POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS - Facilitating Speech, Preventing Violence, Ensuring Safety
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POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS Facilitating Speech, Preventing Violence, Ensuring Safety A Review of 2024 Mass Demonstrations at U.S. Academic Institutions Published 2025
RECOMMENDED CITATION
International Association of
Chiefs of Police, Policing Campus
Demonstrations: Facilitating
Speech, Preventing Violence,
Ensuring Safety, 2025.
This project was supported, in whole or in part, by cooperative
agreement number 15JCOPS-23-GK-01663-CRIT awarded by the
U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services. The opinions contained herein are those of the
author(s) or contributor(s) and do not necessarily represent the
official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
References to specific individuals, agencies, companies,
products, or services should not be considered an endorsement
by the author(s) or the U.S. Department of Justice. Rather, the
references are illustrations to supplement discussion of the issues.
CONTENTS Introduction 3 Background, Definitions, and Concepts 4 Mass demonstration events 4 Terminology 4 Legal and operational challenges for police 5 Systematic and organized nature of modern demonstrations 5 The role of social media 5 Early Indicators of Protest 7 Observations from Spring 2024 7 Breakdown in communication 8 Faculty involvement and policy violations 8 Challenges in enforcement 9 Considerations for Future Mass Demonstrations 12 Before the protest 12 During the protest 13 After the protest 15 Conclusion 17 References 18 Works cited 18 Additional recommended resources 18 About the IACP 25 About IACLEA 26
INTRODUCTION
The right of American citizens to peacefully assemble and express their ideas
through protest is enshrined in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
The exercise of this right has driven changes to both public opinion and public
policy, and college and university campuses have often been the cradle for such
protests.
During the late spring and early summer of 2024, college and university
campuses around the United States once again were focal points for political
demonstrations. Several instances brought national media attention to the
complexities of public order policing on college and university campuses. In
addition to facilitating the exercise of a constitutionally guaranteed right, police
and campus officials were also responsible for protecting the health and safety
of students, staff, and visitors; securing property and building facilities; and
navigating the interrelated policy and legal implications of planning for and
responding to these events.
To better identify and understand lessons learned from these protests and apply
them in preparation for future campus demonstration events, the International
Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) and the International Association
of Campus Law Enforcement Administrators (IACLEA) convened policing
executives, university administrators, and civil rights leaders to share their
diverse perspectives about campus demonstrations. These conversations offered
insights into past demonstrations and valuable guidance for navigating future
ones, which form the basis for the information and recommendations presented
in this document.
This report provides an overview of campus demonstrations, including key
definitions and concepts from the perspectives of those gathered leaders. It
continues with a review of observations and lessons learned from 2024 U.S.
campus mass demonstrations and considerations for both campus policing
agencies and those agencies that may be called to support campuses in the event
of a mass demonstration, including recommendations for policy, training, and
applied tactics before, during, and after a demonstration.
2 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS
BACKGROUND, DEFINITIONS, AND CONCEPTS
Campus police and public safety agencies must be prepared to respond to a wide range of crowd events.
In general, police should presume that demonstration activity is constitutionally protected conduct,
and the police approach to crowd policing should be to facilitate this protected behavior and ensure
safety for participants, bystanders, and property. A necessary extension of this responsibility is carefully
differentiating between lawful and unlawful conduct, including unlawful acts within lawful assemblies.
In Field Force Operations (2017), the Federal Emergency Management Agency Center for Domestic
Preparedness offers helpful guidance to this nuance, which largely mirrors IACP model policies.
MASS DEMONSTRATION EVENTS
Demonstrations typically involve peaceful participants legally exercising their First Amendment right
to free speech regarding a cause. Lawful activities may include speeches, marches, celebratory events,
demonstrations, rallies, picketing, public assemblies, and protests. By gathering, demonstrators draw
attention to themselves and their causes.
TERMINOLOGY
IACP’s model policy on crowd management (2019) distinguishes between lawful demonstrations
and unlawful assemblies, which are sometimes referred to as civil disorder, civil disturbance, or civil
disobedience. It should be noted, however, that, while demonstrations tend to be categorized as either
lawful or unlawful, they are often a blend of both, and the individuals involved can engage in various
behaviors. In some cases, a small group of unruly protesters can stand out from the peaceful majority
(which often comprises onlookers and innocent bystanders). The goal for police should be to protect
lawful activity while identifying and isolating unlawful behavior.
Lawful demonstrations
A lawful demonstration is a crowd event in which participants exercise their First Amendment rights,
including freedom of speech and the right to peaceably assemble. These events typically comply with
permissible university or municipal policies governing time, place, and manner, which are generally
intended to ensure that participants’ activities do not disrupt the daily operations of the institution
or endanger public safety. In many cases, these protests are planned and occur with awareness by
university administration, and they may require a police and/or public safety response to safeguard
participants.
Unlawful assemblies
In contrast, unlawful assemblies are gatherings that have escalated beyond peaceful protest and violate
specific legal boundaries. Although First Amendment protections are broad, the Constitution does not
protect unlawful conduct. Therefore, demonstrators who violate the law while protesting—for example,
by engaging in assault—can face consequences including arrest. Many states have statutes that allow
police to declare entire assemblies “unlawful” and disperse them if certain conditions are present, such
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 3
as widespread violence or property destruction. However, the presence of individual lawbreakers in
otherwise peaceful protests does not render the entire protest unlawful.
KEY TAKEAWAY
When possible, lawbreaking should be addressed with an
individualized response that allows the event to continue.
