Teacher autonomy: how does it relate to job satisfaction and retention? - Jack Worth and Jens Van den Brande - ERIC
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Teacher autonomy: how does it relate to job satisfaction and retention? Jack Worth and Jens Van den Brande
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful for the support of the We also thank the Institute of Physics for hosting
Teacher Development Trust, who arranged the roundtable, and the participants for attending
the practitioner focus group and contributed and giving us their feedback on the research,
their knowledge of teacher professional from: the Department for Education, Ofsted,
development to the project. We thank the NAHT, National Education Union, NASUWT,
teachers and senior leaders who participated in Chartered College of Teaching, National
the focus group very much for giving up their Association of School-Based Teacher Trainers
time to give their feedback on the research. (NASBTT), Confederation of School Trusts and
Ambition Institute.
Published in January 2020 by: In partnership with the Teacher Development Trust.
National Foundation for Educational Research
The Mere, Upton Park, Slough SL1 2DQ
www.nfer.ac.uk
© 2020 National Foundation for Educational Research
Registered Charity No. 313392
ISBN: 978-1-911039-98-3
How to cite this publication:
Worth, J. and Van den Brande, J. (2020) Teacher
autonomy: how does it relate to job satisfaction and
retention? Slough: NFER.
02 www.nfer.ac.uk
Overview
Retaining more teachers is crucial for the education system when there are not
enough teachers coming in to the profession to meet the growing need from rising
pupil numbers. Unmanageable workload and low job satisfaction are significant
factors determining teachers’ decision to stay in the profession or leave.
Our research is the first large-scale quantitative School leaders and the Department for Education
study to look at teacher autonomy and its should consider how to adapt policy and
importance for retention in England. We find practice to harness the benefits of teachers
that teacher autonomy is strongly correlated having greater involvement in their professional
with job satisfaction, perceptions of workload development goal‑setting and making decisions
manageability and intention to stay in the more widely.
profession. We also find that the average teacher
has a lower level of autonomy compared to
similar professionals.
Teachers’ autonomy over their professional
development goal-setting is particularly low,
and is the most associated with higher job
satisfaction. Increasing teachers’ autonomy,
particularly over their professional development
goals, therefore has great potential for
improving teacher job satisfaction and retention.
www.nfer.ac.uk 03Key findings Recommendations
zz Teachers are 16 percentage points less likely zz Teacher autonomy is strongly associated
than similar professionals to report having ‘a with improved job satisfaction and a greater School leaders
lot’ of influence over how they do their job intention to stay in teaching
School leaders should consider
The average teacher in England also reports While correlation does not necessarily imply incorporating a teacher autonomy
a lower level of autonomy over what tasks a causal relationship, these associations lens to regular reviews of teaching
they do, the order in which they carry strongly suggest that teacher autonomy is and learning policies.
out tasks, the pace at which they work an important influence on job satisfaction
and their working hours, compared to and retention. Teacher autonomy is also School leaders should explore
similar professionals. strongly associated with workload being how teachers can be meaningfully
more manageable, but is not associated with involved and engaged in the way
zz 38 per cent of teachers say that they working hours. the school defines its organisational
have ‘a little’ or ‘no’ influence over their development priorities and makes
professional development goals zz Increasing teachers’ reported influence over decisions more widely.
their professional development (PD) goals
Teachers also report relatively low autonomy from ‘some’ to ‘a lot’ is associated with a
over assessment and feedback, pupil data nine‑percentage‑point increase in intention
collection and curriculum content in their to stay in teaching
phase or subject. Teachers report relatively Department for Education (DfE)
high autonomy in areas associated with This presents a significant opportunity for
classroom management and practice, such school leaders to consider how they design The DfE should produce guidance
as classroom layout, teaching methods, and deliver PD in their schools, harnessing around the Teacher CPD Standards to
planning and preparing lessons, use of the benefits of increased motivation from emphasise how teachers can be given
classroom time and rules for behaviour. teachers having greater involvement in their greater involvement in designing
PD goal‑setting. content, processes and goals.
zz Teacher autonomy is lower among early
career teachers and higher among The DfE should embed the principles
senior leaders of teacher autonomy into the
implementation of the Early
In general, teachers who stay in the Career Framework. When rolled
classroom after their first five years do not out, the framework should act as
experience increased autonomy as their a ‘menu’ for early‑career teachers’
careers progress and are likely to only if they professional development, rather than
enter leadership roles. a ‘prescription’.
04 www.nfer.ac.ukAbout this research
Aims of the research zz How has teachers’ professional autonomy We compare state‑sector teachers in England
changed over time? to individuals in other professional occupations
England’s school system faces a substantial with similar characteristics and measure how
and growing challenge of ensuring there are zz Does a greater sense of professional autonomy has changed over time, as the survey
sufficient numbers of high-quality teachers autonomy relate to higher job satisfaction has regularly included questions on autonomy
employed in schools. At a time when and retention in teaching? since 2009 (see the methodology appendix for
recruitment to secondary teacher training is further details).
below the required level, retaining teachers in zz In which aspects of their practice do
the profession plays a pivotal role in teacher teachers feel they have least and most Second, we analyse data from NFER’s
supply. The proportion of working‑age autonomy over? nationally representative Teacher Voice survey.
teachers leaving the profession has risen In March 2019, we asked a sample of state-sector
from 5.8 per cent in 2011 to 8.3 per cent in 2018. In the light of our findings, we draw out the teachers and middle leaders in England about
implications for policy and practice and their autonomy in specific areas of classroom
Our previous research has demonstrated that make recommendations for school leaders practice, as well as their job satisfaction and
teachers’ engagement and job satisfaction are and policymakers. intention to leave teaching. Asking about
key factors explaining why many teachers leave teachers’ perceived influence over different
the profession (Lynch et al., 2016; Worth et al., Data and methodology aspects of their practice gives greater insight
2018). Previous research has drawn a strong link into the nuance of teachers’ sense of their
between autonomy and job satisfaction in many We explore teachers’ professional autonomy professional autonomy. It also helps identify
occupations. Our research is the first large-scale using data from two surveys. the areas of teachers’ practice where extending
quantitative study in England to look at teacher their autonomy is likely to be most effective for
autonomy1 and its importance for retention. First, we analyse data from the UK Household improving teacher satisfaction and retention.
