The composition and biosynthesis of milk lipids
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J. Lipid Hesearch, July 1963
Volume 4, Number 3
The composition and biosynthesis of milk lipids
G. A. GARTON
Rou-ett Research Institute, Bucksbur n, Aberdeen, Great Britain
[\Intiuscript received February 11, 1963.1
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A p a r t from the obvious importance of milk as I. T H E LIPIDS OF MILK
the natural food of the infant mammal and, in the case
The lipid content of normal milk from healthy
of cows’ milk, as food for man, its ready availability
animals in full lactation widely varies from species to
has invited chemical and biochemical study. I n
species, and, to a lesser extent, within species, as is well
respect of milk fat in particular, its special place in the
known in the case of milk from cows of different breeds.
history of lipid chemistry is noteworthy; it was in-
Colostrum may contain more lipid than does the normal
cluded by Chevreul in his classical studies of 150 years
milk subsequently secreted (vide proximate analyses
ago (l),from which he deduced that fats are ester-like
quoted by Garton [12]), and, in the cow and in man, the
substances composed of glycerol and fatty acids, of
lipid content of normal milk is known to progressively
which he isolated butyric, caproic, and capric acids
increase during its withdrawal from the mammary
from butter. Since that time, many investigations
gland (13). Proximate analyses of milk (12) include
on the chemistry of milk lipids have been reported and
lipid values ranging from 1.6% (horse) to 36.6%
much has heen written about their possible biochemical
(whale) ; for the milks most extensively studied (cows’
origin.
milk and human milk), the amount of lipid present is
Informatioil available on the formation of milk fat
usually about 4%.
has been extensively reviewed, most recently by Folley
The lipids consist essentially of triglycerides, to-
and RlcSaught (2), Folley (3), Glascock (4), Hele (5),
gether with very small proportions of other lipids
Hele and Popj&k (6), Luick (7), and Shaw and Laksh-
including phospholipids, cholesterol, squalene, lanos-
manan (8). Though the work on lipogenesis has
terol, free fatty acids (9), traces of monoglycerides
lately attracted considerable attention in view of the
resulting from lipolysis (14), and the recently-discovered
widespread general interest in this field, many purely
bound aldehydes, glycerol ethers, and keto-compounds,
chemical studies have been conducted on milk lipids
which are described later. Much detailed work has
with results that have not been summarized and dis-
been done on the structure of the fat globules (see King
cussed collectively since 19.56-57, when this was done
[15]) showing that the phospholipids present (about
by Jack and Smith (9), by Shorland and Hansen (lo),
0.3yoof the total lipid) are integral constituents of the
and by Hilditch in his well-known book (11).
globule membrane, with which are associated small
It is tli~reforeintended i n this review to survey
amounts of “high-melting” triglycerides and possibly
present knoir-ledge of the chemical composition of
cholesterol.
milk lipids, then to consider current views on the
origin of milk fatty acids and their incorporation into
COMPONENT FATTY ACIDS
glycerides in the mammary gland, and finally to discuss
milk lipids in relation to diet and digestion, dealing The over-all pattern of the principal component
only briefly with material that has previously been fatty acids of milk fats was established several years
discussed in detail. ago, many of the analyses being due to Hilditch and his
237238 GARTON
co-workers who employed the techniques of ester dis- of bovine milk fatty acids that have been isolated to
tillation and alkali isomerization in this regard. Re- date.
sults thus obtained, representative of the composition Other work in Shorland’s laboratory (39, 40) failed
of the milk fats of several species of mammals, are to show the presence of odd-numbered, volatile fatty
shown in Table 1. acids in freshly-prepared milk fat of cows and sheep;
One of the most striking features to emerge from these this was unexpected since these had been reported in
investigations was that milk fats of herbivores, goat milk fat (17) and (in extreme traces) in ruminant
especially those of ruminant animals, differed from the depot lipids (41, 42). It was shown, however, that
corresponding depot fats and from the milk fats of other autoxidized butter fat contained some volatile, odd-
species in that they contained significant amounts of numbered fatty acids (39).
steam-volatile components, mainly butyric, caproic, In their review of the component acids of bovine
caprylic, and capric acids. Because of the resultant wide milk fat, Shorland and Hansen (10) point out that the
variation in the molecular weights of the acids present unequivocal identification of the saturated acids of
in these milk fats, the values in Table 1 are given as milk fats requires stringent analytical criteria (e.g.,
molecular percentages rather than percentages by mixed melting points with the authentic acids or their
weight in order to show the relative number of molecules
of each constituent fatty acid. The difference between TABLE 2. BRANCHED-CHAIN FaTrr ACIDS AND
SATURATED
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herbivores and other mammals in respect to the steam- ODD-NUMBERED FATTYACIDS ISOLATED
SATGRATED FROM
MILKFAT
BOVINE
volatile fatty acid of their milk fats and between the
composition of the milk fats of ruminant and non- Estimated
ruminant herbivores (e.g., the relatively high content % (w/w) of
Nature of Fatty Acid Total Acids Reference
of octadecatrienoic acid in horse milk fat vis-d-vis that
in bovine milk fat) will be discussed later in relation to Branched-chain aczds
the specialized digestive processes of herbivores. Iso-acids
11-Methyldodecanoic acid 0 05 (25)
Saturated Fatty Acids. The results of ester-frac-
12-Methyltridecanoic acid* 0 05 (26)
tionation analysis depended on the fundamental as- 13-Methyltetradecanoic 0 37 (27)
sumption that the acids present represented those of acid
homologous series of saturated and unsaturated n- 14-Methylpentadecanoic Tr. (2s)
straight-chain components, each possessing an even acid
15-Methylhexadecanoic Tr . (29)
number of carbon atoms; the composition of each ester acid*
fraction was determined from its saponification equiv- 10(? )-hlethylheptadecanoic Tr. (30)
alent, its iodine value, and (where appropriate) its acid t
behavior on alkali isomerization. For a long time, -4nteiso-acids
many saturated acids, which it was deduced were ( f )-IO-Methyldodecanoic 0.01 (25)
acid
present, were not formally identified, though for most +
( )-12-Methyltetradecanoic 0 43 (27)
components a melting point, saponification equiv- acid
alent, iodine value, and combustion analysis were +
( )-14Methylhexadecanoic 0 41 (31)
recorded. However, about ten years ago, as a result arid
of detailed investigations of fractions of methyl esters Multi-branched acid
3,7,11,15-Tetramethylhexa- 0.05 (3 2 ) ;
see also
of fatty acids derived from cow milk fat, Shorland and decanoic acid (33, 3-11
CH, CH, Odd-numbered n-acids
I I Undecanoic acid Tr. (35)
CHB-CH.(CHZ)~.COOH CHs.CHt.CH(CHz)n-COOH
Tridecanoic acid 0.03 (25)
Iso-acid Anteiso-acid
Pentadecanoic acid 0.62 (27)
(the point of branching Heptadecanoic acid T r. (36)
being a t the antepenultimate
carbon atom) Nonadecanoic acid Tr. (37)
Heneicosanoic acid 0.05 (37)
Tricosanoic acid 0.06 (37)
his co-workers discovered that saturated branched-
chain fatty acids (iso-acids, anteiso-acids, and a multi- * From hydrogenated glycerides.