Dispersal should be a last resort, used only when an individualized
response to lawbreakers would be impossible or inadequate to
protect public safety.
LEGAL AND OPERATIONAL CHALLENGES FOR POLICE
For campus police, distinguishing between lawful demonstrations and unlawful assemblies presents
a legal and operational challenge. Police officers must carefully assess the legality of demonstrators’
actions while respecting their right to free speech. Noncriminal violations of campus policies may
be better mitigated by non-police resources, such as campus administrators and other institutional
representatives. However, once unlawful behavior begins—whether in the form of trespassing,
vandalism, or violent acts—police, campus administrators, and other stakeholders must act swiftly to
de-escalate the situation and restore safety and order.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Campus police leaders agree that clear policies, well-established
communication channels, and decisive action are critical in
maintaining order and ensuring safety during such events.
SYSTEMATIC AND ORGANIZED NATURE OF MODERN
DEMONSTRATIONS
While demonstrations can be spontaneous, many are highly organized efforts. Increasingly, both
lawful demonstrations and unlawful assemblies include high levels of coordination, planning, and
logistical support. Campus police agencies and the law enforcement entities supporting them should be
prepared to engage with these structured groups and should have a systematic process and approach
for responding to mass demonstrations. This approach should balance the importance of facilitating
protected speech and actions while ensuring safety and mitigating lawbreaking.
4 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA
Social media may be used to share real-time updates, which have the potential to affect crowd
dynamics instantaneously. Some discussants recalled crowds increasing in agitation and disruption in
response to an inflammatory post, but it was also noted that a well-designed and timely message from
university or campus safety leaders could be used to dispel harmful rumors or pass on important safety
information to demonstrators and other affected campus and community members.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Law enforcement should take advantage of the opportunities
offered by social media to maintain awareness of when and
where protests may occur and reach out in advance to organizers
and community leaders to engage in cooperative and strategic
communications. This can minimize the potential for violence and
miscommunication between protesters and police.
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 5
EARLY INDICATORS OF PROTEST
The mass demonstrations that took place on U.S. college and university campuses during the spring
and summer of 2024 offer critical insights into the evolving nature of protests and the modern
challenges faced by campus police and other police agencies operating on college and university
campuses.
OBSERVATIONS FROM SPRING 2024
Campus police often became aware of forthcoming protests through social media posts shared by
students or circulated within social media networks. Several police departments also received direct
communication from students, some of whom expressed concerns about planned demonstrations and
shared posts from their own social media platforms. While social media proved to be a valuable tool for
early awareness, the spontaneous nature of many of these events frequently made it difficult for police
to plan and respond appropriately.
In some cases, visible signs of impending disorder or/and disruption were apparent to police. For
example, the arrival of logistical support such as equipment drops signaled a shift from short or
spontaneous protests towards sustained, organized demonstrations. Logistical support and the
provision of supplies are not inherently unlawful, and discussants stressed that the context mattered
most. For example, some participants reported locating stashes of bricks and bottles that were later
thrown at police, and barricade materials that were used to fortify encampments and delay their
removal. One encampment resulted in the removal of more than four tons of equipment when it was
cleared by police just 36 hours after being erected.
Campus police also reported seeing color-coded vests worn by demonstration organizers to identify
their respective leadership roles in the demonstration and even identified structured mealtimes and
protest schedules. Some campus police leaders reported recognizing this in real time and suggested
that, during future crowd events, this coordination could be leveraged by police to facilitate effective
communication with protest leaders and to inform decisions about how best to allocate protective
resources.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Organization and coordination by demonstrators can present
an opportunity for policing officials to create and leverage
clear channels of communication, both sharing and receiving
information to facilitate the safe, lawful expression of speech.
6 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS
BREAKDOWN IN COMMUNICATION
Another critical factor in the escalation of many protests in spring and summer 2024 was the
breakdown of communication between demonstrators and campus authorities. While many campus
leaders reported meaningful dialogue with protesters, several reported that these conversations became
cyclical, serving as stalling tactics to allow demonstrators to fortify their positions. In some cases,
communication ceased altogether, further complicating administration efforts to maintain public safety
while facilitating protected expression. These stalling tactics, especially when paired with the discovery
of equipment used to erect barricades and sustain encampments, could be signs that lawful protests
were transforming into unlawful assemblies.
FACULTY INVOLVEMENT AND POLICY VIOLATIONS
A further critical factor in the protests of spring and summer 2024 was the involvement of faculty and
staff in facilitating demonstrations. Faculty members also have constitutional rights and may want to
exercise them by protesting along with students. However, some faculty members allowed protesters
to use university buildings after hours or outside of their permitted use, in violation of campus policies
governing “time, place, and manner” restrictions.1 These policy or rule violations sometimes led to
more significant violations of law, including criminal trespassing.2 In other cases, faculty members
promoted attendance at protests by offering extra credit to students. Campus police reported that some
of these faculty members did not communicate to students their institutions’ guidelines relating to
campus policies and student conduct or delineate between lawful and unlawful behavior. The need for
police to provide this information introduced an additional challenge in dispersing unlawful assemblies.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Police and other campus entities responsible for managing crowd
events should consider ways to communicate policies and laws
to demonstration participants and supporters. This dialogue
may add clarity for all persons involved and help to ensure that
student protesters do not engage in behavior that results in
criminal charges or campus sanctions.
