Spaces for learning An empirical model for measuring the effect of the built environment on learning - NTNU
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Spaces for learning
An empirical model for measuring the effect of the built environment on
learning
Arne Henden Aaraas
Department of Design
NTNU University of Technology
ABSTRACT
The development and design of learning spaces is receiving more attention because of a cultural shift
in educational practices. By studying the effect of the physical space on the learner, this article
develops a learner centered framework that can be applied in the design of a learning space. The
design of learning spaces is evaluated by studying statistics and research on learning, creating the
basis for the concept of spatial moderators; elements of the built environment that have a significant
positive effect on learning. These moderators have been developed to provide evidence-based,
practical guidelines that can inform the design of learning spaces.
KEYWORDS
Learning space, spatial moderators, student centered education
1. INTRODUCTION (The Future of Jobs: Employment, Skills and
Workforce Strategy for the Fourth Industrial
Revolution, 2016).
“The context of education is
changing. […] the focus has moved From an outside point of view, a ‘Learning
away from more traditional environment’ is an educational approach,
methods of teaching to embracing cultural context, or physical setting in which
a totality of experiences that will teaching and learning occur ("Learning
equip young people to meet the Environment," 2013). As mentioned in the
challenges of the 21st century» abstract, one of the key factors that
(Scotland, 2015). determines the configuration of a learning
space is the educational philosophy, which
The shift from passive to active learning
often materialises in seating arrangements,
emphasising student participation, as well as
learning resources, teaching strategies.
new educational initiatives of the 21st century
Evidently, these choices shape the activities
are challenging the educational institutions,
that take place in any learning space.
from secondary school to university level.
Meanwhile, educational institutions are With a shift toward a student-centered
accommodating societal needs of education, it is compelling to define the
competencies and skills in a time of rapid learning environment from the perspective of
technological advances, globalisation of the the learner. Research on schools suggests that
economy and shifting demographics social factors like having friends, having a high
1learning pressure and the engagement of spatial moderators. The development and
parents and their attitudes towards the school concept of spatial moderators will be
are among the most influential factors in a explained in the research section.
learning environment (Amundsen, 2015).
There are several factors that influence the
Consequently, we should be aware of the
activities in a learning environment; in this
limitations of the physical space, and keep in
article, we will look at learning environments
mind the context in which students interact
from a broad perspective, focusing on
with it.
common themes and conclusions that can be
So, are the physical spaces keeping up with drawn with the purpose of creating effective
the societal requirements emphasising learning spaces.
complex problem solving, critical thinking and
2. METHODS
creativity (The Future of Jobs: Employment,
Skills and Workforce Strategy for the Fourth This article is a literature review, with sources
Industrial Revolution, 2016)? Some initiatives, from reports, articles and web sites. The
including architectural projects and design research topic deals with physical learning
pilots, have attempted to create spaces that environments and their influence on various
address this new educational framework. This aspects of learning.
involves designing a variety of spaces that
The search criteria were divided between
support different learning activities, thus
theoretical aspects of learning – i.e. learning
providing a network of spaces that gives the
theories, subcategories of learning, etc. – and
learner freedom in balancing individual
practical aspects of learning –i.e. the design of
studies with group projects (Van Merriënboer,
learning spaces, influences on the learning
McKenney, Cullinan, & Heuer, 2017).
process, etc.
Still, it remains unclear whether these
The article research was conducted between
initiatives are simply the physical
September 7th and November 20th. Most of
manifestations of a new educational
the articles, including ones that deal with
mentality, and whether the activities that take
empirical studies about the influence of
place are in fact supporting the learning
learning spaces, were found through Oria and
requirements and goals of the educational
Google Scholar. Reports and other sources
institution.
were found through internet searches.
