RTI Press Senegal Farmer Networks Respond to COVID-19 - June 2021 - RTI ...
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
RTI Press Research Report
ISSN 2378-7902
June 2021
Senegal Farmer Networks
Respond to COVID-19
Annah Latané, Jean-Michel Voisard, and
Alice Olive Brower
RTI Press publication RR-0045-2106
RTI International is an independent, nonprofit research organization dedicated to
improving the human condition. The RTI Press mission is to disseminate information
about RTI research, analytic tools, and technical expertise to a national and international
audience. RTI Press publications are peer-reviewed by at least two independent
substantive experts and one or more Press editors.
Suggested Citation
Latané, A., Voisard, J.-M., and Brower, A. O. (2021). Senegal Farmer Networks Respond to
COVID-19. RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press.
https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.2106
Cover Photo: Xaume Olleros for RTI International
This publication is part of the
RTI Press Research Report series.
RTI International
3040 East Cornwallis Road
©2021 RTI International. RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute. RTI and the RTI logo
PO Box 12194
are U.S. registered trademarks of Research Triangle Institute.
Research Triangle Park, NC
27709-2194 USA This work is distributed under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 license (CC BY-NC-ND), a copy of which is
Tel: +1.919.541.6000
available at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode
E-mail: rtipress@rti.org
Website: www.rti.org https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.2106 www.rti.org/rtipress
Contents
About the Authors i
Acknowledgments ii
Abstract ii About the Authors
Annah Latané, MS in Applied
Background 1 Economics, is a research food security
and agriculture specialist in the Food
Methods 3 Security & Agriculture division, RTI
International, Research Triangle Park,
Results 4 NC, USA.
Jean-Michel Voisard, BS in
Household Survey Results 4
Commerce, is director of market
Farmer Organization Focus Groups and Interview Results 10 systems in the Food Security &
Agriculture division, RTI International,
Conclusion 13 Washington, DC, USA.
Alice Olive Brower, BA in Economics,
References 14 is an economist in the Center for
Applied Economics and Strategy, RTI
Resources for More Information 15 International, Research Triangle Park,
NC, USA.
Appendix 1. Communes Covered by the Farmer
RTI Press Associate Editor
Networks Monitoring the Impacts of COVID-19 on
Jeremiah Ngondi
Agricultural Production 16
Appendix 2. COVID-19 Action Questionnaire 17
Appendix 3. Senegal COVID-19 Safety Protocols for
Data Collection 21
Appendix 4. Pre-Data Collection Focus Group
Discussion Guide (in French and English) 23
Appendix 5. Video Interview Questions 24Abstract
This study leveraged existing data infrastructure and relationships from the Feed
the Future Senegal Naatal Mbay (“flourishing agriculture”) project, funded by
the US Agency for International Development (USAID) and implemented by RTI
International from 2015 to 2019. The research informed and empowered farmer
Acknowledgments organizations to track and respond to rural households in 2020 as they faced the
The authors thank Oumar Diop
COVID-19 pandemic. Farmer organizations, with support from RTI and local ICT firm
and the team at STATINFO for their
coordination, programming, and STATINFO, administered a survey to a sample of 800 agricultural households that
analysis work, without which this are members of four former Naatal Mbay–supported farmer organizations in two
study would not have succeeded. rounds in August and October 2020. Focus group discussions were conducted with
Ibrahima Lo facilitated and
network leadership pre- and post–data collection to contextualize the experience
coordinated with network leaders,
drawing on his long-standing of the COVID-19 shock and to validate findings. The results showed that farmers
experience and relationships working were already reacting to the effects of low rainfall during the 2019 growing season
with them under the Naatal Mbay and that COVID-19 compounded the shock through disrupted communications
program. Our thanks go to the
farmer network leaders Bassirou
and interregional travel bans, creating food shortages and pressure to divert seed
Coly (Entente de Diouloulou), Elhadji stocks for food. Food insecurity effects, measured through the Household Food
Babou Diané (Saxemi de Kahi), Nimna Insecurity Access Scale and cereals stocks, were found to be greater for households
Diayte (Fédération des Producteurs
in the Casamance region than in the Kaolack and Kaffrine regions. The findings
de Maïs du Saloum [FEPROMAS]),
and Anna Gaye (Kissal Patim) for also indicate that farmer networks deployed a coordinated response comprising
graciously joining this learning study food aid and access to personal protective equipment, distribution of short-cycle
in the middle of a pandemic and legumes and grains (e.g., cowpea, maize) and vegetable seeds, protection measures
providing their invaluable insights.
for cereals seeds, and financial innovations with banks. However, food stocks were
Thanks to RTI for sponsoring this
study through internal research and expected to recover as harvesting began in October 2020, and the networks were
development funds. planning to accelerate seed multiplication, diversify crops beyond cereals, improve
communication across the network. and mainstream access to financial instruments
in the 2021 growing season. The research indicated that the previous USAID-funded
project had likely contributed to the networks’ COVID-19 resilience capacities by
building social capital and fostering the new use of tools and technologies over the
years it operated.RTI Press: Research Report Senegal Farmer Networks 1
level resilience, such as monitoring the COVID-19
Background response.