1
Time, place, and manner restrictions are limitations imposed on expressive activity (O’Neill 2023). These restrictions
on First Amendment rights are permissible when they are content-neutral (i.e., they apply regardless of what position the
speech takes on an issue), narrowly tailored to serve a significant government interest, and leave open ample alternative
channels for engaging in the protected speech or activity. Many colleges and universities have policies regulating how,
where, and when specific classrooms, buildings, facilities, and open spaces can be used. Campus leaders should ensure these
policies meet the constitutional standards, and campus police should work with college or university leadership to determine
whether police are best suited to enforce these rules.
2
While the legal definition of criminal trespassing varies between jurisdictions, the offense described here refers generally to
persons who knowingly and without authority enter or remain in or upon another’s premises for an unlawful purpose; enter
or remain after receiving notice from the owner or authorized representative that such entry or remaining is forbidden; or
remain after being given notice by the owner or authorized representative to depart.
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 7Separately, some campus police departments discovered that university administrators and staff,
including those with access to emergency command centers, shared sensitive information—such as
police operational plans—with protest groups. These breaches complicated police response, as they
allowed demonstrators to anticipate police actions and adjust tactics to continue unlawful behavior
while delaying police intervention.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Police leaders tasked with response to both demonstrations and
other incidents on campus should consider limiting command
post access to only those faculty and staff members with
operational and decision-making authority and should consider
including those staff in pre-event training that includes the
importance of operational security.
CHALLENGES IN ENFORCEMENT
Campus officials and police leaders who responded to mass demonstrations in 2024 reported a number of
challenges, some novel and unique. These included the enforcement of both campus policies and criminal
laws, the presence of nonaffiliated protesters, encampments, resource limitations, evolving demonstrator
tactics, and legal and ethical considerations.
Enforcing policies and laws
According to campus police leaders, a key, recurring obstacle to effective enforcement of campus
policies and mitigation of unlawful demonstrations was the reluctance of campus administrators to
enforce institutional policies. This reluctance caused delays that, according to police leaders, escalated
demonstrations into criminal conduct and made police intervention necessary and more difficult. In
addition, police leaders observed that inconsistencies in applying campus policies caused confusion
among both campus officers and among officers from supporting agencies who responded to assist.
This, too, allowed unlawful gatherings to grow, increasing the potential for property damage or
violence and necessitating additional police resources when the decision to restore order was made.
Finally, several colleges and universities identified gaps in their policies, as well as contradictory
policies and procedures when it came to some disruptive behaviors. Many campus police leaders shared
that protesters were aware of these contradictory policies and cited and leveraged those contradictions
during the encampment periods.
KEY TAKEAWAY
These challenges highlight a need for comprehensive review of
college and university policies by all institutional departments, not
just police. It also points to the need for unification by decision-
makers about how and when to enforce campus policies and clear
lines of responsibility for police and other campus entities.
8 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONSPresence of nonaffiliated protesters
A particularly notable trend during the 2024 demonstrations was the involvement of individuals not
affiliated with the university. Many people participating in the protests, especially at encampments,
were not students, alumni, faculty, or staff; in fact, several universities reported that nearly all the
individuals arrested during these events had no connection to the institution. This trend was further
corroborated by reports of professional protesters attending demonstrations at multiple universities
across state lines within weeks of each other. The presence of nonaffiliated protesters created additional
challenges for campus police, including limited opportunity to share information about campus
policies and rules of conduct and the inability to leverage non-police resources, such as student conduct
committees, to engage demonstrators. Policing leaders expressed concern about allowing non-affiliates
to remain on campus, particularly for prolonged periods, viewing this as a threat to campus security
and for the safety of residents, students, faculty, and staff.
Encampments
One of the most challenging aspects of the 2024 demonstrations was the presence of large, sustained
encampments on university grounds. The prolonged nature of these protests had a significant impact
on university operations. In addition to safety concerns, campus police reported that barricades and
other obstacles disrupted the normal flow of campus life, making it difficult for students to attend
classes or access housing. Unsanitary conditions in these encampments also rendered many health
hazards to inhabitants, responders, and the broader campus community. Clearing these encampments
required significant resources and, frequently, coordination with outside police agencies. In many cases,
encampments were a violation of both campus policy and criminal law.
Resource limitations and the need for outside assistance
When police intervention was necessary, the scale and duration of the 2024 demonstrations often
exceeded campus police departments’ capacity, requiring external police agencies’ involvement.
However, the integration of outside resources posed its own challenges, particularly regarding
jurisdictional issues, coordination, and the potential for increased tension between protesters and
police.
Campus police reported that mutual aid agreements with local police agencies were essential for
managing these large-scale events. However, the process of mobilizing these external resources was not
always seamless, as legal requirements, concurrent jurisdiction policies, and the need for specialized
equipment created delays in response times.
Many campuses were forced to rely on outside agencies for essential equipment, such as barricades,
sound systems, and observation towers, all of which were necessary for crowd control and situational
awareness. In some cases, campus police departments were not adequately equipped to handle the scale
of the demonstrations, leading to inefficiencies in clearing encampments or managing large crowds.
Tactical challenges and evolving protester tactics
Many campus police leaders found traditional crowd control tactics and equipment inadequate for
handling the modern approach to campus demonstrations. In addition, protesters used creative and
sometimes dangerous tactics to disorient or disrupt police efforts. Reports indicated that during some
demonstrations, protesters released crickets and worms in police lines, set off fire alarms, splashed
paint on officers and buildings, and openly called for or even committed violence against police,
including throwing frozen water bottles and rocks.