Some work in recent years address the
Important keywords in searches include:
relationship between the physical
environment and learning, including research Learning space, spatial characteristics,
linking attributes of the physical learning influence, empirical research, guidelines.
environment to cognitive load (Choi, 2014)
and mental health and well-being (Ettema, The empirical evidence cited is based on
findings in research papers and research-
2015). There is, however, limited research on
how physical spaces affect learning, and the based reports. Although a limited amount of
research that exists is not necessarily focused empirical research exists on the relation
on the learning process. between space and its influence on learning,
findings that were time-sensitive or that had a
This article will explore the effects of spatial narrow application were excluded. Findings
characteristics on the learner, and investigate that deal with learning theories have been
whether these can be quantified and selected based on their relevance to the
categorised. Research on factors in the physical learning environment.
physical environment and their influence on
3. RESEARCH
the learner is the basis for the development of
23.1 Ideologies affect the design of learning plan model whilst providing flexibility through
spaces spatial differentiation, often measured in
terms of focus and collaboration (source).
‘The student-centred learning environment
However, statistics on work satisfaction
has the student need satisfaction as its
indicates that for ABW to be effective for
primary focus whereas the subject-centred
workers, the work culture should be aligned
environment has the transmission of a body of
with the work environment:
knowledge as the primary focus.’ (Clasen &
Bowman, 1974) ‘Statistically at face value, the benefits of ABW
environments are difficult to see. Comparing
The concept of student-centred learning is
them to a control group of non-ABW spaces,
gaining momentum, and has been shown to
they show lower Leesman effectiveness scores
be effective, especially in higher education
and average satisfaction agreement against
(Wright, 2011). Here, the curriculum and the
both productivity and pride key indicators.
learning activities are determined by the
Presented with these results in isolation, it
student, enabling pursuit of their own learning
would be difficult to build a case for ABW
interests, developing problem solving skills,
adoption. However, those averages mask a
and equipping them with the tools to become
dramatically diverse picture that is concealing
lifelong learners (Nanney, 2004).
how ABW environments deliver significant
In many ways, it is the antithesis of the performance improvements on multiple
prevailing teacher-centered, authoritarian measurement lines for those employees who
model that dominated in the 20th century. adapt to their new surroundings. But a
Arguably, the classroom interior archetype – number of these spaces are populated by
in which all the students have an appointed large numbers of employees stuck in
desk facing the teacher and the blackboard - traditional workstyles, in effect, in conflict
embodies an educational philosophy that is with their new setting.’ (Leesman, 2016)
modelled on the industrial principles of the
To conclude, the functioning of a learning
early 20th century, favouring efficiency and
environment relies on the successful
uniformity.
alignment of the learning culture, the
The teacher’s passing of knowledge is still a pedagogical ideology and the learning space.
core activity in modern schools, but in a This is especially important in a time when
student-centered environment the teacher education is responding to rapid technological
acts more like a facilitator, supporting and societal changes.
students in their self-directed learning
In the following chapters, we study how
processes. Data from OECD shows that on
learning spaces support various learning
average, teaching time is highest at primary
activities, with an emphasis on skills and
school, and decreases for higher levels of
competencies that have been established as
education (OECD, 2017), correlating with
essential for the future work force.
higher degrees of learner autonomy and
influence on the learning process. These are 3. 2 The function of learning spaces
characteristics that are associated with active
‘The [learning environment] also
learning environments.
encompasses the culture of a school or class—
The architectural framework of student- its presiding ethos and characteristics,
centered learning has a lot in common with including how individuals interact with and
the activity based working office model treat one another—as well as the ways in
(hereby called ABW), which brings together which teachers may organise an educational
elements from the social democratic open setting to facilitate learning—e.g., by
3conducting classes in relevant natural allows people to interact and coordinate
ecosystems, grouping desks in specific ways, socially to perform tasks in a shared mental
decorating the walls with learning materials, space.
or utilising audio, visual, and digital
Cognitive research indicates that the best
technologies’ ("Learning Environment," 2013).
learning takes place in a close simulation of
Learning spaces provide a wide range of the realistic environment, which has been
learning experiences for different learner shown to be effective in medical training
groups, with a diverse set of goals for learning (Lateef, 2010). This also has important
outcomes. Therefore, it is not straight forward applications to learning environments in
to determine what the general function of a general, with benefits reaching beyond the
learning space should include. Still, we may cognitive realm of learning. Furthermore, it is
point to certain forms of learning, as well as widely acknowledged that a cognitive model
aspects of learning processes, that are alone cannot explain the complex process of
facilitated by or rely upon the built learning.
environment.