Longitudinal Study (UKHLS), which is also
We aim to answer these five research questions: known as Understanding Society (University Further detail on the data and methodology used
of Essex, et al., 2018). The household survey in this report is in the methodology appendix.
zz How does teacher autonomy compare to asks respondents about their self-reported
those in other professional occupations? work‑related autonomy, as well as other aspects
of their work such as job satisfaction and
zz How does teacher autonomy differ between working hours.
types of teachers and schools?
1 By autonomy, we mean the capacity to make informed decisions and/or act independently. The term ‘agency’ is also used in the research literature to refer to a similar, although
not identical, concept. Another occasionally used term is ‘job control’ (see for example, Bryson et al., 2019). We use the term ‘autonomy’, following the convention used by
self‑determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2008) and the Taylor Review of Modern Working Practices (HM Government, 2018).
www.nfer.ac.uk 05Autonomy plays an important role in teachers’ motivation
and professionalism
One of the most important challenges facing Deci and Ryan outline three basic psychological
any employer or leader is deciding how best to needs that underpin intrinsic motivation: Competence Autonomy Relatedness
create working conditions that maximise staff
motivation to perform well in their role. This zz Competence – skills to perform well in
challenge is easier where staff are intrinsically one’s job
motivated to perform well at what leaders want
them to achieve. However, some degree of zz Autonomy – direction over one’s own
direction is always necessary and staff being decisions and actions
Intrinsic motivation
extrinsically motivated is where leaders enforce
their direction through some form of regulation, zz Relatedness – connection with, and support
control or reward/ punishment system. from, colleagues.
Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, The theory suggests that these needs are
2008) provides a theoretical framework for interdependent. In other words, intrinsic Satisfaction and retention
understanding motivation and its implications motivation is likely to increase more if you
for staff. The theory hypothesises that while have all three (competence, autonomy and
both forms of motivation can drive job relatedness) at the same time. One implication Job performance
performance, they have different implications of this interdependence is that too much
for staff well-being and job satisfaction. autonomy for novices risks overwhelming Burnout and stress
Staff working in conditions that emphasise them, as they are early in the process of
a greater reliance on intrinsic motivation establishing their competence and forming
are thought to be more likely to have high working relationships.
well‑being and job satisfaction, and be more
likely to stay. Conversely, greater reliance This theory of motivation underlies our interest
on extrinsic motivation is thought to risk in the professional autonomy of teachers and Extrinsic motivation
undermining staff members’ sense of feeling our findings support the theory that there is
trusted and their own intrinsic motivation, a positive relationship between autonomy,
potentially leading to disengagement, burnout job satisfaction and retention.
and leaving.
Regulation Rewards
06 www.nfer.ac.ukThere is limited existing evidence on teacher autonomy and
its importance for retention in England
The existing base of large-scale quantitative Teachers in England’s secondary schools are However, teachers in independent schools were
evidence on our research questions on teacher characterised as having an above-average more likely to say they had the autonomy they
autonomy, especially focusing on England, is level of autonomy, with several countries such needed, and teachers in schools rated requires
very limited. This study is, to our knowledge, as Estonia, Italy, Iceland, Czech Republic and improvement or inadequate by Ofsted less likely.
the first to provide large-scale quantitative Denmark having higher levels.
evidence on the self-reported autonomy of Filling the evidence gap
England’s teachers and answers to the research However, the autonomy measure is based on
questions we identify. We summarise some of headteachers’ perceptions of teachers’ exertion We aim to fill the significant evidence gap in
the previous research that relates to our study. of decision-making authority. This may not be quantitative research on teacher autonomy in
a reliable guide to how teachers themselves England. The next sections of the report present
Existing quantitative research feel about their influence over their own work. our findings and draw out the implications for
Indeed, England’s secondary teachers had the school leaders and policymakers.
Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2014) measure lowest level of agreement with the statement “this
work‑related autonomy among Norwegian school provides staff with opportunities to actively Proportion of lower secondary school teachers agreeing
teachers and find a positive association between participate in school decisions” among all the that their school provides staff with opportunities to
perceived autonomy and job satisfaction, and countries that took part in TALIS 2013 (see chart, actively participate in school decisions (%)
a negative association between autonomy comparing England and selected countries).
Norway 83
and burnout. This confirms the theoretical
prediction that autonomy is associated with The 2013 TALIS survey included an England‑only Estonia 83
positive teacher outcomes. Other studies have question on teachers’ autonomy. Teachers in Alberta (Canada) 81
also demonstrated this relationship with positive lower secondary schools were asked their Japan 76
outcomes among UK workers more generally extent of agreement with the statement: “I do
Finland 75
(for example, Wheatley (2017), which uses the not have the autonomy I need to do a good
same UKHLS-based measures as in this study). job as a teacher.” Seven out of ten teachers Singapore 75
(71 per cent) disagreed or strongly disagreed, Netherlands 71
The OECD conceptualises teacher professionalism implying that they do have the autonomy they Australia 64
similarly to self-determination theory, as need to do a good job (Micklewright et al., 2014).
England 57
encompassing a teacher’s knowledge base,
peer networks and autonomy. The OECD’s The responses did not differ substantially 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
report on teacher professionalism presents by teacher gender, age, subject or type of
Source: OECD Teaching and Learning International
cross-country data on all three domains state‑funded school.