Police leaders reported that methods they had used to control unlawful assemblies in the past, such
as deploying riot gear, were less effective in clearing encampments and dispersing protesters who had
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 9fortified their positions with barricades and other materials. Instead, campus police found that new
tactics, such as area clearing, crowd displacement, and barricade removal, were more successful in
managing the demonstrations.
Legal and ethical considerations
Campus police and university administrators faced significant legal and ethical challenges when
responding to the protests. Striking the right balance between protecting the rights of protesters and
enforcing campus policies was often difficult, especially given the politically charged nature of many of
the demonstrations.
KEY TAKEAWAY
As courts have held, to avoid chilling the exercise of First
Amendment rights, police should respond individually to
lawbreakers whenever possible, rather than applying force
to an entire group. Furthermore, police use of force that is
unreasonable under the totality of the circumstances—particularly
by directing force at peaceful protesters—may also violate the
Fourth Amendment’s prohibition on the use of excessive force.
These legal issues were a focal point of the discussion, with many
policing leaders agreeing that police response to demonstrations
should include alternatives to force whenever possible.
Universities and campus police departments were also tasked with managing the legal aftermath of
arrests made during the protests. Some universities engaged outside legal counsel to track the progress
of cases involving arrested individuals and to ensure campus police were represented in court and
prosecuting attorneys were provided with the documentation necessary to move cases forward to
prosecution.
10 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONSCONSIDERATIONS FOR FUTURE MASS
DEMONSTRATIONS
Managing mass demonstrations on university campuses requires a delicate balance between
ensuring public safety and protecting constitutional rights to free speech and assembly. As the 2024
demonstrations have shown, effective preparation, clear communication, and swift enforcement of
policies are critical for avoiding the escalation of lawful demonstrations into unlawful assemblies.
To address future campus protests more effectively, universities and campus police must adopt
a multifaceted approach. This section outlines key considerations before, during, and after a
demonstration. The resources listed in “Additional recommended resources,” starting on page 17, can
provide further information, considerations, and tools to assist with the recommendations below.
BEFORE THE PROTEST
Policy clarity and defined response plans
One of the most important things universities can do to prepare for future demonstrations is to
establish clear, defined policies and response plans. These policies must delineate what conduct is
protected by the First Amendment; provide robust options for protests that comply with university
policy; and provide guidelines for swift, lawful institutional and police responses to policy and law
violations, respectively. Decision-makers and frontline officers must be fully aware of these policies and
trained to enforce them appropriately. This clarity is essential for ensuring that enforcement actions are
timely, legal, and aligned with the university’s mission to safeguard free expression while maintaining
order. Furthermore, clear campus policies that are shared with students, faculty, staff, and visitors
can ensure shared understanding of rules and regulations. This understanding may help to prevent
prohibited and unlawful activity by demonstrators.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Clear policies and response plans that delineate protected
conduct from policy violations and criminal offenses and
recurring familiarization training for police, campus leadership,
and other campus entities are essential elements to preparing for
safe responses to and facilitation of campus demonstrations.
Engagement with students and nonpolice representatives
Involving nonpolice representatives in the management of protests can help de-escalate situations
and maintain the legitimacy of police actions. Universities should consider creating student affairs
response teams composed of student professionals, campus administrators, resident assistants, student
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 11government members, or other student body representatives. These teams can serve as intermediaries between protesters and police, providing information on permitted and prohibited conduct and addressing minor policy violations before they escalate into more serious offenses. An effort should be made to identify and make advanced contact with event organizers to gather and share information and reach mutual understanding. This can help to facilitate protected expression and prevent unlawful escalations. Mutual aid agreements and resource sharing Given the complexity of modern demonstrations, campuses must establish mutual aid agreements with local police agencies to ensure prompt access to additional personnel and resources. External agencies may provide equipment such as barricades, sound systems, and observation tools, which are crucial for crowd control. Established legal agreements regarding concurrent jurisdiction and the use of external resources can prevent delays during protests and facilitate efficient and effective response to unlawful assemblies. Training Campus police officers, nonsworn employees, university administrators, and other key personnel should receive initial and ongoing training related to crowd management and control. This training should be supplemented by regular refresher training, in-depth scenario exercises like tabletop drills, and specialty training for specialized response teams and joint agency operations. Campus police agencies should also conduct regular use-of-force training to ensure all agency personnel understand current case law, leading practices, and latest trends, including for deployment of various weapons systems. In addition, agencies should implement ongoing training in de-escalation and crowd dialogue. Officers familiar with de-escalation and dialogue techniques can help to prevent escalation of mass demonstrations without using force. Information sharing Another critically important task for campus police agencies is effective information sharing. Particularly given evidence that protest groups may be coordinated across states, this information sharing must include not just agencies surrounding a college or university but also other colleges and universities throughout the United States. One medium for sharing such information is the Homeland Security Information Network (HSIN). Other fusion centers should be contacted for assistance in providing information on crowd events, event organizers, social media, and other information of value in planning and response. Campus police agencies should also consult with other campus agencies in their immediate area and nationwide to be aware of and prepared for trends and patterns in demonstrations. DURING THE PROTEST Balancing safety with free speech protections During a protest, it is crucial for campus police to balance the protection of free speech rights with the enforcement of laws. Campus police must differentiate between constitutionally protected activities and unlawful behaviors such as vandalism, trespassing, or violent acts. Police responses must be measured and proportional, ensuring that the enforcement of laws does not unnecessarily infringe upon the rights of peaceful demonstrators. This is particularly true for uses of force. Recent rulings have reiterated the long-held need for individualized application of force by police—including non-deadly projectiles and chemical agents—to be specifically applied to individual actors in direct response to actual or anticipated criminal conduct, consistent with constitutional standards. 12 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS
Identifying early signs of escalation
Another critical aspect of preparation is recognizing early warning signs that a lawful protest may
turn into an unlawful assembly. As observed during the 2024 protests, the arrival of equipment drops
and barricade materials may signal a shift toward unlawful conduct. By identifying these signs early,
campus police can act preemptively to mitigate the risks of encampments or other disruptive activities.