In the following chapter, we will introduce
Situated learning is a learning theory that research that attempts to determine the
emphasises the role of physical and social effectiveness of practices within a learning
surroundings in the learning process, originally environment.
proposed as a model of learning in a
3.3 Measuring learning
community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
Learning activities that apply this theory In a report by the SCRI, principles from SCRI’s
include workshops, role playing, field trips and Senses, Brain and Spaces (SBS) research work
music practice. In addition to providing an “suggest direct connections between sensory
alternative to the traditional classroom, this stimulations, learning and physical space.”
theory stresses the role of contextual factors (Peter Barrett, 2009).
in learning processes. In the words of Paula
Vincini, “Learners must use tools as The report states three design principles to
practitioners use them and become ‘cognitive inform the development of effective learning
apprentices’ in that discipline’s community environments in primary schools:
and its culture” (Vincini, 2003). • Naturalness – addressing biological
The theory of situated cognition relates requirements for light, air and safety.
interaction with the environment to skill
training and execution, arguing that knowing • Individualisation – each person
is inseparable from doing (Brown, Collins, & perceives and responds to
Duguid, 1989). Going one step further, environmental stimulus differently.
distributed cognition argues that “cognition
and knowledge are not confined to an • Stimulation – by providing peripheral
individual; rather, it is distributed across sensory stimulation, the surrounding
objects, individuals, artefacts, and tools in the space can engage without diverting
environment (Hollan, Hutchins, Kirsh, & attention.
Grudin, 2000). This perspective acts as a In a 2012 article by Barrett et al., the impact of
theoretical basis for understanding the school building design was measured across
importance of the physical environment in any ten design parameters in seven different
learning activity. schools. Of all the factors influencing learning
Interestingly, digital media represents its own progression, factors of the built environment
ecosystem of distributed cognition, as it
4were estimated to account for around 25% evaluation can be interpreted and customised
(Barrett, Zhang, Moffat, & Kobbacy, 2013). to suit a specific learning environment.
Furthermore, as a strategy to facilitate
Among the attempts to characterise good
learning, it can be backed up by research and
learning environments, one of the most
statistical data.
comprehensive studies is by the school
researcher John Hattie. In his Visible learning This is the theoretical basis that inspires the
(Hattie, 2009), the relative effect of learning concept of a spatial moderator; an aspect of
practices is measured based on meta-analyses the physical surroundings known to have a
of schools, relating to the influences on positive effect on learning. There are some
achievement in school-aged students (Miller, challenges related to the description and
2010). John Hattie defines a moderator as an effect measuring of spatial moderators, which
‘effectual measure known to have a positive will be addressed in the following chapters.
effect on learning’ (Hattie, 2015).
3.4 Developing spatial moderators
Influence Effect (d)
Teacher estimates of 1.62 First, it is crucial to understand the
achievement educational framework that affects behaviour
Collective teacher 1.57 and activities in physical learning spaces. To
efficacy implement any of these spatial moderators is
Self-reported grades 1.33
not necessarily going to ensure better learning
Piagetian programs 1.28
Conceptual change 1.16 by itself; every learning environment is
programs different.
Response to intervention 1.07
Teacher credibility 0.90 Second, some of the attributes that
Micro teaching 0.88 characterise good learning environments are
Cognitive task analysis 0.87 not restricted to learning, but influence other
Classroom discussion 0.82 aspects – i.e. wellbeing and physiological
Fig. 1 - List of influences that have been shown needs – that have an indirect influence on
to have the largest positive effect on learning learning.