The state of emergency declared by the Government
of Senegal on March 24, 2020, as a result of the
COVID-19 pandemic meant that the approximately Farmer Networks Explained
70 percent of Senegalese who depend on agriculture Farmer networks are groups of farmers that form larger
organizations to provide members with services that enhance
for their livelihoods faced an economic shock with
their productivity and provide access to financing and
new uncertainties. Supply of important seeds, marketing. The networks take various legal forms depending
fertilizers, and labor and mechanization services; on their size and autonomy as a business entity: cooperatives,
access to markets to sell their production; and associations, or Economic Interest Groups (a small-scale
ability to reimburse loans in the coming months business registration status common in Senegal). Many of
these organizations are the legacy of prior development
were all in question. The upcoming 2020 rainy
projects. With FEPROMAS, Feed the Future promoted these
production season (approximately May to October) organizations to their membership base as full partners in
was in danger, with the risk of a major food crisis the delivery of value-added services rather than channeling
rising. As described by Moynihan & Letterman, services through lead firms or other third-party aggregation
emergency surveys attempted to capture the impacts systems. Today, the greater part of the 123 such networks are
of the COVID-19 virus on rural populations but recognized as strong partners in pursuing service delivery to
their membership, and they interact with private partners,
experienced major difficulties because of low
banks and local/national bodies.
literacy, connectivity, and mistrust (Moynihan &
Letterman, 2020). This lack of information hampered
government authorities’ capacity to target their Through the former Feed the Future Naatal Mbay
response and development organizations’ ability to project in Senegal, RTI International (Initiative
pivot their programs to respond to the pandemic Prospective Agricole et Rurale [IPAR] & RTI
(Le Nestour & Moscoviz, 2020). International, 2019a, 2019b) developed a data-
Community-embedded, information-based farmer oriented ecosystem to reach up to 155,000 rural
networks can be readily leveraged to track the households through 123 farmer networks in
impact of economic, climate, or biological shocks, the most disadvantaged regions in Senegal with
such as COVID-19, on rural communities. As noted timely, accurate, and farmer-owned information
in the US Agency for International Development’s and analytical tools for decision making. RTI and
(USAID’s) guidance on monitoring during the Dimagi, a software provider, trained locally based
pandemic period operating environment, “the lessons field agents who became adept using the open-source
learned from the response to Ebola in West Africa CommAgri platform (which is based on the Dimagi
in 2013 suggest that platforms that are already in CommCare open-source platform) to collect data
place, in use, and trusted by local stakeholders are directly from farmers. Farmer organizations also
more effective for collecting data” (USAID/Tanzania, built their data literacy with Naatal Mbay support.
personal communication to implementing partners, They began incrementally by using simple data
May 20, 2020). Agricultural development projects dashboards for adaptive seasonal management and by
are often called upon to develop data collection attending inclusive evidence-based learning forums.
systems that monitor agricultural production and Ultimately, they were able to negotiate contracts
farming household status in rural communities. If with input providers, buyers, financial institutions,
development practitioners act with the goal of self- and insurance providers and to advocate for policy
reliance—by strengthening local digital technology change. Throughout, the program relied on three
service providers, equipping field agents to collect pillars for rigorous remote data collection: (1) trusted
and manage data, and facilitating farmer-led learning relationships; (2) a culture of evidence-based decision
forums—these system actors can be integrated to making; and (3) the inputs of another local partner,
form “soft” infrastructure that can be leveraged STATINFO, using the CommAgri tool. These three
for other purposes and that will sustain market- strengths underlay the soft data infrastructure
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.21062 Latané et al., 2021 RTI Press: Research Report
linking farmer networks and their field agents with The purpose of this RTI-sponsored study was
membership households. twofold. The first area of interest was to learn more
about the food security status of rural households,
USAID defines resilience as the ability of people,
their coping strategies, and the ways in which farmer
households, communities, countries, and systems
networks responded to the constraints posed by
to mitigate, adapt to, and recover from shocks
COVID-19. The second was to test whether the
and stresses in a manner that reduces chronic
network-embedded data collection infrastructure
vulnerability and facilitates inclusive growth
could be mobilized for research purposes outside the
(Feed the Future, 2017). Vaughn (2018) defines
context of an international development project. Our
resilience capacities as the potential for proactive
research questions asked about the following:
measures to be taken to manage the impacts of
shocks and stresses, or the sources of resilience • Shortages of inputs: Do farmers expect to see
that enable protected or improved well-being shortfalls in critical inputs (seeds, fertilizers, labor)
outcomes. Resilience capacities may be absorptive for the 2020 season’s production as a result of
(i.e., minimizing exposure through preventative COVID-19? Have farmers already experienced
measures and coping strategies to avoid permanent, such shortfalls? If yes, what strategies did they take
negative impacts); adaptive (i.e., making informed to mitigate them? Do they see differences in yields
choices and changes in livelihood strategies in at the end of the current season as compared with
response to longer term trends); or transformative last season?
(i.e., relating to governance and social protection • Allocating resources in the household: What is
mechanisms that affect the enabling environment). the current status of the household’s cereal stocks?
Resilience capacities can also be considered at Do they consider themselves in a good position to
different, though overlapping, levels: individual, face less access to foods? Have households changed
household, community, regional, and national. their food consumption or expenditure patterns
For example, savings, credit, and assets may be a for critical items such as food, medical care, or
household-level resilience capacity whereas market school fees?
information, agricultural practices, or business skills
• Farmer organization response: Does membership
may be considered community-level capacities.
in a farmer organization help form part of
At the community level, social capital is the
households’ coping strategies? For example,
concept of codes, norms, trust, and perceptions of
are households drawing on social capital,
embeddedness that exist between individuals and
transferring resources or receiving resources, or
community groups, such as farmer organizations.
receiving pyschosocial support as a result of their
Bonding social capital (bonds between community
membership?
members), bridging social capital (bonds between
communities), and linking social capital (networks The results of this study will also form the foundation
between individuals or groups across formal of a panel dataset that farmer networks can use
or institutional boundaries) may interact with to orient their response strategies and future
other resilience capacities in ways that amplify or planning. Networks, development implementers,
downplay their effects in mitigating shocks and and researchers could also use the same dataset after
stresses (Vaughn, 2018). All three types may exist COVID-19 for in-depth research with the same
simultaneously in a community (Bernier & Meizen- communities to determine whether particular coping
Dick, 2014). Although the Naatal Mbay project was strategies resulted in better food security or higher
conducted with an economic growth approach, we income from agricultural sales.
hypothesize that relationships built through farmer
networks may lead to community resilience capacities
that have positive benefits on their members’ ability
to withstand the shock of COVID-19.
