriginal or not, how
psychological distress.30 Despite the reductionin the number of items the reliability of the scale racism and position above or below the threshold
was high among this sample (Cronbach’s α=0.85). for high or very high psychological distress on the
K5 scale. The relationship between the types of
The final item in the survey was an open-ended
racism experienced and settings for experiencing
question for participants to give any comments
racism and being above or below the threshold
they thought relevant.
for high or very high psychological distress on
Someone who can be visibly identified as the K5 scale was also explored using logistic
belonging to an ethnic minority group is likely to regression. Logistic regression is used to predict
have higher exposure to racism than someone the outcome of one variable based on other
who is not visibly identifiable. However, visibility variables within a model. A logistic regression
status was not taken into account in this survey was conducted to assess the role of response
as there is no accepted way of assessing visibility strategies on stress associated with the most
for Aboriginal people and questions to this effect recent racist incident.
were likely to be highly offensive to communities.
Stress was coded into two categories (Not at
all/a little/somewhat stressful and very/extremely
Data analysis stressful). These relationships are reported in
the form of odds ratios, which indicates the
SPSS Statistics 19, a statistical software package, strength of the relationship. An odds ratio of one
was used to analyse the data. Participants’ indicates that there is no difference between the
experiences of racism were divided into None, groups being studied. All models controlled for
Low (1–7 experiences), Medium (8–11) and High age, gender, education and LGA as potential
(12+) frequency categories. These cut-off points confounding factors. As some participants did
were selected so approximately one-third of not complete every item, valid percentages
people who experienced racism were in each are reported for all frequencies, with missing
category. Chi-square analysis was used to assess data removed. Within demographic items, data
demographic differences between people with regarding education is missing for 17.4 per cent
different frequency levels. Chi-square analysis is of participants and age is missing for 6.9 per cent
used to determine whether there is an association of participants. Throughout the rest of the survey,
between two variables based on their frequencies data is missing for between 1.6 per cent and 5.2
in the data. per cent of participants.
Logistic regression was used to assess the
relationship between participants’ experiences of
78 Results
A total of 755 Aboriginal people participated in and 2 make up the majority of the sample, with
the Experiences of Racism survey. The response Metropolitan Councils 1 and 2 each having
rate across all LGAs was 99 per cent. There was fewer than 100 participants. In Rural Council 1,
no indication that anyone declined to participate 27 per cent of the Aboriginal population over
due to not experiencing racism. The most frequent 18 years old was surveyed. These proportions
difficulties reported by community workers in for Metropolitan Councils 1 and 2 and Rural
conducting surveys were privacy and confidentiality Council 2 were 14 per cent, 7 per cent and 32 per
concerns and low levels of literacy and numeracy cent respectively.32 The majority of participants
in the communities. The use of community workers were female, with a mean age of 36 years.
to conduct the surveys helped to ensure that the Approximately one-fifth of participants held either
survey items could be explained in an accessible tertiary, trade or TAFE qualifications (Table 1).
manner, and also reassured participants that
The 2011 Census reports that across the four
their data would be handled sensitively, without
LGAs, the majority of Aboriginal residents over
identifying information being made available to the
18 years old are women (55%) with a mean age
university researchers without explicit permission.
of 38 years. In the 2006 Census, 24 per cent of
Aboriginal residents in these LGAs held tertiary,
Demographic data trade or TAFE qualifications.32
Demographic data for participants is presented
in Table 1. Participants from Rural Councils 1
Table 1: Demographic data
n %
LGA Rural Council 1 313 41.5
Metropolitan Council 1 90 11.9
Metropolitan Council 2 57 7.5
Rural Council 2 295 39.1
Gender Male 284 37.6
Female 451 59.7
Age 18–24 178 23.6
25–34 175 23.2
35–44 174 23.0
45–54 90 11.9
55–64 53 7.0
65+ 33 4.4
Education Tertiary qualifications 78 10.3
Trade or TAFE 88 11.7
Higher School Certificate 99 13.1
School certificate 236 31.3
Primary school 74 9.8
Other 49 6.5
Level of experiences None 26 3.4
Low 191 25.3
Medium 285 37.7
High 253 33.5
*n may not add up to 755 due to missing values; percentages may not add up to 100% due to rounding.Sense of belonging
Nearly 85 per cent of respondents reported a moderate or great sense of belonging to their local area/
neighbourhood (Table 2).