Other key considerations include the size and intent of the gathering, propensity for violence or
property damage, probability of counterdemonstrations, capabilities and resources of the primary police
agency, and availability of officers from contiguous jurisdictions under mutual aid.
Implementing emergency operations centers or command posts
Early implementation of an Incident Command Structure (ICS) is another essential element to
effectively managing mass demonstrations. In standing up an ICS, campus police leaders should include
ranking members of other university departments who are authorized to make decisions. Standing up
an ICS should be practiced in advance of an event by including institutional leaders like presidents,
provosts, and deans in tabletop and other training exercises. As one policing leader observed,
“University presidents have a role in the success of their police chiefs, and police chiefs have a role in
the success of their presidents.” This necessitates a strong, functional, and practiced relationship that
permits immediate communication and decision-making.
Real-time internal and external communication
Effective communication during protests is essential for maintaining order and preventing
misinformation. One of the lessons learned from the spring and summer 2024 protests was the
importance of rapid, real-time communication between campus administrators and the community,
including both the campus community itself (students, faculty, and staff) and the broader, extended
community (surrounding neighborhoods, businesses, and even alumni). Police leaders should consider
multiple audiences, including students, parents, faculty and staff, visitors, campus police and supporting
police, and surrounding community members and businesses. Pre-approved messaging templates
can expedite response times and ensure consistent messages across multiple campus departments
or entities. This is particularly important in campus environments where external communications
typically flow through a specific team and not from campus police entities directly.
KEY TAKEAWAY
“Dialogue officers”—police officers who work within crowds
to facilitate the flow of information, perform dynamic risk
assessments, and facilitate crowd self-regulation—have been
effectively used in the United States and internationally. Dialogue
officers build channels of effective communication through
engagement, negotiation, and problem-solving, and are part
of the larger response to demonstration events. (See Public
Order Policing in the resources for more information, including
an overview of the work done by the Columbus, Ohio, Division
of Police, who were among the earliest U.S. implementers of
dialogue teams.)
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 13In addition, police must establish real-time information sharing between responding agencies, such as tracking protest movements and coordinating responses, and with other campuses that may experience similar demonstration events. Finally, police leaders should take great care to document their decisions, including correspondence and conversations with institutional leaders and administrators. Use of technology and specialized equipment The appropriate use of technology, such as drones and observation towers, can provide campus police with real-time situational awareness during protests. These tools allow police to monitor large crowds from a distance and gather information on potential threats without escalating tensions through a visible police presence. Sign and sound systems should also be used to communicate with protesters, provide instructions for lawful assembly, and issue warnings when gatherings become unlawful. Audio and video recording of police response should be considered for evidentiary purposes, in adherence to applicable laws. If deployed, full civil disturbance gear (sometimes called “riot gear”) should be stored at strategic locations but should not be issued initially in crowd management situations, as it may escalate tensions and anxiety. Agencies should consider use and placement of other specialized equipment, including mobile command posts, first aid and triage stations, arrest and booking supplies, property and evidence control materials, and other task-specific equipment and supplies, balancing accessibility and the appearance of escalation. Officer and agency wellness and safety Managing protests can be physically and emotionally taxing for police officers. It is essential to ensure that officers are not overextended during demonstrations, which may require rotating personnel during long operations to prevent fatigue. Institutions should prioritize officer wellness by providing access to rest, nutritional food options, hydration, and mental health support during protests. This focus on wellness in the moment can help maintain elevated levels of professionalism and effectiveness throughout the event. These wellness resources should continue after an event, as described in the next section. AFTER THE PROTEST Post-protest communication and debriefing In the aftermath of a demonstration, universities should engage in transparent, post-protest communication with stakeholders, including students, faculty, staff, and the surrounding community. Providing timely updates on actions taken during the protest, the status of any arrests, and the overall outcome of the event helps to build trust and reinforce the university’s commitment to upholding free speech while maintaining public order. Debriefing sessions with campus police and university administrators can help identify areas for improvement in policy enforcement, resource allocation, and coordination with external agencies. Property reunification processes One of the more practical lessons from the 2024 protests was the importance of having a well-defined process for managing abandoned or confiscated property. Following encampments or large protests, items such as tents, personal belongings, and equipment may be left behind. Universities should have a clear process for categorizing these items as either evidence or found property, ensuring they are stored securely and returned to rightful owners as appropriate. Coordination between campus police and student affairs teams can facilitate this process, ensuring that property is handled lawfully and 14 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS
efficiently, thus, in some cases, reducing police involvement. These policies should be communicated to
protesters, including by posting them on college and university websites. Where police plan to disperse
unlawful assemblies, they should consider announcing their intent to seize, dispose of, or otherwise
process abandoned property alongside dispersal announcements or by using large signs.