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.2106RTI Press: Research Report Senegal Farmer Networks 3
Working with STATINFO, we repurposed another
Methods Naatal Mbay asset, the CommAgri data collection
We identified four farmer networks that agreed to platform. Although all four networks had previously
participate in our action learning study. Fédération used CommAgri during Naatal Mbay, they reverted
des Producteurs de Maïs du Saloum (FEPROMAS) to Excel-based data collection after closeout because
and Saxemi de Kahi are located in the Kaolack and of the subscription fees. With the launch of this study,
Kafrine regions, respectively, north of The Gambia, they were able to re-enter the CommAgri system and
and Entente Diouloulou and Kissal Patim in the access new research forms. Field agents employed by
Ziguinchor and Kolda regions of the Casamance the networks collected the standard sequence of data
zone (Figure 1). All of these areas are part of during the production season, following planting,
the Feed the Future Zone of Influence covering application of best practices, and harvest. In addition,
approximately 8,000 rural households working in the they administered a COVID-19 action survey form to
maize, millet, and rice value chains in 20 communes assess household demographics, assets, food security
(municipalities; see Appendix 1). These networks status, COVID-19 constraints, and coping strategies
were purposely sampled because they exhibited (see Appendix 2 for a dual-language version of the
strong capacity and autonomy under Naatal Mbay, questionnaire, which was administered in French).
and much of their data infrastructure remained
active, with regular agronomic monitoring of their The trusted field relationships among the network
members and data analysis to manage their cereal leaders, existing field agents, database managers, and
crops, finance, insurance, and sales, despite Naatal our team—including STATINFO—were a critical
Mbay’s closeout in 2019. The farmer organizations aspect of our methods. The networks sampled 10% of
signed data sharing agreements with STATINFO their membership using stratified random sampling,
as part of the study, and all participants gave a technique they learned under Naatal Mbay. Strata
their individual consent following the exemption included geography, gender, and type of producer
determination of RTI’s Institutional Review Board. (satellite producer or leader producer). The field
agents were already based in the
Figure 1. Farmer network locations and their membership numbers
communities in which they were
working, which mitigated the need
for travel and thereby prevented
delays caused by COVID-19 travel
bans within Senegal. STATINFO
conducted virtual training sessions
via Zoom with the field agents and
monitored them remotely each
day during data collection using
data dashboards and WhatsApp.
STATINFO also trained the agents
on COVID-19 safety protocols (see
the textbox on Collecting Data
during COVID-19 and Appendix 3),
and the networks purchased masks
and hand sanitizers for agents to
have on hand and distribute during
data collection. Finally, before data
collection, we conducted several
virtual Zoom sessions with the
network leaders, including focus
groups and recorded interviews, to
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.21064 Latané et al., 2021 RTI Press: Research Report
The agents collected survey data from the same
Collecting Data During COVID-19 households in Round 1 (August 2020) and Round 2
Together with STATINFO, we developed COVID-19 safety (October 2020; see Table 1). The target respondents
protocols designed to minimize infection risk among study
were heads of households. Although the field agents
participants, field agents, and farmer organization leadership.
Protocols included the following: gathered much of the agronomic data in person,
• Households were asked to report incidences of COVID-19
they followed up by phone to obtain most of the
symptoms or confirmed illness in their households during COVID-19 action data. Data were cleaned, and
interview scheduling and before visits; if the household descriptive statistics were generated using Stata/MP
reported incidences of illness, field agents did not conduct and Tableau.
field visits until 14 days after the incidence was reported
or until after the symptoms of the household member
Table 1. Sample sizes, by network
dissipated, whichever was longer.
• On the days of scheduled field visits, STATINFO conducted Number of members interviewed,
a phone-based screening for COVID-19 symptoms with by round
field agents, including dry cough, fever, other respiratory Network Round 1 – August Round 2 – October
symptoms, or loss of taste or smell. If field agents reported
Saxemi de Kahi 114 113
any symptoms, they did not proceed with their field
visits for 14 days or until their symptoms were gone, FEPROMAS 263 254
whichever was longer. Entente Diouloulou 249 245
• Field agents were selected according to their proximity to Kissal Patim 256 256
sampled households to minimize the transport needed. No Total 882 868
public transportation was used to reach households.
FEPROMAS = Fédération des Producteurs de Maïs du Saloum.
• Field agents were provided face coverings and hand sanitizer
for themselves and the farming household representatives
with which they interacted. The Government of Senegal
required all persons to wear face coverings while in public,
Results
including in taxis, at markets, and in private vehicles during
data collection. Field agents remained a minimum of 2
Household Survey Results
meters from farmers and anyone else present during their Snapshots of household survey results from both
field visits. Field agents were required to wear their face rounds are presented in Figure 2 and Figure 3.
coverings properly and use hand sanitizer before beginning Although all data are available disaggregated by
their visit and after completing their visit. Farmers were
gender, age, and commune, we present the figures
instructed to do the same, and all were advised to wash
their hands immediately upon arriving at a facility that had
as disaggregated by farmer network for comparison
handwashing capabilities. purposes. Data not disaggregated by round (August
• If a field agent observed that a participant appeared to or October) were collected only once, during the
have coughing, fever, or other signs of illness, they did not first round. Results by network are presented based
proceed with the data collection and rescheduled for 14 days on their location, from north to south: Saxemi and
later or after the household reports symptoms were gone, FEPROMAS north of The Gambia, then Entente and
whichever was longer. Kissal south of The Gambia in the Casamance zone.
• Farmer leaders who conducted Zoom focus group discussion Descriptions of each farmer network and their coping
calls were expected to wear masks when in close proximity
strategies are in the Farmer Networks textbox.
to others, wash hands frequently, and maintain social
distance when possible.