branched acid), and saturated n-fatty acids with an t This acid is isomeric with stearic acid, though it is not an
iso-acid as defined by Weitkamp (38) and Shorland and Hansen
odd number of carbon atoms were present, though
(10); Le., an acid with a methyl side-chain on the carbon atom
only as a very small proportion of the total fatty adjacent to the terminal methyl group (see generic formula in
acids. In Table 2 are listed these minor constituents text).COMPOSITION AND BIOSYNTHESIS O F MILK LIPIDS 239
TABLE 1. FATTY ACIDCOMPOSITION OF MILKFATSDETERMINED
BY ESTERFRACTIONATION ANALYSIS*
Molecular Percentages of Fatty Acids
cow Man
Fatty Acid Cow (colostrum) Sheep Goat Pig Horse Man (colostrum) Seal Whale
Saturated
Butyric 10.5 2.6 7.5 1.1 - 0.8 - -
Caproic 4.6 1.6 5.3 1.9 - 0.2 - -
Caprylic 1.3 0.5 3.5 4.3 4.4 - 0.1 - -
Capric 2.7 1.6 6.4 7.9 2.5 1.4 - -
Lauric 2.6 3.2 4.5 6.6 6.8 8.3 3.4 - -
Myristic 9.6 9.5 9.9 11.8 1.8 7.4 8.7 5.7 3.4 12.1
Palmitic 23.4 31.7 21.6 24.1 28.3 15.4 22.8 28.9 17.8 19 . 0
Stearic 9.7 11.8 10.3 4.7 6.1 2.4 8.3 7.2 2.8 3.3
Chain-length > Cl8 0.6 0.6 0 .8 0.4 N.d.t 0.2 0.8 2.3 - 0.3
Unsaturated
Decenoic 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 N.d. 1.3 - 0.1 - -
Dodecenoic 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 N.d. 1 .P 0.2 0.1 - -
Tetradecenoic 1 .o 0.7 0.6 0.8 N.d. 1 .9 0.6 0.2 2.0 1.7
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Hesadecenoic 2.1 2.7 2.0 2.2 8.8 7.2 3.8 3.0 8.9
(Ictadecenoic 28.6 28.5 21.6 16.5 35.0 16.3 33.9 35.1 113.9
Octadecadienoic
Octadecatrienoic
Chain-length > Clb
1 8
-1
1 .o
2.5
0.4
1.8
4.3
-
1.3
2.8
-3
0.2
14 . 0
N.d.
3.6
6.6
14 .o
4.0
7.7
-
2.4
5.9
0.2
5.4
i”,3 J
23.8
126.1
28.6
Reference (16) (17) (18) (18) (19) (18) (20) (21) (22) (23)
* See text for details of unsaturated acids and of fatty acids now known to occur in trace amounts.
t N.d. = not determined.
3 Trare amounts subsequently revealed by alkali isomerization of distilled ester fractions (24).
derivatives, X-ray diffraction measurements) addi- to embrace odd-numbered acids, to the saturated
tional to those formerly deemed sufficiently adequate ; components of bovine milk fat by Garton and Lough
from the overwhelming abundance of n-straight-chain (46). In 1956, James and Martin (47) published their
acids with an even number of carbon atoms, however, brilliant paper on the separation of higher fatty acids
it is clear that the identity of the saturated components by gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) ; included in
already claimed (Table 1) was basically well established. this work was an analysis of goat milk fatty acids,
It is, however, surprising that it was not until 1953 that which indicated the presence of many minor compo-
lauric acid, long since presumed present in bovine milk nents. This was followed by similar studies on bovine
fat, was definitely identified (43). In addition to the milk fat by Hawke (39) and on human milk fatty acids
series of even-numbered, saturated, n-fatty acids by Insull and Ahrens (48). Subsequently, various
listed in Table 1 as present in bovine milk fat, Hansen, groups of investigators, notably Gerson et al. (122),
Shorland, and Cooke (37) have recently reported the Patton et al. (19), Gander and co-workers (50, 51),
isolation of trace amounts of several high niolecular and Herb and co-workers (,53,52),have applied GLC to
weight saturated n-acids, namely, eicosanoic (ara- the detailed aiialysis of bovine milk fatty acids. These
chidic) acid, docosanoic (behenic) acid, tetracosanoic studies have amply confirmed the presence and propor-
(lignoceric) acid, and hexacosanoic (cerotic) acid, tions of the main component saturated acids and have
representing 0.21, 0.07, 0.05, and 0.06%, respectively, added to the list of minor components. In one of the
of the total fatty acids. most recent studies, Herb et al. (53) found a total of no
Ester-distillation analysis of milk fats has now been less than 64 acids, 27 of which were present at a con-
largely superseded by chromatographic methods, which centration of240 GRRTON
cum grano salis, particularly conclusions drawn from acid (octadec-cis-9enoic acid), though about 35 years
relative retention times regarding the number of carbon ago doubt was cast on this assumption by Hilditch and
atoms in an ester, even if it be saturated. The need Jones (63), who found that the dihydroxy acid that
for positive chemical identification of a component is resulted from the alkaline KMn04 oxidation of the
borne out by the study of Sonneveld et al. (32), who CIS unsaturated acids of butter fat had a somewhat
isolated 3,7,11,15-tetramethyhexadecanoic acid (not indefinite melting point lower than that of dihydroxy-
reported by Herb et al. [ 5 3 ] ) from bovine milk fat; stearic acid prepared from oleic acid. At about the
GLC data alone would not permit a structure to be same time, Bertram (64) isolated from butter fat traces
assigned, even provisionally, to this acid. The so- of a solid, unsaturated CISacid (octadec-11-enoic acid)
called “high-melting” triglycerides of milk (which, as to which he ascribed a trans structure and gave the
mentioned earlier, form part of the structure of the trivial name vaccenic acid; this structure was con-
milk-fat globule membrane) were first isolated in 1933 firmed by Rao and Daubert (65) and by Gupta et al.
by Palmer and Wiese (54). With the advent of GLC, (66). I n addition to vaccenic acid, small amounts of
it became possible to identify the constituent fatty other oleic acid isomers have been reported in cow
acids; Patton and Keeney (5.5) and Thompson, Brunner, milk fat (66-69), buffalo milk fat (67), and sheep milk
and Stine (56) reported that palmitic acid accounted for fat (66). I n their detailed study of cow milk fat,
more than half the total fatty acids, the remainder Rackderf and Brown (60) deduced that the C,, un-
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consisting of stearic and myristic acids together with saturated components included octadec-trans-16-enoic
traces of other components. acid and possibly the cis isomer of vaccenic acid; no
Unsaturated Fatty Acids. I n Table 1, the un- evidence was found for the presence of elaidic acid (the
saturated acids are listed ‘Lgenerically’J without trans isomer of oleic acid). The unequivocal (chemical)
reference to chemical structure. The elucidation of identification of octadec-trans-16-enoic acid (as 0.2y0
chemical structure has presented many problems over of the total fatty acids of butter fat) was achieved very
the years (10, l l ) , particularly in bovine milk fat to recently by Hanseii and Cooke (70). In human milk
which the following account refers iinless otherwise fat, Brown and Orians (71) obtained evidence for the
indicated. occurrence of isomers of oleic acid and, from GI,C
KO unsaturated acid having less than ten carbon data, h u l l and Ahrens (48) estimated that about 7%
atoms has been found in milk fat, though as early as of the total fatty acids were of this form (cf 29% as
1912 Smedley (57) deduced the presence of unsaturated “normal” oleic acid) and isolated an octadec-11-enoic
acids of chain length less than 18 carbon atoms. acid as the principal component.