Survey (TALIS) 2013
from the 2013 OECD Teaching and Learning
International Survey (TALIS) (OECD, 2016).
www.nfer.ac.uk 07Teachers have a lower level of professional autonomy compared to
other professions
Using data from the UKHLS, we compare We find that teachers report a lower level of Overall the average teacher has a lower level
the self-reported autonomy of teachers autonomy over their working hours relative of autonomy for every aspect of work that
with a group of individuals in professional to similar professionals: half of teachers is measured by the survey, compared to
occupations (including scientists, researchers, report having no autonomy, compared to only similar professionals. All the differences are
engineers, doctors, nurses, lawyers, librarians) 15 per cent of similar professionals. This is statistically significant. The autonomy gap
to benchmark teaching within a wider to be expected, given the set term times and between teachers and other professionals
context. We adjust the composition of age, school hours when teachers are required to be (the likelihood of reporting ‘a lot’ of influence) is:
gender, region and highest qualification in the teaching. In contrast, more than half of teachers
group of professionals to ensure that these report that they have ‘a lot’ or ‘some’ autonomy zz 19 percentage points over the pace at which
characteristics are as similar as possible to the over the pace of their work, job tasks, task they work (work pace)
group of teachers (see appendix for details). order and work manner.
zz 12 percentage points over what tasks they do
In your current job, how much influence do you have over your ... (proportion of respondents, %) (job tasks)
Work Professionals 2 7 28 62 zz 20 percentage points over the order in which
manner Teachers 2 12 40 46 they carry out tasks (task order)
Professionals 2 6 27 64
Task zz 16 percentage points over how they do their
order Teachers 4 15 37 44 job (work manner).
Job Professionals 7 13 36 44
tasks
Teacher autonomy is likely to be influenced, at
Teachers 8 18 42 32
least in part, directly by the nature of the job
Professionals 7 13 33 47 of teaching. However, we should be cautious
Work
pace Teachers 14 23 35 28
about interpreting the findings as the impact
of the teaching job, because the comparisons
Work Professionals 15 18 31 36 presented here may also reflect other
hours Teachers 51 23 17 9 underlying differences between those who go
into teaching and those who do not.
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
None A little Some A lot
Source: NFER analysis of UKHLS data
08 www.nfer.ac.ukAmong professionals, only health professionals report less autonomy
than state-sector teachers
Comparing teachers to the overall average for Comparing average autonomy among teachers and other professionals in the public and private sectors
other professions masks variation between (1 = ‘none, 4= ‘a lot’)
occupations within the group of professional
occupations. The data shows that there is Business and statistical professionals
considerable variation in autonomy between
Librarians and related professionals
different occupations groups.
Research professionals
However, it confirms that the level of autonomy Information and communication technology
among state-sector teachers is relatively Engineering professionals
low: only state-sector health professionals Legal professionals
(which includes doctors, nurses and other Architects, town planners, surveyors
medical professions) have a lower average Science professionals
autonomy level. Public service professionals Public service professionals
(i.e. civil servants) have a similar autonomy level
Teachers
to teachers. Among both public-sector teachers
Health professionals
and health professionals, their private-sector
counterparts report a slightly higher autonomy
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
level (though the differences are small).
Public sector Private sector
The autonomy gap between teachers and other
professionals in the four areas that are not Note: combined autonomy measure, based on the average reported autonomy across work pace, job tasks, task order
related to working hours may, at least in part, and work manner. We exclude autonomy over working hours from this measure due to the different circumstances of
reflect structural differences that are unique to teachers compared to other professionals.
Source: NFER analysis of UKHLS data
teaching. The nature of teaching and national
or school-imposed curriculum requirements
may impose constraints on teachers’ influence
over their job tasks, task order and work However, there is considerable variation
pace that do not apply in the same way in between individuals within teaching, implying
other professions (although there are also that there is scope for the profession as a whole
specialist requirements that are specific to to increase autonomy, even in the absence of
other professions). major changes to the structure of teaching.
www.nfer.ac.uk 09The teacher autonomy gap compared to other professions
is a long‑standing one
The overall findings so far are based on Comparing levels of autonomy among teachers and other professionals for aspects of work across four biennial surveys,
averages across the four survey waves in which showing proportion reporting ‘a lot’ of autonomy (%)
these questions featured: every two years
between 2010–11 and 2016–17. We find that the 100
level of professional autonomy among both
teachers and similar professionals has not
changed significantly during this period from 80
2010–11 to 2016–17.
The size of the autonomy gap between teachers 60
and other professionals is a long-standing
one, not one that has emerged recently.
This suggests that teacher autonomy in 40
England has not been significantly affected
by policy changes since 2010. For example, the
increase in school autonomy since 2010 through 20
the growth of academy schools does not seem
to have resulted in any changes to the overall
levels of teacher autonomy. 0
2010–11
2012–13
2014–15
2016–17
2010–11
2012–13
2014–15
2016–17
2010–11
2012–13
2014–15
2016–17
2010–11
2012–13
2014–15
2016–17
2010–11
2012–13
2014–15
2016–17
The most notable change over time is the
steady fall in the proportion of teachers
reporting that they have ‘a lot’ of influence over Working hours Work pace Job tasks Task order Work manner
how they do their work (work manner) between Teachers Similar professionals
2010–11 and 2016–17. The five-percentage point
change is not statistically significant, but it Source: NFER analysis of UKHLS data
could represent an emerging downward trend
that will continue in the future.
NFER will track the future trends for teachers
and similar professionals when the next
set of data, covering 2018–19, is released in
November 2020.