Table 2: Item regarding sense of belonging to local area/neighbourhood
To a great To a moderate Only slightly
n Not at all %
extent % extent % %
I have a sense of
belonging in my local area/ 743 44.4 38.9 11.8 3.3
neighbourhood...
Experiences of racism and 11 experiences and 34 per cent reporting
12 or more experiences. Only 3 per cent of
Interpersonal racism: types and frequencies participants reported no racist experiences. The
of experiences highest number of experiences reported was
101, reported by one person. The average across
Nearly all participants reported at least one the sample was 13.7 experiences. Nearly half of
racist incident in the preceding 12 months, with respondents (44%) also reported witnessing other
25 per cent reporting between one and seven people being treated unfairly due to their race,
experiences, 38 per cent reporting between eight ethnicity, culture or religion at least once a week.
Table 3: Witnessing racism
At least A few A few Less than
Almost
n once a times a times a once a Never
every day week month year year
How often have
you seen people
being treated
unfairly because 738 17.8 25.6 28.4 15.6 7.5 2.7
of their race,
ethnicity, culture or
religion?
When asked about the most recent racist incident comments that rely on stereotypes of Aboriginal
that they had experienced, approximately people. Two-thirds of participants reported being
one-third of the incidents (35%) had occurred told that they don’t belong, that they should
within the past month. A majority (81%) had ‘go home’ or ‘get out,’ and more than half of
occurred within the respondent’s local area or participants (55%) reported having property
neighbourhood and of those that were not in the vandalised (Figure 1). Overall, Figure 1 suggests
local area, 70 per cent happened within Victoria. that experiences of racism are very common even
at the more extreme ends of the spectrum.
Almost all participants reported being a target
of racist names, jokes or teasing, or hearing
9100
92.3
90 85.8 84.1
81.9
79.9
80
70 67.4 66.0
Percent of respondents
60
54.7
50
40
30
20
10
0
Names, teasing Ignored Swore at/ Less intelligent Left out Spit or Don’t belong Property
or comments verbally abused something in Australia vandalised
thrown
Figure 1: Experiences of racism in past 12 months
Interpersonal racism: settings level and in banks and other financial settings,
although more than one-fifth of participants
Participants indicated that racism was most
indicated experiencing racist incidents in each
commonly experienced in shops and public
of these settings (Figure 2). As data were not
spaces, as reported by 67 per cent and 59 per
collected on perpetrators in specific settings, it is
cent of participants respectively. People were
not known whether the racist behaviours in these
less likely to experience racism at a local council
settings were initiated by staff, clients or others.
80
70 92.3
60 58.5
50.9
Percent of respondents
50 47.8
42.1
40.4
40
35.2
33.6 33.5
29.3
30
23.8
20.3
20
10
0
Shops Public Education Sport Employment Justice Housing Public Other Health Finance Council
spaces transport gov’t
Figure 2: Settings of racist experiences in past 12 months
10Perpetrators Responses to interpersonal racism
When asked about the last racist incident People who had experienced racism used a range
experienced by participants who had experienced of methods to respond to these incidents. Twelve
interpersonal racism, a high proportion (92%) responses were listed, plus an ‘other’ category,
of respondents reported that the perpetrator in with participants able to choose however many
the incident was non-Aboriginal. Approximately applied to their most recent experience. With
one-quarter (26%) of respondents knew the regards to respondents’ most recent experiences,
perpetrator of their most recent experience the two most common responses were either to
a little, while 64 per cent did not know the ignore it or to verbally confront the perpetrator
perpetrator at all. The remaining 10 per cent of (33% and 32% respectively of respondents who
respondents reported that the perpetrator was reported at least one experience) (Figure 3).
someone they knew well or someone who was
close to them.
35
33.2
32.4
Percent of respondents who experienced at least one incident
30
25
25
20
18
15 13.7 13.4
11.2 10.8
10
6.4
5.6
4.4
5
2.3
1.6
0
Ignored Verbally Wanted to Talked to Accepted Tried to Used Made a Changed Received Reported Wrote, Other
it confronted confront; someone it reason humour complaint self help to police drew,
didn’t sang or
painted
Figure 3: Participant responses to interpersonal racism
11More than one-third of participants who reported used more than one type of response in relation to the
experiencing racism (37%) indicated that they had last racist incident they had experienced (Figure 4).