Evidence for the presence of decenoic, dodecenoic, The situation in respect of the C,, diethenoid fatty
tetradecenoic (myristoleic) , and hexadecenoic (pal- acids of milk fat is homewhat niore confused, despite
mitoleic) acids mas subsequently forthcoming from vari- many attempts to characterize the positional and
ous groups of workers (for references see [lo], [Ill, and geometrical isomers present (for references see Hilditch
[ 5 8 ] ); Hilditch and Longenecker (59) established that [ l l ] ,Jack et al. [61, 721, Shorland and Hansen [lo],
the double bond in each acid was predominantly, if and Scott et al. [;,SI). Since the iodine value of the
not exclusively, in the 9,lO position relative to the C18 unsaturated acids of bovine milk fat indicated that
carboxyl group. More recent investigations have acids other than rnonoethenoid components were pres-
confirmed the absence of positional isomers of hexadec- ent, numerous attempts were made (many of them
9-enoic acid (GO), and have shown that trans compo- by Hilditch and his collaborators) to isolate linoleic
nents are present (61) to the extent of as mnch as 20yo acid (0ctadeca-cis-9~cis-12-dienoic acid) as the pe-
of the hexadecenoic acid (60), contrary to the former troleum ether-insoluble tetrabromide, a conipound well-
assumption that this group of monoethenoid acids was characterized from studies on the fatty acids of many
entirely of the cis configuration. An odd-numbered seeds. From these experiments (which did not yield
unsaturated acid (heptadec-cis-9-enoic acid) has been tetrat)romolirioIeic acid) and from oxidation studies,
identified (62) as 0.0670of the total fatty acids of butter it wa\ concluded that, at most, oiily traces of linoleic
fat, and GTX evidence (53) suggests that others are acid were present and that cis-trans isomers constituted
present in trace amounts. the bulk of the Clxdiethenoic acids; a similar conclusion
It is to the CU group of unsaturated fatty acids that was reached (18) regarding the octadecadienoic acid in
most attention has been paid, since they comprise a the milk fat of two other ruminants, the goat and the
considerable proportion of the total fatty acids of milk sheep. In 1‘349, however, White and Brown (73)
fats. For a long time, it was considered that the claimed to hare isolated tetrabromolinoleic acid from
nionoethenoid component consisted entirely of oleic butter fat in amount coiwspoiiding to about 70ypof theCOhlPOSITIOS AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF MILK LIPIDS 24 1
octadecadienoic acid. In a very recent paper from the TABLE 3. FATTYACIDSTRUCTURE
OF THE PRINCIPAL
same laboratory (74), a similarly high proportion of OF BOVINE
GLYCERIDES MILKFATS -,
linoleic acid was reported, the remainder consisting of
positional isomers having widely-separated double bonds Component arid Residues* cow Indian
probably of cis-trans configuration (cf Scott et al. [.%I). in Triglycerides Milk Buffalo Milk
Another consideration regarding the octadecadienoic moles % moles 76
acids is whether the double bonds are separated by 16:0,242 GARTOX
TABLE 4. PROBABLE
GLYCERIDE
COMPOSITION OF HI-MAN TABLE 5 . COMPARISONOF GLYCERIDE COMPOSITION OF
MILKFAT BOVINE
AND HITMAN MILKF A T S *
-
-
Moles % in Total Moles yo of
Glyceride Type Glvcerides Total Glycerides
Fully saturated Structural Characteristic. Indian
Di-CIo-14-monopalmitin
nIono-Clo-la-dipalmitin
Mono-Cjo-l4-palmitostearin
‘:I
1 7 9 1
5 TJ
of Triglyreride
Containing
Cow Buffalo Human
Monounsaturated,* disaturated ( a ) One radiral o f myristic. 52 52 53
Monounsaturated-C~~~~~-palmitin
Monounsaturated-Clo-14-stearin
Monounsaturated-dipalmitin
Monounsaturated-palmitostearin
2; :I3{,
3 5
13 91
6
arid or a saturated acid
of shorter chain-length
( b ) Two radicals of myristic.
acid or saturated arids
21 22 2
Diunsaturated, t monosaturated of shorter chain-length
(c) One palmitic. :wid 63 70 60
Mono-Clo-14-diunsaturated 23 6\42 7
Palmito-diunsaturated 19 l j radiral
Triunsaturated t 8 6 ( d ) Two pahnitir arid 8 S G
radicals
* Almost entirely mono-oleo-glycerides.
t Containing *After Hilditch (11).
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one radical of linoleic acid or other unsaturated
arid, the remaining one (or two) radicals being oleic :wid. Data
of Hilditrh and Meara (SO).
random distribution of the saturated and unsaturated
acids was reached by Ast and Vander Wal (83) from
(with octadecadienoic acids predominating), thus studies in which pancreatic lipase was used to split off
providing sufficient of these for it to be concluded that the fatty acids from the 1 and 3 (a,a’) positions of the
each of the di- and triunsaturated glycerides contained, triglyceride molecules. Table 6 shows the values
respectively, one and two octadecenoic acid radicals, calculated by Ast and Vander Wal from their experi-
the remaining acyl residue being one of the other mental results and from data derived from a similar
unsaturated acids. The rest of the milk fat was investigation by Patton, Evans, and McCarthy (84).
largely composed of triglycerides containing palmitic In relation to the intramolecular structure of the
acid, octadecenoic (oleic) acid, and either stearic acid glycerides, however, there is evidence from the studies
or one of the Clo-C14saturated acids. involving selective hydrolysis by pancreatic lipase
Table 5 shows that there is a marked general resem- (83-85) oi a definite tendency toward esterification
blance in the pattern of the glyceride structure of human of fatty acids in specific positions in the triglyceride
and bovine milk fats ; monopalmito-glycerides ac- molecule, as had previously been indicated from the
counted for about 90% of the total palmitic acid of analyses of fractions of butter fat obtained by counter-
both milk fats. The saturated fatty acids of shorter current distribution (79). Butyric acid is apparently
chain length are present mainly in glycerides that esterified exclusively in the 1-position of bovine milk
contain two different acyl groups, such as palmitic glycerides (86) ; it was found (85) that the proportions
acid and octadecenoic (oleic) acid, the smaller pro- of capric, lauric, myristic, myristoleic, and palmitoleic
portion of these shorter-chain acids in human milk fat acids were greater in the 2-position than in the l-posi-
being reflected in a correspondingly smaller pro- tion of the glycerides and that the converse applied
portion of this type of glyceride. to stearic acid and the unsaturated CIS acids. Pal-
In a recent analysis of cow butter fat, in which mitic acid showed only a very slight tendency to
fractional crystallization was employed to segregate preferential esterification in the 2-position, though in
glyceride types, Bhalerao, Johnson. and Kummarow milk fat from cows deprived of feed for several days,
(81) deduced that the saturated and unsaturated this acid was present in enhanced concentration in the
fatty acids were distributed approximately at random 2-position of the glyceride molecules. This observa-
among the glycerol molecules; Boatman, Decoteau, tion may be of significance in relation to the synthesis
and Hammond (82), in a study of the trisaturated of milk fat in the udder (vide in.fra).