10 www.nfer.ac.ukTeacher autonomy does not increase with age/experience,
as in other professions
Self-determination theory predicts that The Teacher Voice data (see next page Comparing average levels of autonomy among teachers
autonomy grows with experience, as people for details) provides further evidence that in non‑managerial roles with those in ‘manager’ or
become more competent, respected and trusted autonomy remains at a similar level over a ‘supervisor’ roles, by age group (1 = ‘none, 4= ‘a lot’)
throughout their career. However, we find that classroom teacher’s career, except for the first 4.0
for teachers in non-managerial roles there is a few years. The data shows that teachers with
3.5
slightly decreasing relationship between age 2 fewer than six years of experience have lower
and autonomy. Teachers in a ‘manager’ or autonomy compared to teachers with more 3.0
‘supervisor’ role3 have higher average autonomy experience.4 There are no significant differences
2.5
than teachers in non‑managerial roles. in the average level of autonomy among
teachers with more years of experience. 2.0
20–29
30–39
40–49
50–59
20–29
30–39
40–49
50–59
This is in contrast to those in other professions,
Age
for whom autonomy increases between their This suggests that, in general, teachers who
20s and 30s, even for those who do not stay in the classroom after their first five years
Teachers Similar professionals
enter management roles (where autonomy do not experience increased autonomy as their
is also higher than in non‑managerial roles). careers progress and are likely to only if they Manager/supervisor Non-managerial
Our analysis shows that teachers and other enter leadership roles.
Source: UKHLS data
professionals in non‑managerial roles in
their 20s have similar levels of autonomy,
but that teachers have lower average
autonomy at all other ages, in both managerial Difference in autonomy associated with experience
and non‑managerial roles, compared to
similar professionals. 0–5 years
6–10 years
11–15 years (reference)
16–20 years
More than 20 years
2 A proxy for experience, which is not measured directly in the UKHLS. -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
3 A proxy that is likely to identify middle and senior leaders.
4 After accounting for other teacher (gender) and school (phase, Ofsted rating, school type) characteristics. Source: NFER analysis of Teacher Voice data
www.nfer.ac.uk 11Over which areas of their work do teachers report having
the most autonomy?
The UKHLS autonomy measures on which In general, how much influence do you have over the following in your job? (%)
the previous sections are based are useful for
understanding teachers’ level of autonomy How your classroom is physically laid out 8 9 18 65
relative to other professions. However, the What teaching methods or strategies you use 2 11 32 55
measures provide only limited insight into the
How you prepare your lessons/ schemes of work 4 13 29 54
detail of teacher autonomy because the survey
questions are worded generically. We wanted to How you plan your lessons/ schemes of work 5 12 30 52
look further into the detail of teacher autonomy, How the use of time in your classroom is scheduled 8 19 30 43
so we asked teachers and middle leaders What the standards and rules for behaviour in your classroom are 7 17 35 40
questions about their autonomy over 12 aspects How often you provide feedback to your pupils 13 20 34 33
of their work in NFER’s Teacher Voice survey.
How you a ssess pupils’ l earning to your i nform teaching 10 23 36 31
We find that autonomy varies considerably How you provide feedback to your pupils 10 22 39 29
between these different areas of teachers’ work. The content of the curriculum in your phase/ subject 18 21 35 26
Teachers report relatively high autonomy in areas Your professional development goals 10 28 39 23
associated with classroom management and Wha t da ta you collect on pupils’ attainment 33 29 26 12
practice such as classroom layout (65 per cent
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
reporting ‘a lot’ of influence), teaching methods
(55 per cent), planning and preparing lessons
None A little Some A lot
(54 and 52 per cent, respectively), use of
classroom time (43 per cent) and rules for Source: NFER analysis of Teacher Voice data
behaviour (40 per cent).
Teachers report lower autonomy over assessment Teachers also report low levels of autonomy Teachers report a low level of autonomy over
and feedback (between 29 and 33 per cent) over curriculum content in their phase or their professional development goals. A quarter
and pupil data collection (12 per cent). subject (26 per cent). Schools in England have, (23 per cent) report having ‘a lot’ of influence
Most schools have policies covering their since the introduction of the National Curriculum, and 38 per cent report ‘a little’ or ‘none’.
expectations in this area, which direct teachers standardised their curriculum offer across This may include some teachers interpreting the
to some extent. teachers, and typically senior teaching staff, question as relating to performance appraisal
especially subject/phase leaders, have most goals. Nonetheless, it is interesting that a
influence over changes to curriculum content. substantial proportion of teachers report having
little direction over how they intend to improve
their practice and grow as professionals in future.
12 www.nfer.ac.ukTeacher autonomy is lower in School Trusts, particularly those with
more than ten schools
We also analyse the Teacher Voice data to Difference in autonomy associated with school characteristic (compared to reference group)
explore the variation in teacher autonomy
between different school types. We combine
Primary
the 12 autonomy items into a single scale, and School
confirm its reliability using factor analysis phase
Secondary (reference)
(see methodology appendix for details).
Maintained (reference)
We find that autonomy is significantly lower
for teachers in small (2–10 schools) and large School
Single-academy trusts
(more than 10 schools) School Trusts, compared type
Small School Trusts (2–10 schools)
to local authority maintained schools. 5
Large School Trusts (11+ schools)
This may be linked to Trusts standardising
or aligning practices across schools as they Outstanding
develop, although the approach to, and extent of,
Ofsted
standardisation/alignment differs considerably rating
Good (reference)
by Trust (Finch et al., 2016; Greany, 2018). Teacher
autonomy is also likely to vary between Trusts Requires Improvement/Inadequate
with different operating models, although our -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
sample size is not sufficient to explore this further.
Source: NFER analysis of Teacher Voice data
Teachers in schools with Requires Improvement or
Inadequate Ofsted ratings have lower autonomy It is challenging to interpret this finding from Teachers in primary schools report very slightly
compared to schools rated Good, although the this data alone: some may see this as evidence lower autonomy than teachers in secondary
difference is not statistically significant. Senior of a necessary step on the path to school schools, but the difference is not statistically
leaders in these schools are under greater improvement, whereas others may see it as significant. Small sample sizes of teachers
pressure to make rapid improvements, which may the negative consequences of high‑stakes in different types of school limit the insights
be associated with less autonomy for teachers accountability on teachers. possible for this analysis, and future research
as a result of the measures implemented. should explore autonomy differences across
school types using larger sample sizes.