45
40 39.4
Percent of respondents the experienced at least one incident
35
30
25
20
16.6
15
10.2
10
6.0
5
1.9
1 0.7 0.4 0.3
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 4: Number of different responses used in reaction to last reported experience
Factors affecting experiences of interpersonal education. Figure 5 shows that university-
racism educated people reported more experiences of
racism than non-university educated people in
There were no differences in experiences of
council, government, employment, education,
racism due to gender (χ2=2.84, df=3, p=0.42),
public spaces and health settings (Figure 5).
age (χ2=11.5, df=9, p=0.24) or rurality (χ2=2.8,
Levels of experiences in shops, sport, housing,
df=3, p=0.43). People educated at Year 12 or
finance, justice and public transport were
above reported more racism than people with
not significantly different between university-
lower levels of education (χ2=32.5,df=12, p=0.001)
educated people and others (see Appendix 1,
(Table 4). This effect was particularly marked for
Table 1 for statistics).
the small number of people with a university
12Table 4: Experiences of racism by demographic characteristics
Experiences of racism
Demographics Total
None Low Medium High
Gender
n 6 67 107 104 284
Male
% 2.1% 23.6% 37.7% 36.6% 100.0%
n 17 117 171 146 451
Female
% 3.8% 25.9% 37.9% 32.4% 100.0%
n 23 184 278 250 735
Total
% 3.1% 25.0% 37.8% 34.0% 100.0%
Age
n 5 51 79 57 192
18–24
% 2.6% 26.6% 41.1% 29.7% 100.0%
n 4 64 103 88 259
25–39
% 1.5% 24.7% 39.8% 34.0% 100.0%
n 9 40 62 69 180
40–54
% 5.0% 22.2% 34.4% 38.3% 100.0%
n 4 27 27 28 86
55+
% 4.7% 31.4% 31.4% 32.6% 100.0%
n 22 182 271 242 717
Total
% 3.1% 25.4% 37.8% 33.8% 100.0%
Education
n 5 34 38 34 111
Below Year 10
% 4.5% 30.6% 34.2% 30.6% 100.0%
n 7 77 91 74 249
Year 10
% 2.8% 30.9% 36.5% 29.7% 100.0%
n 3 18 50 37 108
Year 12
% 2.8% 16.7% 46.3% 34.3% 100.0%
Education
n 7 19 53 49 128
TAFE/Trade
% 5.5% 14.8% 41.4% 38.3% 100.0%
n 0 8 13 27 48
University
% 0.0% 16.7% 27.1% 56.3% 100.0%
n 22 156 245 221 644
Total
% 3.4% 24.2% 38.0% 34.3% 100.0%
Rurality
n 6 30 56 55 147
Urban
% 4.1% 20.4% 38.1% 37.4% 100.0%
n 20 161 229 198 608
Rural
% 3.3% 26.5% 37.7% 32.6% 100.0%
n 26 191 285 253 755
Total
% 3.4% 25.3% 37.7% 33.5% 100.0
1390%
80%
70%
Percent experienced racism
60%
50%
40%
Non-university
30%
university
20%
10%
0%
s t g ce il t t n es ce h rt
op or sin nc en en io ac sti alt po
Sh Sp an u at
Ho
u
Fi
n Co nm ym c p Ju He an
s
er lo du ics tr
ov p E bl lic
G Em Pu b
Pu
Figure 5: Experiences of racism by setting and university education
Internalised racism on the advice of local communities. However, nearly
90 per cent of respondents felt positively about
One of the two items designed to assess
being Aboriginal often or very often (Table 5).
internalised racism was removed from the survey
Table 5: Item regarding internalised racism
Often Sometimes Rarely Never
n Very often %
% % % %
I feel good about
735 72.6 13.8 9.5 1.1 0.4
being Aboriginal...
Mental health and racism psychological distress was common among
survey participants. This is well above the level
Scores of 12 to 25 on the K5 scale are indicative
obtained in other large population surveys of the
of high or very high psychological distress. The
Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander population,
mean K5 score for the sample was 11.5 (Table 6).
including those that used the K5 as a measure of
Overall, 50 per cent of the sample scored over the
psychological distress.17, 33–38
K5 threshold for high or very high psychological
distress, indicating that high and very high
14Table 6: Items from the Kessler 5 Psychological Distress Scale
None of the A little of the Some of the Most of the All of the
n
time % time % time % time % time %
In the past 4 weeks, about
how often did you feel so
716 25.4 28.6 29.4 9.7 1.7
sad that nothing could
cheer you up?