glycerides of butter fat, found that the amounts agreed
well with those calculated for random distribution and
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
that there was no preferential inclusion or exclusion of
any of the principal saturated fatty acids present in the Analyses of the fatty acids of the mixed phospholipids
fat as a ~vhole. A similar conclusion regarding the of cow butter fat of British and Swiss origin were madeCOMl’OSITIOK A S D BIOSYNTHESIS OF MILK LIPIDS 243
TABLE 6. TYPES
OF TRIGLYCERIDE
IN Cow MII,KFAT
___ __ ponent fatty acids of the phospholipids of bovine
_
Glyreride Sample Number milk. The phosphatidyl ethanolamines were the
most unsaturated, containing more than 50yc of
Type* It 2t 31 octadecenoic acid ; of the remaining acids, stearic,
moles ‘/o moles; ,< moles yG palmitic, and octadecadienoic predominated. The
S S S 24 5 ( 2 4 5)5 30 9 ( 3 1 2) 28 l ( 2 8 2 ) major fatty acids of the phosphatidylcholines were
U S 13 4 ( 1 4 7) Y 9(14 8) 13 7 ( 1 1 8) octadecenoic acid (34.3%)) palmitic acid (26.1%), and
S S U 30 6 (29 1) 35 0 (29 6) 31 O ( 2 0 6 )
u s u 9 5 (8 8) n 9 (7 0) 8 7 (7 8)
stearic acid (8.2%) ; those of the sphingomyelins were
U U S 16 8 (17 6) I 1 2 (14 1) 14 6 (1.5 6 ) mostly saturated, with long-chain acids (C,,, C23,and
uuU 5 2 (5 2) 3 I (3 3) 4 0 (4 1 ) C2J contributing about 30% to the total. The cere-
* S = saturated fatty acid, U = unsaturated fatty acid. brosides were characterized by their high content of
t Experimental results of Ast and Vander Wal(83). myristic, palmitic, and tricosanoic acids. Results
1Calculated by Ast and Vander Wal(83) from data of Patton very similar to those of Smith and Lowry were reported
e t al. (84). by Radings (97).
Q Values in parentheses are those expected on the basis of :t
random distribution of fatty aeids.
RECENTLY-DISCOVERED MINOR COMPONENT LIPIDS
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by Hilditcli and Maddison (87). I n confirmation of Investigations concerning “off-flavors” that develop
earlier studies, no steam-volatile fatty acids were in milk and milk products have included studies of
detected; the major components were (1) palmitic acid, the “carbonyl” compounds present before and after
(2) C18 unsaturated acids (mainly monounsaturated), autoxidation; in the course of this work, several novel
and (3) acids of longer chain length (both saturated and trace components of milk lipids have been discovered.
unsaturated), together with small amounts of myristic, Plasmalogens and Glyceryl Ethers. Iri 1955, Van Duiii
hexadecenoic, arid stearic acids. A previous report (98) reported the presence of plasmalogens in cow
(88) that the fatty acids of milk phospholipids contained milk lipids and showed that a series of long-chain
70% of “oleic” acid was not confirmed, the proportions aldehydes arose from them under the influence of the
of monounsaturated C, acid being 23.5 arid 32.5yG, acidity of butter serum; the identity of hexadecaiial
respectively, in the fatty acids of the British and Swiss (palmitaldehyde) and octadecanal (stearaldehyde) was
samples. Smith and Jack (89) found that saturated established and several other saturated and unsaturated
acids and monounsaturated acids each comprised about long-chain aldehydes, possibly including branched-
4Oyc of the total phospholipid acids, the remainder chain components, were detected. Subsequently,
being nonconjugated di-, tri- tetra-, and pentaun- Schogt, Begemann, and Koster (99) found aldehy-
saturated acids, together with a small amount of con- dogeriic lipids in milk fat from which the phosphorus-
jugated diurisaturated acid. containing lipids had been removed; calculated as
In 19.55, Raliga and Basu (90) fractionated the tetradecanal, they accounted for 50 mg/kg milk fat.
phospholipids of milk of cows, sheep, goats, and Indian The aldehydes were shown to be bound to glycerol as
buff aloes and found that they comprised lecithins ca. cnol-ethers, mostly in the l-position of the molecule,
3Oyc,sphirigomyelins ca. 2.iYc, and cephalins (by dif- the remaining hydroxyl groups being esterified to fatty
ference) ca. 4.5%; values of a similar order were sub- acids giving the structure:
sequently reported by other workers (91-94). In ad-
CHZ--O--CH=CH-Ri
dition to the phospholipid classes mentioned above, I
Smith and Freeman (94) found 6% of cerebrosides; CH-O-CO-R2
Rhodes and Lea (93) showed that the cephalins con- I
CH2-O-CO-Rs
tained phosphatidyl ethanolamine and phosphatidyl
serine in the proportions of about three to one. In The aldehydes were later shown (100) to consist
addition, these latter investigators and Smith and predominantly of the branched-chain IBmethyltridec-
Lowry (9.5) reported that unsaturated fatty acids were anal and 12- and 13-methyltetradecanal, together with
present in both the 1- and 2-positions of the glyc- smaller amounts of a branched C13 aldehyde and
erophospholipids, an observation that contrasts with n-aldehydes containing 13, 14, 15, and 16 carbon
the finding (96) that the glycerophospholipids of ox atoms; the aldehydogenic lipids of butter also yielded
liver contain unsaturated acids in the l-position and branched-chain components (notably a C1s aldehyde),
saturated acids in the 2-position. Smith and Lowry though the n-aldehydes hexadecanal and octadecanal
(95) made a detailed GLC examination of the com- were present in greater proportions. As with the24-1 GARTON
branched-chain fatty acids of milk fat (Table 2), the that 0-keto acids initially present in the milk fat may he
aldehydes of the milk lipids were of the is0 or anteiso the precursors of these methyl ketones, since such acids
type. Free aldehydes were also found in the milk are known to undergo decarboxylation quite readily
lipids and nonaldehydogenic glycerol ethers were on heating.
detected in the nonsaponifiablematter (99). Very recently, Keeney, Kate, and Schwartz (105)
Concurrently, Parks, Keeney, and Schwartz (101) have reported that trace amounts of keto acids are
used GLC to analyze and identify the aldehydes present in milk in glyceride combination. Saturated
derived from the plasmalogens of butter serum and from keto-acids, containing 10 to 18 carbon atoms, and
phosphorus-free butter oil. Both groups yielded a unsaturated Cle keto acids were detected by GLC.