5 Confidence intervals are shown to demonstrate the level of uncertainty around the results. If the confidence interval does not overlap the axis, then the average difference between
the specified group and the reference group is statistically significant. Differences after accounting for other teacher (gender, experience) and school (phase, Ofsted rating) factors.
www.nfer.ac.uk 13Autonomy is strongly associated with higher teacher job satisfaction
and retention
Our analysis of both UKHLS and Teacher Voice Teachers’ stated intentions that they are Comparing teachers’ autonomy levels (1 = ‘none’, 4= ‘a lot’)
data confirms that there is a positive relationship considering leaving are not the same as their with proportion reporting low job satisfaction (%)
between autonomy and job satisfaction for actions (Worth et al., 2015). Nonetheless, a stated
60
teachers, as Deci and Ryan’s self‑determination intention to leave is likely to be associated
theory suggests. Around four in ten of the small with an increased risk of leaving in the short or
Low job satisfaction
number of teachers with the lowest autonomy medium term, so can be regarded as a proxy
40
report low job satisfaction, compared to less for teacher retention. Future research should
than one in ten among those with the highest explore the relationship between autonomy and
autonomy. Our analysis also finds that greater retention outcomes to confirm this.
teacher autonomy is associated with lower 20
job‑related stress (see chart in the appendix). While correlation does not necessarily imply
a causal relationship, 6 these associations
Job satisfaction is an important factor associated strongly suggest that teacher autonomy is 0
1 2 3 4
with teachers’ intentions and decisions to an important influence on job satisfaction Autonomy
stay in the profession (Lynch et al., 2016; and retention.
Worth et al., 2018). Our analysis finds that Source: NFER analysis of Understanding Society data
autonomy is also strongly correlated with the
proportion of classroom teachers intending to Comparing teachers’ autonomy levels with proportion
stay in the profession in the next 12 months. intending to stay teaching in the next 12 months (%)
Only around half of those with the lowest
100
autonomy are intending to stay in teaching
Intending to stay teaching
in the short term, compared to more than
80
85 per cent of those with the highest autonomy.
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4
Autonomy
6 It may be that, for example, teachers recognised for their competence feel more satisfied and are also given more autonomy,
but the increased satisfaction comes from feelings of competence and recognition and not directly from the autonomy. Source: NFER analysis of Teacher Voice data
14 www.nfer.ac.ukAutonomy is associated with workload manageability, but not with
working hours
Workload is consistently the most‑cited reason We find that teacher autonomy is strongly Comparing teachers’ autonomy levels (1 = ‘none’, 4= ‘a lot’)
ex-teachers give for why they left the profession related to the extent to which teachers regard with proportion regarding their workload as manageable (%)
(Lynch et al., 2016; DfE, 2017). Workload is often their workload as manageable. Although fewer
60
conceptualised simply as the number of hours than half of teachers at all autonomy levels
Workload manageable
teachers work, but “it is also about teachers say their workload is manageable, nearly half
feeling in control of their work” (DfE, 2019). of teachers with the highest autonomy report
40
Research by Sims (2017) found a relationship having a manageable workload compared to
between the extent to which a teacher less than one in five of those with the lowest
regards their workload as manageable and autonomy. Autonomy also correlates with
job satisfaction, but no relationship between teachers’ satisfaction with their amount of 20
working hours and job satisfaction. leisure time.
Our analysis of teacher autonomy echoes these However, teacher autonomy is unrelated to the 0
1 2 3 4
findings, suggesting that autonomy is a key number of hours teachers work. Regardless Autonomy
part of the relationship between unmanageable of their level of autonomy, full‑time teachers
workload, job satisfaction and retention. work around 50 hours per week on average Source: NFER analysis of Understanding Society data
during a typical working week. This suggests
that increased autonomy may enable teachers Comparing teachers’ autonomy levels with the average
to adapt what tasks they do and how they do number of hours they work per week.
them to manage their overall workload in a
more acceptable way, rather than resulting in 60
them reducing their working hours.
Working hours
40
20
0
1 2 3 4
Autonomy
Source: NFER analysis of Teacher Voice data
www.nfer.ac.uk 15Teachers’ autonomy over their professional development goals
is most associated with higher job satisfaction
Finding a strong association between teacher Change in job satisfaction associated with a one-point increase in autonomy (e.g. ‘some’ to ‘a lot’)
autonomy and their job satisfaction and retention
suggests that increasing autonomy may
Your professional development goals
increase satisfaction and retention. To inform
What the standards and rules for behaviour in your classroom are
policymakers and school leaders on how
they can best harness autonomy to improve How you prepare your lessons/schemes of work
teacher satisfaction and retention, we explore How the use of time in your classroom is scheduled
the nuances behind which areas of teachers’ How you provide feedback to your pupils
work are most associated with positive teacher How you plan your lessons/schemes of work
outcomes. We explore this through statistical How you assess pupils’ learning to your inform teaching
analysis of the Teacher Voice data, identifying the What teaching methods or strategies you use
extent to which changes in each autonomy area
The content of the curriculum in your phase/subject
are independently associated with changes in job
How often you provide feedback to your pupils
satisfaction and intention to stay in teaching.7
What data you collect on pupils’ attainment
We find that teachers’ autonomy over their How your classroom is physically laid out
professional development goals is the most -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
associated with higher job satisfaction.
We also find that a one point increase Source: NFER analysis of Teacher Voice data
(e.g., changing from ‘some’ influence to
‘a lot’) in influence over teachers’ professional Teachers’ autonomy over the standards and These findings suggest that increasing
development goals is associated with a nine rules for classroom behaviour is the only other teachers’ autonomy over their professional
percentage point increase in their intention to area that has a statistically significant association development goals has the greatest potential
stay in teaching (see chart in the appendix). with job satisfaction and intention to stay in for increasing teacher job satisfaction
teaching, over and above changes in other areas and retention.