Demographics
In terms of demographics, 71 percent of respondents
understand what their COVID-19 response strategies
identified as male and 29 percent as female. Most
had been (see Appendices 4 and 5). After the agents
respondents fell into the 35–55 age range. The average
collected the questionnaire data from the selected
household size—13 people—was higher than the 2013
sample of members and we analyzed the findings,
household sizes available from the Agence Nationale
we organized debriefings with the network leaders to
de la Statistique et de la Démographie [Sénégal]
share the results.
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.2106RTI Press: Research Report Senegal Farmer Networks 5
Farmer Networks
FEPROMAS. Established in 2012, FEPROMAS brings together KISSAL PATIM. From a self-help group of 500 farmers in the Kolda
farmer groups of the Saloum ecological zone. The cooperative region of Casamance, Kissal Patim has diversified from a home
aggregates input orders, bank credit, crop insurance, tractor gardening initiative to support rice and maize production, and the
and harvest services, and crop marketing for its 1,700 members. organization now numbers more than 3,200 members. Its seed
Upon the declaration of the regional lockdown because of multiplication program and input procurement service provided
COVID-19, FEPROMAS reacted urgently to protect the 2020 Kissal Patim with networks through which to channel emergency
season’s production. Input planning was fast tracked: input and support to its membership. Kissal Patim leaders leveraged
seed suppliers, banks, and insurance providers were contacted their contacts with local authorities and non-governmental
by phone to secure contracts for timely delivery despite the organizations to ensure their full membership accessed emergency
roadblocks. FEPROMAS leadership brokered loan repayment plans food aid and PPE. By resorting to radio messaging to convey
with La Banque Agricole for balances outstanding at the time of extension services and personal safety messaging, the network
lockdown by issuing promissory notes. This secured the release compensated for lost mobility and access to members; it also
of 2020 season’s input credit valued at more than $200,000. maintained its subscription to a real-time weather alert and
Placing seed orders early also allowed hybrid maize importers rainfall tracking service for members. Kissal Patim complemented
to place reservations with their sources, and FEPROMAS’s own input supplies with emergency grants distributed to farmers
seed multiplication of open pollinated varieties covered the rest with the expectation of reimbursement upon harvest. Finally, the
of their seed needs. In parallel, 1,500 masks and cleaning agents network obtained supplies of short-cycle crops such as cowpea,
were distributed, prioritizing PPE for lead farmers who sensitized sorghum, and vegetables to help members face the lean period
membership on safety measures. Rather than speculate on the before harvest.
market, part of FEPROMAS’s maize stockpile was reserved to
ENTENTE DE DIOULOULOU. This organization plays an
complement food aid to support internal food needs.
important role in keeping its membership of 2,400 farming
SAXEMI. A 615-member millet farmer group that trades with cereal household supplied with quality rice seeds, relying on revolving
processors, Saxemi is located in the Kaffrine department. Most of funds accumulated from various support programs. The
Saxemi’s inputs are funded through its $90,000 internal savings COVID-19 lockdown severely impeded communications in the
fund, which had 25% still outstanding in loans when the COVID-19 network’s catchment zone of Bignona, so leadership relied on its
lockdown went into effect. Saxemi leadership promptly accelerated decentralized extension network to cover most of the members
collection to minimize outstanding loans and called on the bank for and to coordinate timely input procurement. The COVID-19
emergency funding to compensate, enabling them to place input lockdown also impacted loan collection from the prior season,
orders on time and at a fair price for its members. The network’s forcing Entente to reduce their annual lending by 40% for the 2020
internal seed multiplication program allowed members to access season. Leadership took measures to protect the network’s seed
quality seeds, helping maintain high yields but also opening an bank and kept producers from buying back the 2019 seed harvest;
avenue for the network to sell on the open market. Despite surging however, it created an emergency stock for disadvantaged farmers.
prices, Saxemi respected its commitments to local processors Like Kissal Patim, Entente leveraged its networks to access and
and allowed producers to re-purchase remaining surpluses distribute emergency food aid, fertilizer, and short-cycle crop seeds
because local cereal supplies were dwindling. The leadership team to its membership.
contributed to local community support and ensured that part of
the PPE and cleaning agents available from the government were
allocated to its 48 lead farmers and community members.
(2016) for the same regions (Kaffrine = 10, Kaolack aged 35 years or less 23% had achieved a secondary
= 10, Kolda = 9, Ziguinchor = 7), reflecting the education, compared with 14 percent of the 35–55
presence of additional family members who had been age group and just 5 percent of the 55+ group;
restricted from or had chosen not to return to urban similarly, 27 percent of the under-35 group had a
areas. In terms of education level, the majority of primary education, compared with 16 percent in each
respondents either had attended some Koranic school of the other two groups. According to the sample,
or had no education at all. However, 30 percent of growing proportions of younger generations were
respondents had received some schooling, and of accessing and achieving higher education levels,
those, an average of 13 percent of respondents had an encouraging sign of new levels of digital literacy
reached a secondary (high school) level. Of those to come.