variety of straight-chain and branched-chain saturated Keto-stearic acid predominated, and a detailed chemical
aldehydes, together with several mono- and diun- examination of this component showed that it was a
saturated components. Like Schogt, Begemann, and mixture of isomers having keto groups in the 8, 9, 10,
Recourt (loo), these workers found that the major al- 11, 12, and 13 positions, the molecular proportions be-
dehydes from the plasmalogens were hexadecanal and ing about l , 39, 28, 10, 5, and 17% respectively.
octadecanal, while those from the phosphorus-freebutter No isomer with a 3-keto group (i.e., a P-keto acid),
oil were mainly hexadecanal and branched-chain such as might give rise to a methyl ketone, was detected,
saturated aldehydes containing 14 and 15 carbon atoms. though it should perhaps be noted that heptadecanone-
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Pu’onaldehydogenicglycerol ethers were independently 2 was not among the ketones isolated by Patton and
found and investigated in detail by Hallgren and Lars- Tharp (104). Boldingh and Taylor (106) also reported
son (102). These ethers were shown to comprise the isolation of traces of ,&keto acids from butter fat
0.01% of the lipids of cows’ milk and 0.1% of those of as well as traces of &keto acids, &lactones, d-hydroxy-
human milk and to be of the alkoxydiglyceride type: lactones, and unsaturated y-lactones.
CH?-O-CH,-RI This is a field in which further studies may be quite
I revealing, not only in connection with the origin of
CH -0-CO-RZ
methyl ketones but possibly in relation to the bio-
L!H2--O-cO--R3
synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids (see below).
Following their chromatographic separation from
the nonsaponifiable matter, the dihydric ethers were
11. THE ORIGIX OF MILK LIPIDS
converted to their dimethoxy derivatives, which were
analyzed by GLC before and after hydrogenation.
ORIGIN OF FBTTT ACIDS
About 80% of the alcohols (R1)in ether linkage con-
sisted of hexadecanol (palmityl alcohol), octadecanol For some years now, it has been appreciated that the
(stearyl alcohol), and octadecenol (oleyl alcohol) ; the fatty acids of milk lipids (glycerides) arise from two
remainder comprised several saturated, unsaturated, distinct sources-from blood plasma lipids and by
and branched-chain components containing from 16 direct synthesis in the mammary gland. It is not
to 24 carbon atoms. intended here to trace, in detail, the development of
Ketones and Keto-Acids. An investigation of the the work that led to this conclusion. Suffice it to
volatile carbonyl compounds present in evaporated refer the reader to the reviews cited in the introduction
milk showed that acetone, pentanone-2, and heptanone- and to that of Carton (107), and to concentrate on
2 were present (103); other work (55) on the non- recent findings in this field of research in relation to the
saponifiable matter of the “high-melting” triglyceride relative contribution of the fatty acids from each
fraction of milk fat revealed the presence of tri- source, the fractions of plasma lipids that may be
decanone-2 and pentadecanone-2. These observations involved, and the mechanism of intramammary synthe-
prompted a detailed study of the methyl ketones of sis of fatty acids.
milk fat by Patton and Tharp (104), who isolated, as Plasma Constituents as a Source of Milk Fatty Acids.
their 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazones,a complete homolo- Between 1935 and 1940, it was demonstrated that fatty
gous series of methylketones with an odd number of acids of blood lipids can be incorporated into milk
carbon atoms (acetone to pentadecanone) from the lipids; fatty acids not normally found in milk lipids
steam-distillate and nonsaponifiable matter of cows’ (e.g., iodinated fatty acids, long-chain acids of cod
fresh milk. However, with the exception of acetone, liver oil) were fed to cows, and, subsequently, these acids
none of the ketones were present before steam-distil- were detected in the milk fat. With iodinated fatty
lation or saponification of the lipids. It seems likely, acids, it was shown that their concentration in milk fat
as suggested by Patton and co-workers (103, 104), was directly related to that in the plasma neutral fat.CONPOSITIOX AXD BIOSYNTHESIS O F MILK LIPIDS 245
At about the same time, arteriovenous studies estab- an observation possibly related to the previously
lished that neutral lipids (glycerides and possibly cho- mentioned finding (111, 112) that phospholipids can be
lesterol esters) were removed from the blood plasma both synthesized and broken down in lactating mam-
flowing through the udder of the lactating cow. mary tissue. I n another perfusion experiment, Laurys-
In 1956, Glascock, Duncombe, and Reinius (108) sens et al. (lL5, 116) found that plasma free fatty acids
fed tritium-labeled stearic acid, either as free acid or as (P'FA), which represent a quantitatively minor pro-
triglyceride, to lactating goats and to a cow and tenta- portion of plasma lipids, can be rapidly taken up and
tively concluded from analyses of the milk lipids incorporated into udder glycerides. Following the
subsequently secreted that the contribution of dietary addition, as the albumin complex, of stearate-1-C l4
fatty acids to milk fatty acids was probably not more to the perfusing blood, the gland glycerides contained
than about 25y0. I n a later similar experiment in significant amounts of labeled oleic acid in addition to
which a glyceride containing tritium-labeled stearic stearic acid. Direct desaturation of stearic acid to
acid was fed to a lactating cow, evidence was obtained give oleic acid apparently occurred ; the significance of
(109) that plasma lipids contained a quantitatively this process as a source of unsaturated acids for milk
minor (unidentified) component of very high specific fat and the possible quantitative importance of FFA
activity; the possibility that this plasma lipid fraction as precursors of milk lipids would seem to merit further
may be involved in milk fat synthesis remains to be investigation in the living animal.
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investigated. Riis, Luick, and Kleiber (110) infused Stemming from the suggestion in 1945 by Folley
plasma containing P32-and CL4-labeledlipids into a (117) that acetate might be a precursor of milk fatty
lactating cow, the plasma having been obtained from a acids, experimental evidence (from his laboratory and
donor (nonlactating) cow to which P32-labeled phos- that of Popjhk) demonstrating this in vitro and in vivo
phate and acetate-1-C l 4 had been administered. was not long in forthcoming (118, 119). Later studies
From a consideration of the resultant specific radio- from these laboratories, and from those of Kleiber
activities of the lipids of the plasma and milk of the and of Shaw in the USA and of Peeters in Belgium,
animal, it was calculated that about 50% of the fatty emphasized the important part played by plasma
acids of the milk lipids were derived from plasma volatile fatty acids (especially acetate and, in the
lipids and that, in addition to triglycerides, cholesterol ruminant, P-hydroxybutyrate too) as carbon sources
esters and phospholipids are involved in the transport for production of long-chain fatty acids in the lactating
of fatty acids to the mammary tissue. That plasma mammary gland. Neither the propionate nor the
phospholipids can be metabolized in the mammary butyrate of ruminant plasma is apparently incorporated
gland and can also be synthesized in the tissue was to any great extent into milk fatty acids, though pro-
earlier shown in experiments with lactating rabbits pionate can be the precursor of the odd-numbered
by Garton and Popjhk (111)and Garton (112). Lossow fatty acids in milk fat and, following its degradation, to
and Chaikoff (113) injected Na octanoate-1-C14 and even-numbered fatty acids (120, 121); valerate has been
tripalmitin containing palmitic a ~ i d - 1 - C intravenously
'~ shown (122) not to be a direct precursor of odd-num-
into lactating rats and found that, within 24 hr, 45yG bered fatty acids of cow milk fat, though these can
of the octanoate and 60% of the palmitic acid appeared arise from propionate, which results (along with
in the lipids of the milk and mammary gland, though acetate) from the in vivo degradation of valerate.