We find above that teachers’ reported of autonomy. While most autonomy areas have a
autonomy over their professional development slightly positive association with job satisfaction,
goals is relatively low, which suggests there is none of the other areas are individually
plenty of scope for it to increase. associated with higher teacher satisfaction or
retention with statistical significance.
7 Differences are after accounting for other teacher (gender, experience) and school (phase, type, Ofsted rating) factors. Confidence intervals are shown to demonstrate the level of
uncertainty around the results. If the confidence interval does not overlap the axis, then the average difference between the specified group and the reference group is statistically significant.
16 www.nfer.ac.ukSchool leaders can harness teacher autonomy to benefit
both pupils and staff
Our analysis establishes a relationship between As an extreme case, authoritatively establishing Behaviour policy is a good example. The research
teachers’ autonomy and their satisfaction and conformity can lead to a lack of motivation evidence highlights the importance of consistent
retention. However, this is only one part of the as teachers have little autonomy. While good enforcement of behavioural expectations for
picture for school leaders, who are responsible for outcomes for pupils might be achieved in pupils coupled with visible support from senior
ensuring the school operates with the necessary the short term, it may lead to higher staff leaders (Kraft and Papay, 2014; Bennett, 2017).
coherence to deliver good pupil outcomes. turnover and greater medium‑term challenges. However, staff may regard a behaviour policy
In another extreme case, high autonomy without as restrictive if leaders enforce the use of overly
School leaders can and should shape what alignment could lead to a chaotic culture in rigid or poorly explained behaviour routines.
teachers do to some extent and this can involve which all staff are experimenting. This may also
balancing autonomy and alignment. But saying be a demotivating environment as there is no Teachers in situations where the routine set out
there is a trade‑off risks framing the dilemma common cause or coherent approach. by the school’s behaviour policy conflicts with
as a straight choice between high alignment/ what they regard as a different approach for
low autonomy and low alignment/high autonomy, The ideal is therefore to combine high an individual pupil with a particular need are
or somewhere in the middle. This need not autonomy with coherence and alignment, likely to feel frustrated. This may partly explain
always be the case and effective leadership can where possible, to maximise the benefits that our finding that more teacher autonomy over
combine high alignment with high autonomy. flow from both. Such an approach needs to be standards and rules of classroom behaviour is
underpinned by both a compelling overarching associated with higher job satisfaction.
The diagram opposite is adapted from the vision and meaningful staff involvement and
Dixons Academies Trust ‘aligned autonomy’ engagement, to ensure their buy‑in. The Bennett Review of school behaviour
approach, which Executive Principal recommends that the most successful schools
Luke Sparkes describes as “the optimal balance combine consistent practices and detailed
Low autonomy High autonomy
between consistency and self‑determination” expectations (alignment) with staff engagement
(Sparkes, 2019). The article discusses the balance High alignment Authoritative Innovative
and clarity of culture (negotiating and establishing
between school autonomy and consistency conformity collaboration where professional judgement sits). School
within a Trust, but the same principles can be leaders can combine all these features to ensure
applied to teachers within a school or a Trust. Low alignment Micromanaged Chaotic that teachers feel able to apply their professional
indifference experimentation autonomy appropriately, while expectations of
pupil behaviour are consistently high.
Adapted from Sparkes (2019).
The Teacher Development Trust support
resource gives further guidance for leaders on
balancing autonomy and alignment.
www.nfer.ac.uk 17Greater teacher involvement in professional development goal‑setting
can improve their motivation
We find that teachers’ perceived autonomy These findings suggest that school leaders need
over their professional development (PD) goals 8 to think, in particular about helping teachers see
has the greatest association with improved the relevance of PD to their individual needs,
satisfaction and intention to stay in teaching. their pupils’ needs and the wider organisational
This presents a significant opportunity for goals. It suggests a benefit in involving teachers
school leaders to consider how they design in choosing goals, albeit not necessarily giving
and deliver PD in their schools, harnessing them total control, and ensuring that teachers ““ People are more likely to engage
the benefits of increased motivation from can have some autonomy in how they choose if they feel it is an area they need
teachers having greater involvement in their to meet these goals. to develop. We have had times
PD goal‑setting. where we have had whole school
The Teacher Development Trust support CPD delivered and people just
Autonomy over professional development goals resource for school leaders that accompanies switch off, they are not interested
does not necessarily mean teachers having this report develops these ideas and because they don’t feel it is
total freedom to choose their PD goals and suggestions further. relevant to their area of practice. ”
activities. Indeed, there is mixed evidence about
whether complete choice is effective. While Practitioner focus group member
Kennedy (2016) and Mandaag, et al. (2016) (leader of CPD provision)
interpreted their systematic reviews as giving
evidence for teacher choice to participate in PD
being associated with greater impact on pupil
attainment, Cordingley et al. (2015) suggested
that being a volunteer or conscript was not as
important as other factors, including whether
“teachers understood the relevance of their
CPD to wider activities”.
8 We use the term ‘professional development’ to mean activities that teachers engage in to develop and enhance their teaching abilities, after having completed initial teacher training or
education. The research literature uses a range of terms with subtle differences in definition, such as continuing professional development (CPD), professional learning (PL). We use PD
as a catchall term for these concepts, as the subtle distinctions between the various terms are not relevant for interpreting these findings.