In the past 4 weeks, about
how often did you feel 723 19.3 36.3 29.3 8.2 2.6
nervous?
In the past 4 weeks, about
how often did you feel 727 24.5 26.5 31.5 10.2 3.6
restless or fidgety?
In the past 4 weeks, about
how often did you feel 719 35.9 22.8 26.8 7.8 2.0
hopeless?
In the past 4 weeks, about
how often did you feel that 728 21.3 29.0 31.0 11.5 3.6
everything was an effort?
Figure 6 demonstrates that while racism at any be above the threshold for high or very high
level was associated with worse mental health, psychological distress compared to people who
the deleterious effects of racism were greatest experienced less racism (see Appendix 1, Table 2
among people who reported more than 11 for statistics). There were no significant differences
incidents of racism in a year. in being above the threshold for high or very high
psychological distress for people who experienced
Figure 7 shows that people who experienced
none, low or medium levels of racism.
high levels of racism were much more likely to
13
12.5
12
Mean K5 score
11.5
K5 score
11 Threshold for
high or very high
psychological
distress
10.5
10
9.5
9
0 1–7 8–11 12+
Number of experiences
Figure 6: Experiences of racism and mean K5 score
1570
Percent above threshold for high or very high
60
psychological distress on the K5
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1–7 8–11 12+
Number of experiences
Figure 7: Experiences of racism and being above the threshold for high or very high
psychological distress on the K5
The items ‘having someone suggest that you the threshold for high or very high psychological
do not belong in Australia, that you should distress. Once frequency of experiences was taken
‘go home” or “get out”’, ‘feeling left out and into account feeling left out and avoided, and
avoided’, ‘having property vandalised’ and ‘having having property vandalised, were associated with
someone spit or throw something at you or hit greater odds of being above the threshold for high
you or threaten to because you are Aboriginal’ or very high psychological distress on the K5 (see
were significantly associated with being above Appendix 1, Table 3 for statistics) (Figure 8).
Had someone spit or throw something at you or hit
you or threaten to hit you because you are Aboriginal?
Has your property vandalised because you are Aboriginal?
Been ignored, treated with suspicion or treated
rudely because you are Aboriginal?
Had someone treat you as less intelligent,
or inferior, because you are Aboriginal?
Felt left out or avoided because you are Aboriginal?
Had someone suggest you do not belong in Australia
because you are Aboriginal, that you should ‘go
home’ or ‘get out’ and so on?
Been sworn at, verbally abused or had someone make
offensive gestures because you are Aboriginal?
Been a target of racist names, jokes or teasing or
heard comments that rely on stereotypes about
Aboriginal people?
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Odds ratio 95% CI Odds ratio
Figure 8: Types of experiences and odds of being above the threshold for high or very high
psychological distress on the K5 adjusted for frequency of exposure
Experiencing racism while seeking housing being above the threshold for high or very high
or dealing with real estate personnel and on psychological distress on the K5 (See Appendix 1,
16 public transport was significantly associated with Table 4 for statistics) (Figure 9).Other
Public Transport
Hospitals or health services
Police, courts or jails
Public space on the street, beach, park etc.
School, university or another educational
Work, on the job or when looking for a job
Government agencies
Local Council
Bank or other financial institution
Housing or in dealing with real estate
Sport, recreational or leisure activities
Shop, store or mall
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Odds ratio 95% CI Odds ratio
Figure 9: Settings of experiences and odds of being above the threshold for high or very high
psychological distress on the K5
A participant was more likely to report that the whether these incidents were more extreme,
most recent experience was very stressful or and therefore more stressful, or whether higher
extremely stressful if they had responded to the levels of stress are attributable to the response
incident by ‘accepting racism as a fact of life’, strategy chosen. Talking to someone about the
‘getting into a verbal confrontation with the experience was associated with lower odds of
perpetrator’ or ‘reported [it] to the police or took finding the experience stressful or very stressful
legal action’. However, it cannot be determined (see Appendix 1, Table 5 for statistics) (Figure 10).