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.21066 Latané et al., 2021 RTI Press: Research Report
Data Summary
Figure 2. Household survey results, part 1
Gender Age Education
Secondary Alphabatized
More than 55
Female (13%) (12%)
(21%)
(29%) Primary
(17%)
Koranic Shool
35-55 (28%)
Male Less than 35 (65%)
(71%) (13%) None
(28%)
Food insecurity (HFIAS categories)
Saxemi August 60% 29% 6% Food secure
Mildly food insecure
Moderately food insecure
October 7% 68% 21% Severely food insecure
FEPROMAS August 34% 62%
October 26% 68%
Entente August 42% 48% 7%
October 35% 55% 9%
Kissal August 76% 22%
October 51% 43% 6%
Cereal Stock
Saxemi August 12% 25% 27% 37% 200+ kg
101-200 kg
October 30% 39% 17% 14% 51-100 kg
1-50 kg
FEPROMAS August 21% 41% 18% 20%
October 28% 48% 14% 10%
Entente August 84% 11%
October 83% 14%
Kissal August 15% 23% 35% 27%
October 8% 11% 46% 34%
Do you expect to receive or have you already Are you worried that your food stock will run out?
recieved food aid? No Yes jjj No Yes
Saxemi August 34% 66% Saxemi August 20% 80%
October 23% 77% October 20% 80%
FEPROMAS August 41% 59% FEPROMAS August 93%
October 40% 60% October 93%
Entente August 88% Entente August 91%
October 20% 80% October 91%
Kissal August 88% Kissal August 30% 70%
October 25% 75% October 31% 69%
FEPROMAS = Fédération des Producteurs de Maïs du Saloum.
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.2106RTI Press: Research Report Senegal Farmer Networks 7
Data Summary
Figure 3. Household survey results, part 2
Has your household borrowed credit in cash or in-kind in recent years?
Saxemi 36% 62% Yes (both cash and in-kind)
Yes (either cash or in-kind)
FEPROMAS 19% 42% 39% No
Entente 51% 34% 15%
Kissal 87% 10%
What was the source of your credit? What was the main use of your credit?
Others
(1%) Microfinance Agricultural production
(1%) Food purchase
Expenditure on livestock
Clothing
21% 72% Health services
Other
Other household expenditure
Networks Other investment
(86%) Social events
Water
What challenges have you faced preparing for the growing season 2020/2021?
Access to equipment
Entente 36% 32% 34% 65% 52% 49% 44% Access to land
Access to seed
Field preparation
FEPROMAS 32% 40% 48% Finance/lack of money
Harvest
Livestock feed
Saxemi 63% 75% 75% 56% 75% 51% 59% 48% Mobilizing manual labor
Other
Winter household food
Kissal 64% 39% 52% 88% 76% 55% 65% 67% 69%
How have you changed your cultivation habits to respond to COVID-19?
Switch to short cycle crops, change crops
Saxemi 62% 31% 53% 54% 60% 97% Favor cereals/food crops
Cultivate market gardens in addition to cereals
Reduce cultivated areas
FEPROMAS 51% 64% 76% 82% Increase cultivated areas
Reduce production costs
Rent part of land
Entente 13% 62% 80% 87% 84%
Kissal 51% 52% 18% 51% 51% 98%
Have you sold livestock over the last 60 days? No Yes
Saxemi Female 78% 22%
Male 72% 28%
FEPROMAS Female 86% 14%
Male 46% 54%
Entente Female 94% 6%
Male 93% 7%
Kissal Female 98%
Male 94% 6%
FEPROMAS = Fédération des Producteurs de Maïs du Saloum.
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.21068 Latané et al., 2021 RTI Press: Research Report
Food Security Beyond the HFIAS, the amount of cereals that
Food security was a major focus on the COVID-19 households had available for consumption provided
action questionnaire, which we approached using a second data point to understand food security. As
three types of questions: food insecurity status, of 2017, cereals stock consumption per person in
cereals stocks in the household, and expectation Senegal was, on average, approximately 8 kg/month
of receiving food aid (see graphs in Figure 1). We (IPAR & RTI International, 2017). With an average
used the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale of 13 members in sampled households, those with
(HFIAS) to identify levels of food insecurity among 100 kg or less in stock were likely to be especially
respondent households (International Dietary Data concerned about running out of food in the coming
Expansion [INDDEX] Project, 2018). The scale asks a months. As mentioned previously, the first round of
series of nine questions about an event related to food data collection took place during the peak of the lean
security, with follow-ups related to frequency—for season, just before harvest; for some networks, the
example, how often household members may have second round occurred after harvesting had begun.
gone without a meal for a day over the past 30 days.
We can see a few shifts in the household stocks
Responses are tabulated and assigned a score ranging
between the rounds. Saxemi and FEPROMAS
from 0 to 27, which is then converted into a food
households experienced decreases in the amount of
insecurity category ranging from food secure (green)
cereals in stocks, with more households shifting from
to severely food insecure (red).
the 101–200 kg and 200+ kg groups into less than
When comparing the HFIAS results by network and 100 kg and less than 50 kg, because the harvest season
by round, on average, all the networks except Saxemi had not yet begun for those networks. Kissal Patim,
saw the percentage of their sampled membership however, experienced both an increase in stocks
decrease in the severely food insecure category. between rounds and higher levels of cereals on hand;
Kissal Patim had the largest share of severely insecure before data collection, many of their members had
households in both rounds, but that share decreased received food aid from the government. Without the
between the two rounds as households entered food aid, the Kissal Patim network leader expected
the maize harvest season. A few explanations for that their stocks would have been closer to the
the levels of food insecurity arose from our post- levels of Entente, which experienced small increases
survey discussions with network leaders. Entente between rounds.
noted that the border closures caused by COVID-19
We also asked households about their expectations
affected households’ access to food; in addition,
to receive food aid. The network leader discussions
the lower-performing production season in 2019
of the household responses illuminated several
meant there was less harvest available to store. The
cultural dynamics. For example, the household data
Kissal Patim manager expressed surprise that the
showed that during both rounds, most households
percentage of severely food insecure households in
expected to receive food aid in some form, although
Round 1 (76 percent) was not in fact higher due to
the numbers were slightly lower in Round 2 overall.