Officer and agency wellness programs
Finally, universities must prioritize the mental health and wellness of both sworn and professional staff
involved in managing critical incidents, including protests. Peer support programs, critical incident
stress management services, and wellness programs can help mitigate the psychological impact of
managing high-tension events. Ensuring that officers and staff have access to these resources can help
reduce burnout and improve overall job performance during critical events and beyond.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Demonstration events, particularly those which escalate to
include unlawful elements necessitating unplanned or emergent
police intervention, represent significant stressors on responding
police officers and support staff, such as telecommunications
professionals, evidence collection and property management
technicians, and other campus staff called on to respond. A
robust officer and organizational wellness plan is essential to
building resiliency and supporting recovery.
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 15CONCLUSION
The widespread mass demonstrations of 2024 underscored the complexity of
balancing free speech rights with the need to maintain public order on college
and university campuses. As these events become more systematically organized
and increasingly complex, campus police and administrators must adopt
strategies that both protect the constitutional rights of demonstrators and ensure
the safety of all individuals on campus.
Clearly defined policies; swift enforcement; and close collaboration among
campus officials, nonpolice stakeholders, campus police and public safety entities,
and supporting police agencies are essential for managing future demonstrations
effectively. Equally important is the ongoing engagement with the campus
community to foster trust and transparency, particularly with students, faculty,
and staff who may be directly affected by these events.
The lessons from 2024 highlight the necessity of preparedness, both in terms
of policy and practice. By learning from these experiences and adapting their
approaches, universities can better navigate future demonstrations, ensuring that
campuses remain spaces for lawful expression, education, and safety.
16 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONSREFERENCES
WORKS CITED
“Field Force Operations PER-200 Student Guide”, FEMA Center for Domestic Preparedness, Accessed
October 2024, https://cdp.dhs.gov/training/course/PER-200.
International Association of Chiefs of Police, “Crowd Management and Control,” Model Policy, 2019.
O’Neill, Kevin Francis 2023, “Time, Place, and Manner Restrictions,” Free Speech Center at Middle
Tennessee State University, updated July 9, 2024, https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/time-
place-and-manner-restrictions/#.
ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
Mass demonstrations and protests pose a unique challenge for local law enforcement executives who
are tasked with numerous responsibilities during these events, including coordinating response,
arranging for mutual aid support, managing the demonstration and possible counterdemonstration,
ensuring the safety and wellness of officers and the community, gathering intelligence, communicating
with outside groups and influencers, responding to media, updating elected leaders, protecting critical
infrastructure, and upholding constitutional and civil rights for all involved. As discussed in this brief,
an agency must prepare for the complexities, competing interests, and scrutiny a mass demonstration
can bring.
This list of curated resources is designed to assist law enforcement leaders in the preparation, response
to, and aftermath of mass demonstration events, as well as case studies that cover all three areas.
Resources are presented by topic area and are alphabetized by title within each topic for ease of
reference.
Preparation
Building Relationships of Trust Toolkit
Wasserman, Robert, Zachary Ginsburg, and the Institute for Intergovernmental Research. 2014.
Tallahassee, FL: Institute for Intergovernmental Research.
Chief’s Counsel: Crowd Management and Civil Rights Protection
Daigle, Eric P. 2012. Police Chief 79: 10–11.
Chief’s Counsel: Pandemics, Protests, Social Justice, and Qualified Immunity
Ferrell, Craig E., Jr. 2020. Police Chief (October 2020): 20–21.
Community Engagement and Dialogue
International Association of Chiefs of Police. Fact sheet. Accessed September 30, 2024.
Community-Police Engagement: Agency Considerations Checklist for Civil Demonstration Response
International Association of Chiefs of Police. Fact sheet. Accessed September 30, 2024.
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 17Critical Incidents: Preparation, Response and Management International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2021. IACPLearn speaker series. De-Escalation: Guidelines for How to Begin Evaluating Your Agency’s De-Escalation Practices International Association of Chiefs of Police and Center for Police Research and Policy. 2020. Alexandria, VA: International Association of Chiefs of Police. Demonstrations on University and College Campuses: Law Enforcement’s Role in Planning and Response Vinson, John, and Tamara Herold. 2019. Podcast episode, Enhancing Officer Safety Through Increased Respect for Law Enforcement. Alexandria, VA: International Association of Chiefs of Police. The Evolution of Protests in the 21st Century and Effective Strategies for Managing Them International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2023. IACPLearn speaker series. Family Matters: Agency Considerations for Officer Family Preparedness Reference Guide International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2021. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Family Matters: Emergency Preparedness Considerations for Law Enforcement Families International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2021. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Guiding Principles for Crowd Management Buchanan, Kim Shayo, Hilary Rau, Lucy Odigie-Turley, Kerry Mulligan, Tracie Keesee, and Philip Atiba Goff. 2020. Denver, CO: Center for Policing Equity. Handling Large, Preplanned Events: Recommendations for the 2016 National Political Conventions Police Executive Research Forum. 2018. Critical Response Technical Assistance (CRTA) Program. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum. How to Train for Mass Gatherings, Protests and Riots Police1. 2018. (Link directs to download form to request eBook.) Law Enforcement Guidance for Policing Public Demonstrations Georgetown University Law Enforcement, Crime and Justice Institute, and 21CP Solutions. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Law Center. Making Social Media Part of the Uniform: How Policing Solutions Use #socialmedia to #buildcommunities and #fightcrime Accenture and International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP). 2014. Alexandria, VA: International Association of Chiefs of Police. Navigating Conflicts: A Guide for Campus Leaders and Public Safety Personnel Divided Community Project. 2024. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services Options for Community Engagement and Dialogue International Association of Chiefs of Police. Fact sheet. Accessed October 3, 2024. Planning for First Amendment Demonstrations: Six Common Assumptions and How to Avoid Their Pitfalls Silverman, Joel, Dawn Thomas, Rodney Monroe, and Stephen Rickman. 2021. Police Chief 88, no. 7: 26–31. The Police Response to Mass Demonstrations: Promising Practices and Lessons Learned Police Executive Research Forum. 2018. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. 18 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS
Protecting Officer Safety & Wellness During Protests & Demonstrations
International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2021. IACPLearn speaker series.