(Hattie, 2017). Here, d is the effect size
(Cohen’s d) defined as the standardised Third, there is no comprehensive statistic
difference between two means. linking spatial characteristics with their
relative influence on a learning environment.
This statistical overview links a practical Nor does this article attempt to develop one;
measure in the learning environment with its instead, we will look at some spatial attributes
relative effect on learning, providing a fact- that have a proven effect –directly or
based overview of the most successful indirectly – on learning. We will use this list as
measures that can be taken to facilitate a theoretical framework for understanding
learning. As such, it is independent of any and developing spatial moderators.
specific pedagogy, as it may point to certain
universal truths about how learning happens. The formal characteristics of a (learning) space
It also provides an informed basis for consists of temperature, ventilation, views,
prioritisation of teaching resources. natural light, light, acoustics and finishes
(Wikipedia, 2017). While this describes the
For example, the high rank of ‘Formative elements that constitute a physical
Evaluation’ suggests that informal and environment, it does not provide information
ungraded settings facilitate student learning about how the learner experiences their
(Learning, 2017). A key characteristic of these environment. Within the scope of spatial
moderators is their relative definition; for moderators, components in the learning
example, the implementation of formative
5environment – e.g. colour, displays, furniture • ‘The learning environment should
– are also included. incorporate the actions and practices of
real life environments.’ (Vincini, 2003)
In the following section, we will present a list
of findings that address various aspects of
• ‘Generally, teachers who want to
spaces and their influence on the learner. This
maximise the on-task behaviour of their
list is a collection of research findings from
students during independent work should
disciplines such as neuroscience,
consider utilising rows rather than groups
environmental and developmental
as their primary seating arrangement and
psychology, social anthropology and cognitive
moving desks into other positions to
science. The purpose of this list is to exemplify
facilitate interaction when it is desired.’
how multidisciplinary research could act as a
(Wannarka & Ruhl, 2008)
foundation for developing spatial moderators.
• Availability of green space corresponds • ‘Although exposure levels at schools were
with lower frequency of mental health below 60 dB […] multilevel analyses
problems (van Den Berg et al., 2016). This revealed that increasing exposure was
finding could be generalised to an innate linearly associated with less positive
orientation to all living things, often ratings of quality of life, increasing noise
referred to as biophilia. annoyance, and decreasing reading
performance.’ (Klatte et al., 2017)
• ‘Computer and video games are suggested
3.5 Categories of spatial moderators
to increase the motivation and
engagement of players because they Spatial moderators affect several factors that
include elements such as play, fantasy, must be present in a good learning
curiosity, challenge, competition, environment, addressing physiological needs
cooperation, and learner-control’ (Barab, as well as social interaction and cognitive
Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005). requirements.
“Game-based environments afford
It is also worth pointing out that some spatial
activities for experiential, situated,
moderators are easily introduced to existing
problem-based, and active learning.’
learning spaces, i.e. introducing plants in the
(Boyle, Connolly, & Hainey, 2011)
environment or rearranging furniture. Others
require changes in infrastructure or learning
• ‘In times of declining resources and
material, which could be resource intensive.
increasing public demands, schools are
Nonetheless, spatial moderators are only
often tempted to reduce or abandon
concerned with the relationship between
aesthetic experiences in the curriculum.
spatial factors and their relative effect on
These experiences (e.g., art, music,
learning.
movement, etc.) offer the most obvious
opportunities for children to play. Because Further, a comprehensive list of moderators
play appears to affect other desirable listed in order of effect type and relative
patterns of intellectual functioning like effectiveness could provide a framework for
divergent thinking and problem solving, evaluating and developing learning spaces.
we argue that play may have a more basic This would require meta-analyses in which
function in education than many elements of the physical learning environment
educators believe. The concept of basic were defined as influences on learning. Below
education perhaps should include is an example of how items in a list of spatial
aesthetic experiences that encourage moderators could be structured:
play.’ (Christie & Johnsen, 1983)
6Influence Learning Effect (d) ‘Mobile internet and cloud technology’ has
activity been listed as the primary technological driver
Natural Processing, 0.6 of change toward 2020 (The Future of Jobs:
light thinking
Employment, Skills and Workforce Strategy for
Fig. 2 – Example of influence categorised
the Fourth Industrial Revolution, 2016). The
according to learning activity and relative
mobility and connectivity that comes with this
effect. Here, the effect size (d = 0.6) is assumed
change has implications for the function of
to be calculated as Cohen’s d (see Fig. 1)
physical learning spaces.