the high level of vulnerability in her zone. However,
Saxemi’s leaders confirmed that 70 to 75 percent of
with the harvest in her zone starting at the end of
their members had received about 100 kg worth of
September and early October for green maize as well
cereals for food aid as of Round 2. In the Entente
as for peanuts and rice, more households shifted
network, any member who did not receive official
into a moderate category of food security. Because
aid from the national government received aid from
the COVID-19 action survey instrument remained
local sources instead. Kissal Patim members had
available on the network agents’ devices, Kissal Patim
also received food aid, as noted previously. However,
manager decided to conduct a third round from
FEPROMAS detected a cultural norm of negative
December 2020 to January 2021 and expected to
stigma attached with receiving food aid, which may
see the proportion of members in the severely food
explain the disconnect between the high proportion
insecure decrease significantly.
of members who were experiencing moderate food
insecurity but who said they did not need any food
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.2106RTI Press: Research Report Senegal Farmer Networks 9
aid. By contrast, Kissal Patim’s leaders indicated that maintaining connections with financial actors and
even when the enumerators were network agents assuring farmers’ access to seed and equipment. In
with trusted relationships, members would respond Casamance, Entente is better resourced than Kissal
in the affirmative that they needed food aid if they Patim; Kissal Patim is a newer network, and Entente
thought that Kissal Patim might be investing in new benefits from access to development aid that is
programs, even when they had already received aid. concentrated in the Ziguinchor conflict zone.
For this reason, the networks saw HFIAS scores
In response to the constraints, we also asked
and the cereals stock responses as more important
households to report their response strategies. Most
indicators of the food security status of their member
households reported shifting their cropping strategy
households than the food aid questions.
to short-cycle crops (such as cowpea and maize) and
favoring cereals and food crops. Market gardens were
Access to Finance
another popular strategy, particularly with farmers
Access to finance is a critical need for farmers and
in the Entente network. Kissal Patim’s leaders noted
is one of the primary services that farmer networks
that they were benefiting from engagement with the
provide to their members (Figure 3). The majority
USAID-funded Feed the Future Kawolor Project as a
of households in Saxemi and FEPROMAS indicated
reason that farmers were pushing into market gardens
that they had borrowed in the form of cash or in-
and horticulture crops; with the Kawolor Project’s
kind credit in the past year, with most of that credit
support, Kissal Patim staff made telephone calls and
used to support agricultural production, followed
sent messages to farmers via rural radio stations to
by food purchases. As less financially connected
produce as much foodstuff as possible in preparation
networks, Entente and Kissal Patim had fewer
for a potential second wave of the pandemic, while
members accessing finance; those in Entente who
paying attention to household nutrition in the
said they had accessed credit likely were using it for
process. The data also showed that some households
seed production. Most respondents who had received
reduced their area cultivated whereas other
credit reported receiving it from the networks.
households increased their area cultivated. Farmers
During the follow-up sessions, the network leaders
in Saxemi and FEPROMAS in the Saloum region
validated these results. They said that because the
were more likely to decrease their land area; those in
networks were playing a strong intermediary role
Entente and Kissal Patim in the Casamance region
for accessing finance, most of their members who
were more likely to increase their area. Kissal Patim
borrowed did not perceive that the original source of
provided some additional context in terms of youth
the credit was the banks.
returning to the land from urban areas in a loose
back-to-the-farm movement driven by COVID-19.
COVID-19 Challenges and Responses
They were reclaiming land they had formally rented
Households were asked to select constraints that out, choosing to go into horticulture and higher-value
they were experiencing or expected to experience as crops and providing agripreneurial services.
a result of COVID-19 (Figure 3). Across the board,
most households indicated that field preparation and Finally, households were also asked about their
access to equipment were constraints, followed closely livestock selling activities, with the hypothesis
by access to seeds and finance. Most respondents that households might have been choosing to sell
did not indicate that household food stocks during livestock as a coping strategy to access more funds
the winter months would be a constraint, with the to purchase food. However, most households
exception of members of Kissal Patim, which reflected reported not selling livestock, with the exception
the higher levels of vulnerability of households of male respondents from FEPROMAS; network
in the Casamance region, a post-conflict zone. discussions provided context that fattening sheep
Similar to the questions about access to finance, the is a common side business for men in the Saloum
constraints noted by the network members reflected region and particularly where FEPROMAS is active,
the resource levels of the networks themselves. For so when the travel ban was lifted, business picked up.
example, FEPROMAS is well-resourced in terms of Because this is a largely local and accessible market,
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.210610 Latané et al., 2021 RTI Press: Research Report
sales were likely less of a destocking response and the pandemic lockdown. First, to mitigate systemic
more a resumption of regular business activity. In effects, they kept their governance structures intact
Casamance, networks indicated that it was quite as they coped with the initial humanitarian response.
uncommon to sell sheep or goats. Instead, farmers They then reinterpreted pre-pandemic value chain
might “exchange up” to a cow or sell livestock only approaches and financial instruments to shore up
because of a major traumatic or celebratory life event. their production programs and secure the 2020
COVID-19 had not yet risen to the level of a serious harvest. Many of the insights shared by network
event that would merit livestock sales. leaders aligned well with the expected impacts of
COVID-19 articulated in a paper by Arouna et al.
Farmer Organization Focus Groups (2020)—a research team from AfricaRice, the French
and Interview Results Agricultural Research Centre for International
Through multiple discussions and focus groups, Development, and the International Rice Research
the four network leaders provided insights on how Institute—on the impact of COVID-19 on domestic
these organizations—which in recent years had rice value chains and food security in West Africa.