Protests & Public Safety: A Guide for Cities & Citizens.
Georgetown University Law Enforcement. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Law Center.
Research in Brief: Public Safety and Mass Demonstrations
Herold, Tamara, and Craig Dobson. 2021. Police Chief (December 2021).
Rethinking the Police Response to Mass Demonstrations: 9 Recommendations
Police Executive Research Forum. 2022. Critical Issues in Policing. Washington, DC: Police
Executive Research Forum.
Social Media and Tactical Considerations for Law Enforcement
Police Executive Research Forum. 2013. Washington DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services.
Turning “Us Against Them” into “We’re In This Together”
Patricia A. Robinson. 2015. Police Chief 82: 24–27.
Response
21st Century Protest Response Promoting Democracy and Advancing Community and Officer Safety
National Policing Institute and COPS Office. 2022. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services.
Collaborative Response to Critical Incidents: An International Perspective on Responding to Emergency
Situations
Morris, Tim. 2018. Police Chief 85, no. 12: 26–35.
Community-Police Engagement: Agency Considerations Checklist for Civil Demonstration Response
International Association of Chiefs of Police. Fact sheet. Accessed October 3, 2024.
Critical Incident Management: A Systematic Guide to Planning
Dusseau, Daniel A. and John M. Weinstein. 2015. Police Chief 82: 34–41.
Crowd Management Policy and Tactics - A Global Perspective
International Association of Chiefs of Police. IACPLearn speaker series.
Communicating in an Emergency
Lesson 3 of IS-242.B: Effective Communication – Student Manual. Federal Emergency Management
Agency. 2014. Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency.
Aerosol Restraint Sprays
International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2023. Model policy. Alexandria, VA: International
Association of Chiefs of Police.
Crowd Management and Control
International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2019. Model policy. Alexandria, VA: International
Association of Chiefs of Police.
Electronic Control Weapons
International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2023. Model policy. Alexandria, VA: International
Association of Chiefs of Police.
Impact Projectiles
International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2023. Model policy. Alexandria, VA: International
Association of Chiefs of Police.
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 19Incident Command
International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2024. Model policy. Alexandria, VA: International
Association of Chiefs of Police.
Mass Demonstration Response: Virtual Training for Campus Agencies
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Webinar, August 14, 2024.
National Consensus Policy and Discussion Paper on Use of Force
International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2020. Alexandria, VA: International Association of
Chiefs of Police.
National Incident Management System, third edition
Federal Emergency Management Agency. 2017. Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management
Agency.
OPP Public Order and Crowd Management: Principles and Tactics
Jean, Leslie, and Dave Springer. 2021. Police Chief 88, no. 7: 32–36.
Police-Media Interactions during Mass Demonstrations: Practical, Actionable Recommendations
Police Executive Research Forum. 2024. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services.
Policing Aboriginal Critical Incidents
Lewis, Chris D. 2011. Police Chief 78: 60–65.
Protests & Public Safety: A Guide for Cities & Citizens
Institute for Constitutional Advocacy and Protection, Georgetown Law. 2022. Washington, DC.
Public Order Policing: A Professional’s Guide to International Theories, Case Studies, and Best Practices
Burger, Brend, Herold, Tamara D., and Ryan Lee (Eds.). 2023. Springer.
Riot Medic: Tactical Emergency Medical Support of Civil Disturbance Units
International Association of Chiefs of Police. IACPLearn speaker series.
Staying Healthy in the Fray: The Impact of Crowd Management on Officers in the Context of Civil Unrest
National Police Foundation. 2021. Arlington, VA: National Police Foundation.
Twenty-First Century Protest Response: Promoting Democracy and Advancing Community and Officer
Safety - A Reference Resource for Local, State, and Campus Law Enforcement Managing Protests
National Policing Institute. 2024. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services.
Use-of-Force, Crowd Control, and Civil Disturbances: A Brief Primer – FLETC
International Association of Chiefs of Police. IACPLearn speaker series.
When Less (Force) Is More: De-escalation Strategies to Achieve Officer Objectives and Simultaneously
Reduce the Use of Force
Kurz, David, and Bryan V. Gibb. 2017. Police Chief (April).
Post-incident
After-Action Review and Reporting: An Introduction
COPS Training Portal e-course. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
Community Engagement after a Critical Incident: Evaluating Secondary Trauma in Police Departments
International Association of Chiefs of Police. IACPLearn speaker series.
20 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONSChief’s Counsel: Critical Incident Review Board: Creation and Refinement
Faigin, Robert P. 2011. Police Chief 78: 16–17.
Chief’s Counsel: Critical Incidents in Context
Alikhan, Arif. 2021. Police Chief (March).