18 www.nfer.ac.ukRecommendations for school leaders and policymakers
School leaders Department for Education (DfE)
School leaders should consider The DfE should produce guidance DfE should continue delivering on its
incorporating a teacher autonomy around the Standards for teachers’ objective to develop specialist national
lens to regular reviews of teaching professional development to emphasise professional qualifications.
and learning policies. how teachers can be given greater
involvement in designing content, Formal professional development
These reviews should cover both the processes and goals. opportunities like NPQs have tended to
written policies and, more importantly, focus on training for leadership roles.
the culture around how they are The DfE should embed the principles In its recruitment and retention strategy,
enacted in practice. Reviewing the of teacher autonomy into the the DfE committed to developing
school’s approach to the design and implementation of the Early Career “specialist qualifications to support
delivery of professional development Framework (ECF). clearer non-leadership career pathways
should be a priority. Within that, for teachers that want to stay and excel
reviewing the extent to which teachers The framework sets out ‘what early career in the classroom” (DfE, 2019). Specialist
feel that professional development is teachers should be entitled to learn qualifications could offer teachers a wider
relevant and that they have input into about’. When rolled out, the framework range of development options that meet
the design and content is key. should act as a ‘menu’ for early-career their development needs.
teachers’ professional development,
School leaders should explore rather than a ‘prescription’.
how teachers can be meaningfully
involved and engaged in the way The role of the mentor will be important
the school defines its organisational in ensuring this, by helping teachers to
development priorities and makes identify their top development needs.
decisions more widely. The ECF’s successful implementation ““ People seem to think that the only
depends to a great extent on how CPD route that is available to them
teachers and their mentors see the is to get on that leadership track
relevance of the professional development to headteacher. And actually most
they undertake to their practice. people don’t want that and that
isn’t right for them. ”
Practitioner focus group member
(Leader of CPD in a School Trust)
www.nfer.ac.uk 19Opportunities for future research
This report presents new evidence on teacher Getting the right balance between alignment Future research could explore the extent to
autonomy in England that answers several and autonomy at multiple levels (Trust, school, which greater teacher involvement in all forms
important research questions. However, the subject/phase, teacher) is an important issue for of goal‑setting (performance, development
datasets used cannot answer every research leaders of School Trusts as the system develops. and organisational) are associated with positive
question on this topic, so important questions Future research should explore how autonomy is outcomes for teachers.
remain unanswered. We set out a few of the (and is perceived to be) distributed at different
key outstanding questions for future research levels within School Trusts, and how this differs
to explore. between Trusts with different operating models. OECD 2018 TALIS study
Behaviour policies in schools Interactions between autonomy, The 2018 TALIS survey presents a valuable
competence and relatedness opportunity for further research to explore
We find that teacher autonomy over the teacher autonomy in England. Conducted in
standards and rules for classroom behaviour Our data did not measure teacher competence primary and secondary schools in England
has a statistically significant association or their sense of relatedness, which could more and more than 40 countries internationally,
with job satisfaction and intention to stay in formally test the predictions of Deci and Ryan’s TALIS includes a set of international
teaching, over and above changes in other self‑determination theory for teachers in England. questions on teacher self-reported autonomy
areas of autonomy. These findings potentially For example, are the benefits of increasing over aspects of classroom practice, which
contradict the findings of previous research, autonomy different for teachers with high or will be released in March 2020.
which highlights the importance of consistent low competence or teachers in schools with
enforcement of behaviour policies. However, as supportive colleagues and a collaborative culture? Research using this TALIS data could explore:
discussed above, autonomy and consistency are
not necessarily contradictory. Future research Teacher goal‑setting, appraisal and zz the association between autonomy and
should explore how behaviour policies are performance management actual, rather than stated, retention
implemented in schools in greater detail, to outcomes
understand the nuance of these findings. Teachers’ professional development goal‑setting
often takes place as part of a performance zz variation in autonomy within and
Autonomy in School Trusts appraisal and objective‑setting process. between different schools
Applying the insights from this research study
Our research finds that autonomy is lower in to a more detailed exploration of the role of zz comparing autonomy in England with
School Trusts, particularly Trusts with 10 or teachers in their own performance management other countries
more schools. Teacher autonomy is likely to process in schools could provide useful
vary between Trusts with different operating insights for school leaders. This is particularly zz interactions between autonomy,
models. The sample sizes in our data are not the case since the widespread adoption of self‑efficacy and other aspects of
sufficient to explore this in detail. performance‑related pay for teachers in school culture.
England (Sharp et al., 2017).
20 www.nfer.ac.ukMethodology
appendix Datasets and measures used in the analysis
UK Household Longitudinal Survey Measures
Data The autonomy questions we use in the analysis
are: “In your current job, how much influence do
The UK Household Longitudinal Survey (UKHLS), you have over ...”
also known as Understanding Society, is the
largest longitudinal household survey in the zz The time you start or finish your working day
UK, based on a sample of 40,000 households (working hours)
(University of Essex, 2018). The survey contains zz The pace at which you work (work pace)
extensive data on individuals’ employment, zz What tasks you do in your job (job tasks)
education, family life, health and well‑being, as zz The order in which you carry out task
well as linking to the characteristics of other (task order)
individuals within the household. zz How you do your work (work manner)
We identify 1,243 individuals who were teachers The response options were ‘none’, ‘a little’,
in a school in England’s state sector at some ‘some’ and ‘a lot’.
point across the eight waves of data. We define
teachers as individuals whose main job is Other survey questions we use include:
teaching in an English state‑funded school, by
looking at the industry in which each individual zz Job satisfaction: “On a scale of 1 to 7,
works, their occupation, their country of work, where 1 means ‘Completely dissatisfied’
and whether they work in the public sector. and 7 means ‘Completely satisfied’, how
dissatisfied or satisfied are you with your
In four waves of the survey (waves 2, 4, 6, present job overall?”
and 8), employed individuals were asked
questions about their work‑related autonomy. zz Satisfaction with life overall, health and
These questions form the basis of our analysis of amount of leisure time: “On a scale of 1
teacher autonomy in the UKHLS. We compare to 7, where 1 = ‘Completely dissatisfied’
teachers to individuals in professional and 7 = ‘Completely satisfied’, please tell me
occupations with similar characteristics the number which you feel best describes
(see next section for details about the matching how dissatisfied or satisfied you are with the
methodology) and explore the relationship following aspects of your current situation.”