built robust extension systems, market linkages, Among the topics they explored were procurement
and financing mechanisms—had fared under the of inputs, access to labor, and finance. Table 2 aligns
onslaught of COVID-19. The networks had to the expected impacts from the AfricaRice research
counter the inevitable regressions brought by the team with a summary of the many diverse response
double shock of the previous year’s drought and
Table 2. Expected COVID impacts and farmer network responses
Expected COVID-19 impact Farmer network responses
Dealers face challenges in procuring inputs • Execute early pre-season contracts with dealers and banks to secure orders and to facilitate
such as fertilizers and insecticides procurement by importers—for example, for imported hybrid maize seeds
• Facilitate access to subsidized inputs by members
• Coordinate last-mile distribution
Farm households lack access to seed; • Make cereal seed production a core network activity
farmers may consume their rice stocks, • Distribute short-cycle crop seeds (e.g., cowpea, maize, horticulture crops) through both
including seed purchases and donor aid
• Encourage early harvest of 2021 seed stocks and accelerated processing
• Establish or increase emergency food stocks from harvest surplus and downgraded
seed stocks
Access to labor may be a challenge during • Coordinate mechanized services across the network using cellular and smartphones
lockdown
Technology transfer and access to improved • Distribute personal protective equipment to field agents as a priority
practices may be a challenge because of lack • Coordinate procurement of inputs and seeds via mobile phone
of mobility of national extension services
• Use radio messaging about best practices and personal safety
and non-governmental organizations
• Continue subscriptions to SMS rainfall tracking and weather alert services
Farmers’ financial constraints may be • Fund emergency loans to farmers from network equity reserves
exacerbated • Issue promissory notes through the network, underwritten by banks, to cover unpaid
balances to allow opening of 2020 lines of credit
Farmers may not be allowed to go to market • Secure supply for pre-season contracts with processors and dealers despite 2019 rain
to sell their products shortfall
Farmers will lack alternative marketing • Distribute seeds for diversification short-cycle crops and horticulture crops to be
strategies marketed locally
Inability to sell crops in a timely manner • Negotiate a moratorium with banks on unpaid balances
may increase liquidity constraints and • Sell grain surpluses to members on credit
jeopardize food security
• Link with food aid programs to ensure members’ equitable access
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.2106RTI Press: Research Report Senegal Farmer Networks 11
strategies that farmer networks had devised and Instead, the four farmer networks participating in this
shared during our discussions. study bridged the last mile to their rural members
and activated linkages with private firms, partners,
Humanitarian Responses Designed to Preserve and banks to renegotiate or adjust contracts and to
Network Cohesion keep value chains functioning despite COVID-19
Networks took the initiative to modify systems barriers. That said, the networks did not achieve
inherited from Feed the Future to protect their assets these results in a vacuum. Each network mentioned
and to limit backsliding of development gains. As an reaching out to institutional aid and development
example, Saxemi opted to reserve a portion of the partner initiatives, such as the Feed the Future
2019 harvest to respect key commercial contracts Kawolor Project, to channel coping resources and to
while freeing the limited remaining surpluses for fund future transformation plans that would benefit
internal network households, rather than speculating their members.
on the open market. This decision demonstrates a will
to protect valuable established markets yet provide Adapting Financial Instruments
for the food security of more vulnerable members. In The questionnaire responses highlighted the farmers’
the same vein, Entente de Diouloulou took immediate perception of the central role that the networks
measures to mill lower-grade seed stocks, which played in accessing seasonal credit. Networks adapted
were then distributed as food to 1,000 households existing integrated credit mechanisms developed
to assuage initial fears, while securing the seed under Feed the Future to deal with the exceptional
program for the following year by accelerating the situation of COVID-19. Several of them co-designed
procurement of bagging supplies and planning for an financing mechanisms with local financial institutions
early harvest. Kissal Patim made sure that members or introduced their own. FEPROMAS, one of
could access fertilizer subsidies for the 2020 season Feed the Future’s early success stories, co-created a
but distributed these inputs with the expectation that financial instrument with the Banque Agricole that
members would repay the network at the end of the relied on promissory notes to temporarily capitalize
season to rebuild internal capital for subsequent input outstanding 2019 loan balances, which then allowed
lending. FEPROMAS members to access 2020 lines of credit.
Saxemi and Entente resorted to allocating their
Maintain and Leverage Systemic Linkages internal capital reserves to cover outstanding balances
Farmer networks quickly took measures to preserve and were able to extend credit for the upcoming
the integrity of the systemic linkages built during the season to their members accordingly. This ability to
Feed the Future programs. Even though the lockdown innovate and adapt in the face of adversity by relying
made planning for the 2020 season more difficult, the on internal cohesive bonds and external trusted
networks supplied their field agents and lead farmers linkages demonstrates the powerful social capital
with personal protective equipment (PPE) so that these networks built through their successful value
they could continue their work in person, and they chain activities.
used phone-based WhatsApp links to communicate
remotely with their members as needed. Finally, they Dependence on Labor Mobility and Skills
produced their annual input procurement plans using Challenges reported around access to labor were
Excel-based templates. They took bold, transformative twofold. First, the closure of the Gambian and Guinea
action to bridge communication and logistics barriers Bissau borders prevented laborers from migrating
and to extend services to communities. This response into Senegal’s agricultural zone at the outset of the
contrasts with the prevailing expectation that farmers growing season. Second, the rescheduling of school
would rely on negative coping strategies (such as exams because of lockdowns during the sowing
destocking livestock or consuming their seed stocks) season meant that students who typically would
to face the COVID-19 shock unless input firms, have been at home by then could not participate,
processors, buyers, and banks took the initiative. increasing the cost of land preparation and activities
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.210612 Latané et al., 2021 RTI Press: Research Report
such as manual weeding. In Casamance, travel bans such as FEPROMAS and Entente de Diouloulou were
and roadblocks kept some villages from linking with able to address the land preparation constraints by
network services. In-person extension trainings and coordinating mechanization services within their
technical assistance were not held as usual. Using less- zone to cover their members’ needs.