3.6 Towards a holistic understanding of
Over the last decades, technology has evolved
learning spaces
from presentation mediums (monitors,
The motivation for developing spatial projectors) to research, generative and
moderators is not to formulate a definitive collaborative tools (Wikipedia, 2017). With
answer to what constitutes the optimal virtual learning environments, there is a sense
learning space, but to provide information of augmented cognition, in which huge
that links specific elements of the space to amounts of information is accessible. This
specific influences on the learner and, by development is consolidated by augmented
extension, their learning process. Research on reality technology, giving us access to new
spatial moderators can complement research layers of information integrated in our
on other aspects of learning, from teacher- physical environment.
student interaction to the learning strategies
Mobility in learning is also a direct result of
of students.
this technological shift. Computer rooms are
By looking at learning spaces through the lens becoming obsolete, as mobile devices offer
of spatial moderators, there is an inherent freedom in study space. Through mobility and
focus on the effectiveness of learning connectivity, there is an opportunity for
environments, as opposed to the traditional customising the learning experience, to
paradigm of measuring learning. Also, by accommodate different learning styles and
approaching the subject from a different learning trajectories. Although there
multidisciplinary research point of view, we exists a lot of software for e-learning today,
can identify subtle aspects of learning spaces - there is work to be done bridging the gap
like levels of noise and the extent to which the between the physical and the virtual world.
physical environment provides mobility - that
In a personalised learning environment, the
have a profound effect on learning.
progression is based on interests and
Some spatial characteristics, such as colour competence, not a predetermined curriculum
and choice of furniture, have influences which or assessment. In the ecosystem of a learning
are difficult to assess in a rigorous, environment, technology can provide the
quantitative manner, although we know that traditional knowledge transmission while
these are crucial factors in the perception of providing new platforms for collaboration and
space, and what we experience as the communication.
atmosphere of a space. Thus, learning
This provides opportunities for restructuring
environments should not only accommodate
the layout of classrooms for other purposes. A
and facilitate learning, they should be settings
natural way for learning spaces to respond to
for a broad range of experiences that support
this change would be to specialise on social
personal development beyond the realm of
platforms of different kinds. As discussed
academic achievement and curricula.
previously, the acquisition of skills and
3.7 Technology and its impact on learning competencies is often bound to the physical
spaces
7and social context in which the learning Consequently, being able to support a variety
activities take place. of learning activities appears to be a
requirement for the future. Whether the focus
3.8 Future work requirements
will be on facilitating complex problem
It is estimated that the majority of the jobs of solving, developing social skills or something
the future do not yet exist (Scott McLeod, else, learning spaces should be flexible enough
2017). Along with the fact that changing jobs to respond to changes in society, changes in
is increasingly common (Number of jobs, labor learning activity and changes in technology.
market experience, and earnings growth
As mentioned in the introduction, new skills
among Americans at 50; results from a
and competencies make their way into the
longitudinal study, 2017), there are compelling
curriculum, many of which are difficult to
arguments for emphasising interdisciplinary
assess by traditional means. When moving
skills and competencies in educational
away from a highly formalised and structured
strategies.
learning space, one of the challenges is to
Below are the skills families expected to be measure the learning outcomes of activities
most important in 2020, according to the 2016 like collaborative problem solving. This
Future of Jobs report by World Economic problem has been addressed in ‘The Nature of
Forum: Problem Solving’, which provides a research-
based overview of problem solving in general
SKILL % and assessment in particular (Griffin, 2017).