between autonomy and a range of factors
including job satisfaction, working hours and
leisure time satisfaction.
www.nfer.ac.uk 21zz Working hours: sum of “Thinking about The autonomy questions were only asked of We also asked questions about:
your (main) job, how many hours, excluding classroom teachers and middle leaders, and not
overtime and meal breaks, are you expected senior leaders. The analysis sample was based zz Job satisfaction: “How much do you agree
to work in a normal week?” and “And on 1,144 teachers and middle leaders. with the following statements? I am satisfied
how many hours overtime do you usually with my job at this school”, (responses were
work in a normal week? Please include For more information about Teacher Voice, visit: a five‑point scale from ‘strongly disagree’ to
unpaid overtime.” https://www.nfer.ac.uk/key-topics-expertise/ ‘strongly agree’)
teacher-voice-omnibus-survey/
zz Management: “Do you have any zz Manageability of workload: “How much do
managerial duties or do you supervise Measures you agree with the following statements?
any other employees? (Responses: My workload is manageable”, (responses
‘Manager’, ‘Foreman/supervisor’, The autonomy questions used in the analysis were a five‑point scale from ‘strongly
‘Not manager/supervisor’). are: “In general, how much influence do you disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’)
have over the following in your job:”
NFER Teacher Voice survey zz Intention to leave: “Are you considering
zz How you provide feedback to your pupils leaving teaching within the next academic
Data zz How often you provide feedback to your pupils year?”, (Responses: Yes/No). As we are most
zz How you plan your lessons/schemes of work interested in the retention of working‑age
Teacher Voice (TV) is NFER’s termly nationally zz How you prepare your lessons/schemes teachers, we coded teachers who responded
representative survey of teachers and leaders of work “Retirement” to the follow‑up question
in England. We added questions to the zz How you assess pupils’ learning to your “What will you do instead?” as not intending
March 2019 survey on teacher autonomy, inform teaching to leave teaching.
job satisfaction and intention to leave teaching. zz What data you collect on pupils’ attainment
These add to the depth of understanding of zz How your classroom is physically laid out
autonomy from the UKHLS data, as the TV zz What teaching methods or strategies you use
questions are specifically tailored to teachers. zz What the standards and rules for behaviour
in your classroom are
The survey data is limited to some extent by zz Your professional development goals
sample sizes, which are relatively small when zz The content of the curriculum in your
looking at subgroups. Confidence intervals phase/subject
are presented to demonstrate the level of zz How the use of time in your classroom is
uncertainty around the results. In the charts scheduled
presented, if the confidence interval does not
overlap the axis, then the average difference The response options were ‘none’, ‘a little’,
between the specified group and the reference ‘some’ and ‘a lot’.
group is statistically significant.
22 www.nfer.ac.ukMethodology used for the analysis
Identifying ‘similar professionals’ in We remove those employed in the wider We verify the reliability of the autonomy
UKHLS education sector, and those employed outside scales that we use in our analysis using factor
England from the ‘other professionals’ group. analysis and the Cronbach’s alpha reliability
Comparing teachers to all employees in measure. The factor analysis suggests that all
professional occupations in a meaningful way is Second, we re‑weight the ‘other professionals’ 12 autonomy items from the Teacher Voice data
challenging because the two groups are likely group so that the distribution of gender, load on to the same factor, confirming that they
to differ in a number of important ways. They age, region and highest qualification is the represent an underlying ‘autonomy’ construct.
may be different because people with different same amongst the teachers and the group The reliability statistic of the 12‑item autonomy
characteristics or motivations select to go into of ‘other professionals’. We use a technique scale is 0.9, which is a high correlation.
different occupations. No comparison of different called entropy balancing, to re‑weight the
occupations should therefore be interpreted as ‘other professionals’ group within each wave All five autonomy items from the UKHLS data
the effect of entering that profession, although and derive a ‘similar professionals’ group load on to the same factor, also confirming
working conditions, and employees’ perceptions (Hainmueller, 2012). We also separately derive a that they represent an underlying ‘autonomy’
of them, can be influenced by entering that group of ‘full‑time similar professionals’, which construct. The main scale we use excludes
occupation rather than another. have similar characteristics to full‑time teachers. influence over working hours. The reliability
statistic of the four‑item autonomy scale among
We have aimed to improve the comparability This re‑weighting approach does not remove teachers is 0.80. The reliability statistic of the
of our analysis as much as we can. Instead all the underlying differences in characteristics five‑item autonomy scale (including working
of comparing all teachers to all employees and motivations between teachers and ‘other hours) among teachers (0.75) is lower than
in professional occupations, we derive professionals’. However, it minimises the risk for the four‑item scale. By comparison, the
a group of professionals with similar that any observed differences in working reliability statistic of the four‑item autonomy
characteristics to teachers. The group includes conditions are driven by differences in the scale among all working respondents in the
professionals from the private and public distribution of gender, age, region and highest UKHLS is 0.87 and the five‑item scale only
sector, including scientists, researchers, qualification between the two groups. marginally lower at 0.85. This suggests that
engineers, IT professionals, health and our exclusion of working hours is justified
nursing professionals, lawyers, accountants, Factor analysis of the ‘autonomy’ scales statistically as well as intuitively.
statisticians, economists, social workers,
librarians, and journalists. Factor analysis is a statistical method for We drop 17 cases (14 professionals and three
analysing correlations among a number of teachers) from the analysis because they
First, we identify all individuals across all different variables to reveal or confirm the have missing data for at least one of the four
waves/years coded as having a professional underlying constructs (i.e. that they are autonomy items in the autonomy scale.
occupation according to their Standard all measuring the same concept in slightly
Occupational Classification (SOC) code. We use different ways).
the SOC 2010 definition to identify the occupation
codes which relate to our group of professionals.
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