skilled personnel likely impacted 2020 yields, and the
increased demand for mechanized services pushed up Shock Responses: A Data-Driven Process
costs, leading some farmers not to use them. The data-driven processes that the networks used to
manage their responses were less visible to external
Ensuring Inclusion, an Acknowledged Blind Spot observers. Networks were confident in the accuracy
The household survey showed the vulnerability of the of their member listings, and they used procurement
network membership. One issue was limited literacy, planning and forecasting tools. They managed these
given that only 30 percent of members had attended systems locally, resorting to trusted Excel-based
elementary (17 percent) or secondary (13 percent) templates and using the open-source CommAgri
school. Also, with women comprising only 29 percent platform during this study to facilitate field tracking
of network members]and 13 percent aged younger in addition to administering the household survey.
than 35, we hypothesize that the benefits stemming The networks’ ability to manage data made it possible
from adult men’s network memberships are not for Kissal Patim to ensure that the food aid allocations
fully trickling down to women and youth in their were sufficient to meet the needs of its members and
households. Specific crop diversification measures for FEPROMAS to provide trusted estimates of input
promoting small-scale horticulture and home requirements to its suppliers and bankers, which
gardening were put in place with support from allowed their leaders to negotiate procurements and
external projects that targeted women and youth lines of credit remotely. The value of these systems,
specifically, which were well accepted. However, the which extended well beyond their value during Naatal
network leaders recognized that the crisis highlighted Mbay, was confirmed during the pandemic.
the urgency to deliberately introduce income-
diversification strategies within households and in the Resilience Varies and Evolves Over Space and Time
community, particularly for youth and women with All four networks were able to develop context-
limited access to land. specific responses. The survey data showed varying
food insecurity and shock responses driven by
Recognizing the Value of Extension and history, geography, and the organizational maturity
Advisory Services of the networks as market-system agents. The food
The networks recognized the importance of insecurity profiles varied from one organization to the
maintaining extension services to ensure that their next, as did their capacity to access credit or manage
farmer members applied best practices. Prioritizing livestock assets. Therefore, there was not a one-size-
the supply of PPE to network agents facilitated fits-all delivery package for resilience but rather a
their safe access to communities to plan and advise series of strategic drivers that the networks adjusted
members during the 2020 season. Educated youth and activated.
were prevented from returning to the fields because
of the lockdown, which highlighted their role in Transforming the Systems to Prepare for
oversight, sound practices, and service delivery— Future Shocks
and is expected to impact yields negatively. The Despite these challenges, the networks were expecting
focus group results also demonstrated that, despite a good harvest in 2020 given the adequate rainfall
the pandemic, climate and short-term weather and their ability to maintain most of their farming
information was considered a priority value-added activities, particularly seed multiplication and input
service for which network members demonstrated a programs. For 2021, networks said they intended
willingness to pay, even during these difficult times. to diversify their seeds and crops in the off-season
The questionnaire showed that more mature networks into a more balanced mix of food security and cash
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.2106RTI Press: Research Report Senegal Farmer Networks 13
crops such as rice, cowpea, and maize, as well as leaders during their response to COVID-19 and
horticulture and tree crops. This adjustment should while carrying out this survey told us that systems
result in additional income for farming households, initially designed to provide value-added extension
give them access to food earlier, and hopefully and business services can also respond to economic
protect against an overreliance on food purchases. and biological shocks and encourage the inclusion
Consequently, the networks also indicated that they of more marginalized population segments in their
intend to expand and diversify their seed programs networks.
beyond cereals in response to anticipated increased
The networks’ multifaceted response was rooted in
demand from members. Previously, networks
the social trust capital developed by these farmer-
accepted a loan repayment period that could extend
led networks over the years. Embedded systemic
to the following pre-season activities. Now, they will
practices, many of them owing to Feed the Future
seek to “tighten” the repayment window and include
facilitation and market systems engineering,
the new unpaid balance notes as a standard clause in
contributed to the resilience of the communities in
their contracts with banks. Entente de Diouloulou
which these organizations were operating. The survey
saw financial autonomy as critical to resilience and
data showed us that responsive group governance and
entered into advanced negotiations with three banks
data-driven extension and advisory approaches were
to adopt credit practices similar to those used by
applied in a low-literacy context. Yet the networks
FEPROMAS, where farmer credit is integrated into
were able to maintain their bonding and link social
commercial trading loans managed by the networks.
capital by balancing humanitarian interventions, crop
Finally, the networks had recognized a need to
diversification, and financial engineering.
expand their internal communications channels
to collect and transmit data in case of physical All farmer networks demonstrated a keen interest
roadblocks and other impediments. in the survey tool and said they intended to share
their results with local authorities, promote the tool
with other networks, and conduct complementary
Conclusion survey rounds to better understand the impact
In Senegal, the most stringent COVID-19 emergency of the shock and respond accordingly. Future
measures were lifted in June 2020. As of late 2020, research could take several directions, including
the farmer networks expected a good 2020 harvest, (1) comparing 2 years’ worth of production data to
which would replenish food stocks and reduce determine whether COVID-19 disruptions had an
food insecurity. However, the household survey effect on yields; (2) investigating further the statistical
results showed that the COVID-19 lockdown had relationship between household food security status
serious impacts on household food security for all and agricultural production outcomes, such as
networks and their members. Measures taken by yields or sale; or (3) serving as a baseline for future
the networks complemented traditional household development programs in those regions. Both value
coping mechanisms and appear to have allowed chain development and resilience monitoring are
most members to continue to farm in 2020. Kissal processes rooted in data and evidence. To target
Patim and the other networks, however, advocated these two concurrent outcomes, it is useful to build
for a third round of the survey in January 2021, after on previous facilitation successes, local statistical
the harvest was completed, to truly assess how their expertise, and local data collection management
members had been able to cope and rebound from capacity.
the pandemic.
“In a way, COVID-19 has had positive effects.”
This study showed that farmer-led networks can play —Nimna Diayte, FEPROMAS
a key role in structuring market systems for resilience
and enhancing community resilience capacities.
The dedication demonstrated by the network
RTI Press Publication No. RR-0045-2106. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0045.2106You can also read