what proportion of the milk fatty acids originated from While P-hydroxybutyate can undoubtedly be me-
plasma lipids was not determined. tabolized to yield fatty acids of chain length up to
By the examination of plasma lipids before and 10 carbon atoms (8), the intermediary pathway is not
after perfusion of whole blood through the excised clear though it seems unlikely, as pointed out by Glas-
udders of lactating cows, Lough et al. (114) endeavored cock (4), to involve butyrate.
to obtain further information on the possible role of That plasma glucose can play a part in mammary
the different lipid fractions in mammary gland me- lipogenesis was first demonstrated by Folley and
tabolism. A loss of triglycerides from the plasma was 1:rench (118, 123). Working with mammary tissue
observed (confirming the findings of earlier arterio- slices, they observed that those from the sheep gland
venous difference studies) and, in some experiments, of could utilize acetate alone, while those from the rat
cholesterol esters also; the cholesterol esters were gland required glucose in addition to acetate. Sub-
apparently removed intact by the gland, since a sequently, this difference between the ruminant and
concomitant increase in plasma free cholesterol was the nonruminant animal was confirmed and investi-
not found. Plasma phospholipids sometimes showed gated in more detail by different groups of workers
an increase and sometimes a decrease after perfusion, (2). For example, Popjhk, Hunter, and French246 GARTOK
(124) showed that, in the rabbit mammary gland, numbered fatty acids in milk and other tissue lipids),
glucose significantly contributed to the pool of Cz units but other higher acyl CoA derivatives apparently can-
for fatty acid synthesis, while Kleiber and his col- not undergo chain-lengthening in this manner, nor
leagues (125, 126) found that in the living cow, only a can substituted acyl CoA compounds such as ace-
very small proportion of CL4-glucose administered toacetyl CoA and p-hydroxybutyryl CoA. The nature
intravenously was incorporated into milk fatty acids of the chemical form of the intermediates in chain-
though it was utilized for milk glyceride-glycerol lengthening is still not certain and may vary from one
synthesis. This aspect of glucose metabolism and also tissue to another (137, 139).
its possible involvement in the pentose phosphate cycle Whatever be the intermediates in fatty acid chain-
in relation to lipogenesis is referred to later in this elongation in the mammary gland, the importance of
review. the malonyl CoA pathway is soundly established. I n
Endogenous Synthesis of Fatty Acids in Mammary 1960, Ganguly (140) showed that microsomal and
Tissue. Following the outstanding work some ten soluble-enzyme preparations of many ox tissues in-
years ago of PopjBk and Folley and their collaborators, cluding brain, adipose tissue, and mammary gland
which demonstrated the ability of the mammary tis- rapidly synthesized saturated fatty acids from acetyl
sue of both ruminants and noiiruminants to effect CoA and malonyl CoA, and that the carboxylation of
the synthesis of saturated n-fatty acids from acetate, acetyl CoA was the rate-limiting step; noteworthy is
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it was considered for several years that the process the observation that the relative proportions of butyric
involved was probably a reversal of @oxidation. acid, caproic acid, and (collectively) the Cs-Cl,j acids
Studies in PopjBk’s laboratory (127-129), in which synthesized by the mammary gland system were
cell-free preparations of mammary tissue were used, similar to those present in cows’ milk fat (Table 1).
showed that coenzyme A (CoA), adenosine triphos- A reinvestigation of fatty acid synthesis by soluble
phate (ATP), and a reduced pyridine nucleotide were preparations of lactating rat mammary gland by Dils
required for fatty acid formation from acetate; in aud PopjBk (141) showed the malonyl CoA route to be
addition, an enhanced synthesis was observed when of major importance; all the cofactors required in the
malonate was added and also when air was used as the systems described by Wakil and by Brady were neces-
gas phase instead of 0 2 . The reason for this stimulation sary for optimal synthesis. It was shown that, though
mas not apparent a t the time, though it subsequently free malonate strongly stimulated the formation of
became evident from the studies of Wakil and his fatty acids, it was not incorporated into the carbon
co-workers (130-132) and from investigations in chains. It was suggested (141) that free malonate
Brady’s laboratory (133, 134) that a source of COz was might suppress the deacylation of acetyl CoA or inhibit
of fundamental importance in fatty acid synthesis by a reversible decarboxylation of malonyl CoA ; evidence
particulate-free preparations of animal tissues (pigeon favoring the latter hypothesis has very recently been
liver and chicken liver). This work and other related obtained by Coniglio and PopjBk (142), who also iso-
studies (reviewed in detail by Wakil [135-137]) showed lated a n alkali-labile derivative of CI4-malonicacid that
that this biosynthetic pathway was different from a resulted from the incubation of soluble preparations of
reversal of p-oxidation. Fatty acid chains of up to 16 rat mammary tissue with ATP, CoA, M n f f , and
carbon atoms (palmitic acid) are now known to be either C14-acetate plus HCO3- or unlabeled acetate plus
elaborated from acetyl CoA, which condenses with HL4C03-;acetate and CoA could be replaced by acetyl
HC03- to yield malonyl CoA in the presence of ATP, CoA. Dils and PopjBk (141) found that several inter-
i\ln++ ions, and acetyl CoA carboxylase (a biotin-con- mediates of the citric acid cycle, formerly thought
taining enzyme). Malonyl CoA condenses, in turn, necessary to stimulate fatty acid synthesis, were
with acetyl CoA to yield, by reaction with reduced no longer required. The principal products of syn-
triphosphopyridine nucleotide ( T P S H ) , COY, CoA, and thesis were the saturated n-fatty acids C8-C18, to-
a saturated fatty acid ; thus successive condensations gether with a small proportion of oleic acid, though,
yield palmitic acid, 2 carbon atoms of which come compared with milk fatty acids, a somewhat greater
directly from acetyl CoA and the remaining 14 carbon proportion of lauric and myristic acids was produced.
atoms from malonyl CoA. As discussed by Folley and A number of unidentified components were present, the
Greenbaum (138) and Folley (3), the T P N H require- behavior of which on GLC suggested that they were of
ment could be met by the breakdown of glucose by the high molecular weight or “of high polarity due to the
pentose phosphate pathway in the mammary gland. prehence of oxygen functions beyond the ester group.”