Other coping strategy
Tried to change the way you are or things you did
to avoid it in the future
Reported to the police or took legal action
Made a complaint
Talked to someone about the experience
Wrote, drew, sang or painted about the experience
Got into a verbal confrontation
Sought or accepted help from others
Used humour
Tried to reason with the person
Wanted to face up to the person but didn’t
Accepted it
Ignored it
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Odds ratio 95% CI Odds ratio
Figure 10: Responses to last experience and odds of finding the experience stressful or very
stressful 17Nearly three-quarters of respondents reported that with 70 per cent of respondents worrying about
they sometimes, often or very often anticipated experiencing racism sometimes, often or very
people saying or doing something racist. Nearly often and 70 per cent worrying about people they
two-thirds tried to avoid specific situations because know experiencing racism a few times a month or
of racism sometimes, often or very often. High more frequently (Table 7).
levels of worrying about racism were also evident,
Table 7: Items regarding anticipation, worrying and avoidance
Often Sometimes Rarely Never
n Very often % % % % %
When you interact with
people how often do you
anticipate them saying or 726 6.2 19.3 45.2 18.3 7.2
doing something racist
either intentionally or
unintentionally?
In the past 12 months,
how often did you worry
that you would experience 731 9.5 22.3 35.9 19.1 10.1
unfair treatment because
you are Aboriginal?
In your daily life, how often
do you try to avoid specific 730 9.4 19.6 32.7 17.2 17.7
situations because of
racism?
Almost At least A few A few Less than Never
n every day once a times a times a once a %
% week % month % year % year %
In the past 12 months,
I worried about people
I know experiencing 741 17.1 22.1 30.9 15.5 6.9 5.7
unfair treatment because
of their race, ethnicity,
culture or religion...
Additionally, the majority of respondents and family. Respondents indicated a stronger
indicated that racism has had a large or moderate perceived effect of racism on the lives of friends
effect on their lives and the lives of their friends and family than on their own lives (Table 8).
Table 8: Items regarding perceived impact of racism
To a
To a great Only slightly
n moderate Not at all %
extent % %
extent %
When I think about my family and friends, 737 38.5 38.3 17.1 3.7
in general, racism has affected their lives...
Racism has affected my life... 731 25.3 37.0 23.4 11.1
18Discussion 19
The current study highlights that experiencing tenet of terra nullius, used to dispossess Aboriginal
high levels of interpersonal racism is associated people of their land on the claim that Australia
with increased psychological distress which had no occupants prior to European arrival.41–43
itself is an indicator of increased risk of mental The legal concept of terra nullius was overturned
illness. The demonstrated mental health impact 20 years ago and was followed by the institution
of experiencing racism supports the rationale of the Native Title Act in 1993; however, the
for programs like LEAD in protecting the mental delegitimisation of Aboriginal Australians continues
health of Aboriginal communities through to have legal and social ramifications.42 The
addressing race-based discrimination. historic apology to Australia’s Stolen Generations
in 2008 was welcomed as an important step not
only in recognising past wrongs but in bringing
Prevalence and nature of racism the legitimacy of Aboriginal people as the first
experienced Australians into mainstream consciousness. The
high prevalence of social exclusion reported in this
Almost every Aboriginal Victorian who
sample suggests further work is required to ensure
participated in this survey had experienced
that the intentions of the apology are reflected in
at least one racist incident in the previous 12
the everyday experiences of Aboriginal people.
months, with more than 70 per cent experiencing
eight or more incidents a year. Notably, the The results also indicate that a high proportion
prevalence of racism remained high even at the of respondents avoid specific situations because
more severe end of the spectrum with around of racism, which implies that the levels of
two-thirds of participants reporting being spat experienced racism may have been higher if
at or having something thrown at them and avoidance behaviour was not as common.
more than half reporting vandalism of property.