Complex Problem Solving 36 Studies like these are necessary to understand
Social Skills 19 how new learning activities can be
Process Skills 18 implemented effectively in learning
Systems Skills 17
environments.
Resource Management Skills 13 3.9 The future of learning spaces
Technical Skills 12
From an outside point of view, a learning
Cognitive Abilities 15 environment is ‘an educational approach,
Content Skills 10 cultural context, or physical setting in which
Physical Abilities 4 teaching and learning occur’ ("Learning
Fig. 3 - Demand for skills: industry overall | Environment," 2013). In this article, we have
2020 (The Future of Jobs: Employment, Skills dealt with learning spaces as a physical
and Workforce Strategy for the Fourth setting, looking at how they are designed, how
Industrial Revolution, 2016). Here, the they are used, and how they influence
percentage (%) indicates the share of jobs learning.
requiring skills family as part of their core skill The increasing presence of virtual
set. environments, as well as increased mobility in
In the larger perspective, we may consider the learners is the context in which future settings
main function of learning as preparing for the for learning will take place. Perhaps one of the
future. One of the challenges for educational main challenges of the digital age is to balance
institutions is to adapt to shifting societal things that happen in the digital world with
needs. Regardless of any specific skillset, it is things that happen in the physical world.
evident that even the near future holds a lot One experimental approach to incorporating
of insecurity, especially related to what sort of information in the physical surroundings was
things we will work with. developed by the MIT Media Lab in 1997:
8‘The ambientROOM allows users to be aware expense of the wellbeing and motivation of
of background bits using ambient display the learner, as these have been shown to be
media such as ambient light, shadow, sound, integral factors in cultivating learning.
airflow, water movement in an augmented
Lastly, learning is a term with multiple
architectural space.’ (Hiroshi Ishii, 1997)
definitions and subcategories, which this
Whether this is a realistic interpretation of article does not go to great lengths to
how the virtual and the physical world might distinguish. It becomes important, however,
integrate, can be discussed, but it certainly to determine the type of learning activity that
provides an original viewpoint, is involved, when describing how the physical
reconceptualising the function of the built environment affects various aspects of
environment by providing information directly learning.
to the senses.
4.2 The essence of the article
A more recent attempt to create social and
By looking at factors influencing the design of
immersive experiences is the phenomenon of
learning spaces, both external (societal and
escape rooms, in which elements from game
technological changes) and internal (learning
design is applied in a setting for collaborative
ideologies and strategies), the aim is to
problem solving. Efforts to create engaging
contextualise the role of the learning space in
and immersive spaces could be beneficial
a modern educational reality. Evidently, a
when applied in a learning environment.
successful and effective learning environment
4. DISCUSSION relies on a holistic approach to learning
strategies, that may inform the physical space
4.1 About the research material and
as well as learning activities and objectives.
definitions used
Efforts to reconceptualise the meaning and
This article gathers research from multiple
function of a learning space, whether they be
disciplines, combining studies that are related
reflexes to external changes or explorations of
to the influence of the physical environment
possible future scenarios, can be useful
on the learner. In this context, the learner is a
discussion points for the development of
generic term that covers any person involved
learning spaces.
in a learning activity.
Through the development of spatial
Because children and their requirements
moderators, this article proposes an informed
change over time, it is essential to understand
discussion about the influence of the physical
the influence of spatial moderators in the
environment on learning, as well as the
context of age as well as learning activity and
function of a learning space in different
the overall learning environment. As such, the
learning activities and processes, now and in
research findings are not universal truths that
the future.
apply to everyone; information about the
demographic and learning activity used in the
studies is provided when available.
Importantly, we should also emphasise the
role of positive learning, which happens in a
collaborative (rather than competitive)
environment that encourages self-directed
learning and wellbeing among learners (Chen
& McNamee, 2011). The implementation of
effective learning should not be on the
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