Propionyl CoA can take the place of acetyl CoA Dils and PopjBk suggest that these substances may be
(which probably explains the occurrence of n-odd- intermediates in fatty acid oxidation or synthesis. ThisCOMPOSITIOK AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF MILK LIPIDS 247
suggestion may well be pertinent to the proposition that called “mitochondrial system”) is known to exist in
keto acids may be intermediates in chain-elongation of several tissues, and its distribution and modus operandi
fatty acids (135) and to the previously-noted finding of have been discussed in detail by Wakil(l35, 137). The
Keeney et al. (105) that keto acids are present in milk system relies on the synthetic ability of some enzymes
glycerides and other tissue lipids. Keeney et al. direct known to participate in &oxidation plus TPNH-a,
attention to the possibility that an unsaturated acid P-unsaturated fatty acyl CoA reductase, and possibly a
may arise from a keto acid by cleavage, in the presence condensing enzyme. Both TPNH and DPNH are re-
of reduced pyridine nucleotide, of the carbon-oxygen quired for synthetic ability, which consists of carbon-
bond of a phosphate ester of the enol form of the keto chain elongation by successive addition of two-carbon
acid. Thus the observation of Dils and PopjBk (141), (acetyl CoA) units. It seems that stearate arises from
that the rat mammary gland preparations to which palmitate in this manner, and arachidonate from
mitochondria or microsomes were added showed a linoleate. Liver (ox, rat, pigeon) is a good source of
suppressed synthesis of Cl0-C16 acids and an increased this system, though to what extent, if any, it par-
production of oleic acid and unidentified (?keto) acids, ticipates in mammary synthesis of fatty acids for milk
appears particularly cogent. The lower homologues of lipids is not known. Dils and PopjLk (141) and Abra-
oleic acid present in milk fat (Table 1) were shown by ham et al. (143), found that avidin (by combining with
Hilditch and Longenecker (59) to have their double biotin) almost completely inhibited fatty acid synthe-
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bonds in the 9,lO position, indicating that they may sis in rat mammary gland preparations, though Dils
all originate in a similar manner; Hilditch and Longe- and PopjBk point out that no attempt was made to in-
necker suggested that a combined oxidation and reduc- vestigate optimal conditions for the possible produc-
tion of oleic acid might be involved, though, in the light tion of fatty acids from acetate by a mitochondrial sys-
of the finding that stearic acid can undergo desaturation tem.
in the udder to give oleic acid (115, 116), these shorter-
chain unsaturated acids may be similarly derived from
ORIGIX OF GLYCERIDES
the corresponding saturated homologues.
Work similar to that of Dils and PopjBk was con- S‘ource of Glycerol. Although it was thought until
currently being conducted in Chaikoff’s laboratory fairly recently that the glycerol of milk glycerides
(143, 144), though the conditions found for optimal originated entirely from plasma glycerides absorbed by
synthesis of fatty acids from acetate by lactating rat the mammary tissue, evidence has now accumulated
mammary gland were somewhat different from those showing that plasma glucose is a precursor, in the
reported by the British workers; an absolute require- lactating gland, of significant amounts of the glycerol
ment for citrate was noted and the stimulating effect required for milk lipid synthesis.
of free malonate was observed only in the presence of In studies in which C14-labeled acetate was ad-
citrate. The fatty acids synthesized were qualitatively ministered to a lactating goat, PopjBk, Glascock, and
similar to those obtained by Dils and Popjhk, though Folley (147) obtained evidence from specific radio-
the proportion of CS-Cl2 acids produced was much activity measurements of an apparent precursor-
greater. product relationship between lactose and the glyceride-
Whereas the work on ox mammary gland prepara- glycerol of the milk fat. They concluded that glucose,
tions showed that the malonyl CoA route to saturated from which lactose is rapidly formed, is the carbo-
fatty acids was effected by both microsomal and hydrate precursor of glycerol in the mammary gland.
soluble-enzyme fractions (140), subcellular particles A similar conclusion was reached from experiments in
depressed this synthesis in the soluble system of the rat which C14-labeledglucose was administered to lactating
gland, indicating a species difference ; this possibility is rabbits (124) and cows (148). Following the intrave-
supported by the unpublished observations of Dils and nous injection of C14-labeledglucose into lactating cows,
PopjBk (cited in [141]) that preparations of rabbit Luick and Kleiber (149) were able to show that at least
mammary gland require both microsomes and soluble 70% of the glycerol-carbon of the milk fat was derived
enzymes for maximal synthesis of fatty acids from from plasma glucose, though this could have taken place
acetate. Similar studies with rat liver tissue (145, 146) by direct synthesis in the gland or by way of plasma
have demonstrated that fatty acid synthesis requires glyceride synthesized in the liver and subsequently
both microsomes and soluble enzymes in about the same absorbed by the udder. A further experiment by
proportions (on a protein basis) as are present in the Luick (150) indicated that intramammary synthesis
original liver cells. is probably a pathway of quantitative significance.
A second pathway of fatty acid synthesis (the so- Various C14-labeled substances were infused into the248 GARTON
udders of lactating cows, and a comparison was made acid and long-chain acids of cow milk glycerides under
between the C’ccontent of the glycerol obtained from the influence of pancreatic lipase.
milk fat secreted by a quarter of the udder that had There is support for the suggestion (107, 150) that
been infused and that obtained simultaneously from a synthesis of triglycerides can take place in mammary
noninfused quarter. It was thus found that glycerol tissue. As noted earlier in this review, Luick (150)
was synthesized from glucose, but not from acetate, found that glycerol (as such or derived from glucose)
propionate, or butyrate; free glycerol was also incor- could be incorporated into milk glycerides, and Patton
porated directly into milk glycerides-confirming an et al. (158) have recently shown that hydrolysis of
earlier observation by Wood et al. (151), who injected glyceride-bound fatty acids can take place in the udder
C13-labeled glycerol into the pudic artery of a lactating followed by resynthesis of the liberated acids into new
cow. triglycerides. In this study, either 1- or %-monopen-
Though the foregoing experiment of Luick demon- tadecanoin was infused into the udder of a lactating
strated that glucose can be converted to glycerol in the goat, and it was found that milk triglycerides sub-
mammary tissue of the living cow, it should be men- sequently secreted contained pentadecanoic acid esteri-
tioned that no significant conversion was observed by fied in both the 1- arid 2-positions of the same glycerol
Balmain (152) in mammary tissue slices or in a study in molecule. Further, Luick and Lucas (159) found that,
which labeled glucose was added to blood perfusing the when free C14-labeledstearate was similarly infused into
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excised udder of a cow (153). The reason for these a cow’s udder, it was incorporated into milk triglycer-
negative findings is not clear, though in the perfusion of
ides, and, as previously mentioned, Lauryshens et al.
the udder it is possible, as suggested by Wood et al.