Effectively Responding to Officer-Involved Shootings and Other Critical Incidents
International Association of Chiefs of Police. IACPLearn speaker series.
The Evolution of Protests & Their Impact on Law Enforcement Wellness
Center for Public Safety Innovation, St. Petersburg College. Webinar.
How to Conduct an After-Action Review
National Police Foundation. 2020. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services.
Officer Down: How Smaller Agencies Can Manage Critical Incidents and Ensure Psychological Survival
International Association of Chiefs of Police. IACPLearn speaker series.
Pathways Toward Collective Healing: Law Enforcement and the Communities they Serve – Collective
Healing in the Wake of Harm
International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2021. Alexandria, VA: International Association of
Chiefs of Police.
Staying Healthy in the Fray: The Impact of Crowd Management on Officers in the Context of Civil Unrest
National Policing Institute. 2021. Arlington, VA: National Policing Institute.
Surviving the Storm – Mental Wellness After a Critical Incident
International Association of Chiefs of Police. IACPLearn speaker series.
Case studies
Advancing Charlotte: A Police Foundation Assessment of the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department
Response to the September 2016 Demonstrations
Straub, Frank Jr., Jeffrey Brown, Roberto Villaseñor, Jennifer Zeunik, Ben Gorban, Blake Norton,
and Eddie Reyes. 2018. Arlington, VA: National Policing Institute.
After-Action Assessment of the Police Response to the August 2014 Demonstrations in Ferguson,
Missouri
Institute for Intergovernmental Research. 2015. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services.
City of Minneapolis: An After-Action Review of City Agencies’ Responses to Activities Directly
Following George Floyd’s Death
Hillard Heinz. 2022. Chicago: Hillard Heinz.
Columbia Strong: A Critical Incident Review of the Columbia Police Department’s Response to Protests
and Rioting on May 30-31, 2020
City of Columbia Police Department. 2020. Columbia, SC: City of Columbia.
A Crisis of Trust: A National Policing Institute Report to the Los Angeles Board of Police Commissioners
on the Los Angeles Police Department Response to First Amendment Assemblies and Protests
Occurring May 27 – June 7, 2020
National Policing Institute. 2021. Arlington, VA: National Policing Institute.
Governor’s Task Force on Public Safety Preparedness and Response to Civil Unrest: Final Report and
Recommendations
Governor’s Task Force. 2017. Richmond, VA: Commonwealth of Virginia.
POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS 21Independent Review of the 2017 Protest Events in Charlottesville, Virginia Hunton & Williams LLP. 2017. Richmond, VA: Hunton & Williams LLP. Investigation into NYPD Response to the George Floyd Protests Garnett, Margaret. 2020. New York: NYC Department of Investigation. Maintaining First Amendment Rights and Public Safety in North Minneapolis: An After-Action Assessment of the Police Response to Protests, Demonstrations, and Occupation of the Minneapolis Police Department’s Fourth Precinct Straub, Frank, Hassan Aden, Jeffrey Brown, Ben Gorban, Rodney Monroe, and Jennifer Zeunik. 2017. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. May 30, 2020, Civil Unrest After Action Review Cleveland Police Division. 2020. Cleveland, OH: City of Cleveland. No More Rocks and Bottles Lessons Learned in Crisis Communication Boyd, Sarah, and Jake Becchina. 2021. Police Chief Online (March). Omaha Civil Unrest Report Schmaderer, Todd R. 2020. Omaha, NE: Omaha Police Department. Philadelphia Police Department’s Response to Demonstrations and Civil Unrest May 30–June 15, 2020 CNA and Montgomery McCracken Walker & Rhoads LLP. 2020. Arlington, VA: CAN. Police Response to the 2020 George Floyd Protests in Denver: An Independent Review Mitchell, Nicholas. 2020. Denver, CO: Office of the Independent Monitor. Preparing for and Responding to Mass Demonstrations and Counter-Demonstrations in Portland, Oregon: A Review of the Portland Police Bureau’s Response to Demonstrations on June 4, 2017, August 4, 2018, and August 17, 2019 National Police Foundation. 2020. Arlington, VA: National Police Foundation. Research Evaluation of the City of Columbus’ Response to the 2020 Summer Protests Brown, Trevor L., and Carter M. Stewart. 2020. Columbus, OH: John Glenn College of Public Affairs, The Ohio State University. Virginia’s Response to the Unite the Right Rally: After-Action Review International Association of Chiefs of Police. 2017. Alexandria, VA: International Association of Chiefs of Police. 22 POLICING CAMPUS DEMONSTRATIONS
ABOUT THE IACP
The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) is the world’s largest
and most influential professional association for police leaders. With more than
34,000 members in more than 176 countries, the IACP is a recognized leader
in global policing. Since 1893, the association has been speaking out on behalf
of law enforcement and advancing leadership and professionalism in policing
worldwide.
The IACP is known for its commitment to shaping the future of the police
profession. Through timely research, programming, and unparalleled training
opportunities, the IACP is preparing current and emerging police leaders—and
the agencies and communities they serve—to succeed in addressing the most
pressing issues, threats, and challenges of the day.
The IACP is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3) organization headquartered in Alexandria,
Virginia. The IACP is the publisher of Police Chief magazine, the leading
periodical for law enforcement executives, and the host of the IACP Annual
Conference and Exposition, the largest police educational and technology
exposition in the world. IACP membership is open to law enforcement
professionals of all ranks, as well as nonsworn leaders across the criminal justice
system. Learn more about the IACP at www.theIACP.org.
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