The rate of property destruction offenses in the
four LGAs included in the study was higher on Settings where racism was experienced
average than for Victoria overall in the 2011/2012 High levels of racism were reported in every
financial year (1079.839 and 879.540 per 100,000 setting identified in the study. However, there
people respectively). However, the data suggest was considerable variability in the frequency
that rates of vandalism experienced by Aboriginal with which people reported racism in different
people are still much higher than would be settings, ranging from around two-thirds of
expected based on the overall rate of property people reporting racism in shops and more than
destruction in the LGAs studied. half reporting racism in public places to one-fifth
It was particularly striking that two-thirds of reporting racism at a council level. The variability
participants reported being told that ‘they didn’t in experiencing racism in different settings
belong in Australia, that they should “go home”, suggests that the organisational and institutional
or “get out”’. This indicates a high prevalence contexts in different settings and the nature of
of social exclusion based on Aboriginality within interactions between people in these settings can
this sample. Although this item includes general impact on the level of racism experienced. This
social exclusion based on Aboriginality, it is indicates that intervening at an organisational or
likely that at least some of the participants who institutional level may be an effective approach in
reported this experience had been told they reducing exposure to racism.44, 45
don’t belong in Australia. This is supported Within this sample, a high proportion of racist
by qualitative data collected in training and incidents happened in areas where interactions
debriefing sessions with community workers, who occur with peers or other members of the public,
confirmed that they had also experienced being such as within shops, public spaces and sport
told that they did not belong in Australia. and recreational settings. The high prevalence
The idea that Aboriginal Australians do not belong of racism in shops and other public places is
in Australia is deeply problematic and echoes the supported by the finding that almost two-thirds
of respondents reported they did not know theperpetrator involved in their last experience of people from Aboriginal backgrounds receive
racism. Experiencing racist incidents in these harsher sentences for similar offences or are
settings may limit the ability of Aboriginal unnecessarily arrested or detained for minor
community members to take part safely in some infractions. Repeated contact with both the
aspects of community life, including enjoyment juvenile and adult justice systems is linked to a
of parks and recreation centres, interacting with higher risk of developing mental illness and can
other community members through sports clubs exacerbate existing mental illness.50,51 Community
or events or attending community celebrations or consequences of overrepresentation in the justice
festivals. One-fifth of participants reported having system include increased rates of substance
racist experiences in dealings with the local abuse, violence, un- and underemployment and
council, which may also hamper participation in family breakdown.52–54 Racism within health care
community life by causing them to have limited settings may lead to reduced access to health
contact with local government. This has important care services, including preventative services,
implications for the social connectedness of and poorer treatment and care from health
Aboriginal Australians, particularly if these professionals.9,55,56
settings are avoided in order to limit personal
The current study further suggests that Aboriginal
exposure to racism. This highlights the need to
Australians who have higher levels of formal
implement strategies that reach the community
education may be more subject to discrimination
as a whole, in addition to interventions within
than their peers with lower levels of education.
organisational contexts.
This effect was particularly marked for the small
Both employment and education are within the number of Aboriginal people with university
five settings where racism was most commonly education in the sample. The finding that
reported. This may indicate a reduction in life more educated minority people report higher
chances for Aboriginal Australians, which also exposure to racism is consistent with the research
has significant implications for mental health literature.57–59
and wellbeing. Mental health inequality is at
There are three possible explanations for this
least partly linked to income inequality, which
effect. The first explanation is that more educated
is associated with differential employment and
people may have higher expectations about how
education outcomes.46–48 Although the LEAD
others should treat them: that is, the difference
survey was restricted to people aged 18 and over,
is about perception rather than actual exposure.
other Australian research with young people
The second explanation is that higher educated
also indicates that racism in schools is prevalent.
people from minority groups defy stereotypes of
In 2009, the Foundation for Young Australians
Aboriginal people as being uneducated.60 They
conducted a survey of 698 students from 18
are, therefore, more likely to be in situations
Australian secondary schools across four States.
where they challenge the status quo with more
This study found that 80 per cent of young
racism directed against them as a result. A related
people (including 63% of only 20 Aboriginal
third possibility is that educated Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander students in this study)
people are more likely to work and socialise with
had experienced racism, with 67 per cent of
people from majority (Anglo) backgrounds. Under
these incidents taking place at school.26 This is
the assumption that racism is more likely to be
particularly concerning as racism has the potential
perpetrated by those from the majority culture,
to negatively affect young people’s psychological
this would lead to increased experiences of
adjustment and thereby their wellbeing into
racism for this group.
adulthood. Experiencing racism within school
may also have a negative effect on Aboriginal The settings in which university-educated people
and Torres Strait Islander students’ educational were more likely to report racism than non-
outcomes49 as a social determinant in its own right. university educated people were overwhelmingly
institutional (council, government, employment,
It is also concerning that 40 per cent of
education, public spaces and health settings).
participants indicated that they had experienced
However, there were no differences in reported
racism within the justice system and 30 per
exposures in a range of other settings. The levels
cent within health care systems. Experiences
of racist incidents experienced in shops, sport,
in these settings can strongly influence
housing, finance, justice and public transport
individual and community health and wellbeing.
were not significantly different between people
Experiencing racism within the justice system
educated at university level and those educated
may lead to further unnecessary contact with
20 this system and higher rates of incarceration if
below university level. A bias in perceptionYou can also read