(148), that the experiment did not last a sufficient (115, 116) showed that the perfused udder from a
length of time. Hardwick and Linzell (154), however, lactating cow assimilated plasma free stearate into
in a series of perfusion experiments using udders from triglyceride combination.
lactating goats, found that the addition of labeled In their study of milk glyceride structure, XIcCarthy
glucose to the perfusing blood gave rise to milk tri- et al. (85) found that most of the component fatty acids
glyceride-glycerol of high specific activity ; similar high were, to some extent, selectively esterified in either the
specific activities were found in the milk lactose and 1- or 2-position of the glycerol molecule and that the
the respired Con. The secretion of milk was shown in site of selective esterification differed with some acids
earlier perfusion experiments (155) to depend on glucose (e.g., capric, myristoleic, palmitic, and octadecenoic
being available, the energy for secretion apparently acids) from that observed in the triglycerides of plasma
coming from a metabolic route not available to ace- obtained from the same cow. In the milk glycerides,
tate-such as the pentose phosphate pathway. palmitic acid was apparently randomly distributed ;
Assembly of Glycerides. Before the ability of mam- in milk glycerides from a cow from which feed was with-
mary tissue to synthesize fatty acids was known, it was held, palmitic acid was esterified to a greater extent in
considered that milk glycerides represented plasma the 2- than in the 1-position. It was concluded that, in
glycerides absorbed by the gland and secreted in a a normally-fed animal, plasma glycerides contributing
modified form. To account for the presence of short- to milk glycerides must undergo a rearrangement of
chain acids in esterified form, Hilditch proposed (11,78), their fatty acids or [[there must be a supplementary
with particular reference to the glyceride structure of synthesis of milk fat which tends to compensate by con-
ruminant milk fat, that these arose by w-oxidation of centrating palmitate in the 2-position.”
preformed unsaturated acid residues, especially oleic The sum of evidence currently available, admittedly
acid groups. Later, this hypothesis was modified and somewhat fragnieiitary, suggests that these two postu-
Hilditch suggested (156) that some oleic and possibly lated alternatives may well be but facets of a single
other unsaturated fatty acid residues present in plasma process, namely de novo synthesis from a pool of fatty
triglycerides might undergo acyl exchange with short- acids (as their CoA derivatives) and glycerol (in the
chain saturated acids synthesized in the mammary form of L-a-glycerophosphate) in a manner similar to
gland. This, of course, poses the question of the fate that known t o take place in other tissues (160). Evi-
of the displaced unsaturated acids; so far, no evidence dence that the main pathway of glyceride synthesis in
is available to show that such an exchange of acyl groups the lactating rat mammary gland is via a-glycerophos-
takes place, though Kumar and his colleagues (86, 157) phate has very recently been obtained by Dils and
haye observed an exchange in vitro between butyric Clark (161).COMPOSITIOK AKD BIOSYNTHESIS OF MILK LIPIDS 249
111. MILK LIPIDS I N RELATIOS TO presumably reflects the absorption and utilization for
DIET AND DIGESTIOX milk glyceride synthesis of these acids derived un-
changed from feed lipids; a confirmative corollary is
EFFECT OF CONDITIONS I N THE ALIMESTARY the observation of Kaufmann, Volbert, and Mankel
TRACT OF HERBIVORES (177) that no trans-unsaturated fatty acids are present
in the milk lipids of grazing mares. The presence in
The somewhat bewildering complexity of unsaturated
the milk lipids of omnivorous and carnivorous mammals
fatty acids present in the milk fat of ruminants is ap-
of trans-unsaturated fatty acids and of positional
parently associated with the presence of the forestomach
isomers of the common unsaturated acids is almost
or rumen in which the breakdown and modification of
certainly due to their having ingested lipid of ruminant
feed constituents takes place under the influence of
origin, and, in the case of lactating women, of their
rumen microorganisms (mainly bacteria). In addition
having eaten margarine or other fat containing fatty
to the bacterial breakdown of carbohydrates and pro-
acids that have been subjected to the influence of
teins, feed lipids are affected in that, in the rumen,
catalytic hydrogenation. Kaufmann et al. (177)
esterified fatty acids can be liberated by bacterial
found that trans-unsaturated fatty acids disappeared
hydrolysis (162-164) and unsaturated fatty acids can
quite quickly from the milk lipids of lactating women
undergo complete or partial hydrogenation (165, 166).
when they were given a diet fram which trans acids were
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Feed lipids, such as those of grass and other herbage,
absent.
are rich sources of C18 cis-unsaturated fatty acids,
In herbivores, fermentation of carbohydrates by
particularly linolenic acid (167-169) ; because of the
bacteria within the rumen or caecum (e.g., in the rabbit
hydrogenating activity of rumen bacteria, these acids
and the horse) is a source of volatile fatty acids con-
yield stearic acid together with a wide variety of
sisting mainly of acetate, together with some propionate
geometrical (trans) and positional isomers of unsatu-
and butyrate. Following their absorption, these acids
rated acids (166). The isomers produced are re-
contribute to the endogenous synthesis of tissue lipids,
markably similar to those formed by catalytic hydro-
including that of milk fat. The rumen bacteria also
genation when double bonds have been shown to
degrade proteins giving rise, inter alia, to branched-
migrate along the carbon chain (170) and linoleate
chain, volatile fatty acids; the aminoacid valine yields
gives rise readily to a conjugated double bond system
(171). Linolenate is hydrogenated particularly ef- iso-butyric acid, and leucine and iso-leucine yield
fectively by rumen microorganisms (164, l66), and iso-valeric and 2-methyl butyric acids, respectively
there is chemical evidence (172) that the central double (178-180). It seems likely, as discussed by Shorland
bond is preferentially attacked. Thus the unsaturated (181) and Hartman (182), that iso-butyric acid and
acids, wholly or partially hydrogenated, pass-largely 2-methyl butyric acid are incorporated into longer-
in the form of free acids (164)-with the other digesta chain branched acids, the former giving rise to the iso-
to the intestine; following their absorption and as- series and the latter to the anteiso-series as found in
similation into plasma lipids, these structurally modified bovine tissue (183) and milk lipids (Table 2). As
acids subsequently appear in the milk lipids. The pointed out by Keeney, Katz, and Allison (184), it
presence, as such, of linoleic acid and linolenic acid in was apparently assumed for some time that this synthe-
bovine milk fat indicates that they have probably es- sis took place within the animals’ tissues, but no
caped the effects of ruminal hydrogenation. The evidence has been forthcoming that shows this to be so.
previously mentioned claims regarding the nature of It is, however, evident from the studies of Keeney et al.
the CI, fatty acids of bovine milk fats and seasonal (184) that the synthesis can be effected by rumen
variations in their amounts (see, for example, Hansen bacteria, which incorporate these branched-chain acids
and Shorland [173], Mattsson [174], Stadhouders and into long-chain components of their structural lipids;
Mulder [175],and Wood and Haab [176]) are probably following their intestinal digestion, these microbial
attributable to differences in the rumen microflora of lipids pass into the tissues and milk lipids of the host
the animals and to differences between the amount and animal. It was calculated from analyses of the rumen
kind of feed lipids ingested. microbial lipids and those of the plasma and milk of a
In nonruminant herbivores, such as the horse, the cow that more than half of the 5.5 g of Cls branched acid
milk is characterized by the presence of fairly high pro- present in the milk lipids secreted during one day could
portions of linoleic and linolenic acids (given in Table 1 have been derived from the lipids of the rumen micro-
as octadecadienoic and octadecatrienoic acids). This organisms. Further, in vitro studies by Keeney andYou can also read
