The relationship between procrastination and sexual orientation
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Banbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 1 of 15
RESEARCH ARTICLE
The relationship between procrastination and
sexual orientation
Vigodny, A.1, Banbury, S.2*, Lusher. J.3
Authors’ affiliations:
1
PG Student Koret Veterinary School in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (MSc), Israel
2
Senior Lecturer Psychology, London Metropolitan University, UK
3
Senior Lecturer, University of the West of Scotland, UK
*Corresponding author: Sam Banbury, School of Psychology, London Metropolitan
University, 166-220 Holloway Rd, London, N7 8DB, Email: s.banbury1@londonmet.ac.uk
0:0 Abstract
Procrastination can lead to reduced mental well-being and life satisfaction. In this study, levels
of procrastination were examined as a function of sexual orientation using a correlational design.
Through an internet survey, a sample of 437 participants completed the Pure Procrastination
Scale, the conscientiousness related items of the International Personality Item Pool, and an
adapted version of the Rasch Derived Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale-
Short Form. Participants were divided in to one of four groups based on their gender and sexual
orientation. Procrastination scores were higher for heterosexual men compared to heterosexual
women (r=.142). Non heterosexual women were found to procrastinate more than heterosexual
women (r=.162). Both relationships were mediated by conscientiousness, but not depression.
Results suggest that certain sexual orientation groups may be more vulnerable to procrastination
and this has implications for their well-being, which raises further awareness of issues pertinent
to disparity in health equity.
Key words: procrastination, gender, sexuality, depression, conscientiousness
1:0 Introduction onstrated the adverse consequences of
procrastination in various areas of
Procrastination is a common self-regulatory wellbeing. For example, a recent study
failure defined as a voluntary delay of an examining the relationship between
intended course of action despite foresee- procrastination and mental health found
able negative consequences of the delay significant correlations between a general
(Wilson & Nguyen, 2012; Rozental & procrastination measure and measures of
Carlbring, 2014). Many studies have dem- mental health, cognitive functioning and
Copyright © 2018, Archives of Psychology. All rights reserved. http://www.archivesofpsychology.orgBanbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 2 of 15
social desirability (Stead, Shanahan & lations have been established (Martin, Flett,
Neufeld, 2010). It has been found that Hewitt, Krames & Szanto, 1996; Beswick,
chronic procrastinators expressed more life Rothblum & Mann, 1988; Saddler & Sacks,
regrets than non-procrastinators in areas 1993). The correlation between procrasti-
including education, parenting, family and nation and depression has been assessed in
friend interactions, health and wellness, and the aforementioned 2007 meta-analysis,
financial decisions (Ferrari, Barnes & Steel, using data on over 10,700 participants, and
2009). the correlation coefficient was r=0.28 (95%
CI 0.26-0.31; Steel, 2007). The cause of the
The ‘Big Five’ personality trait model relationship between depression and
characterizes human personality based on 5 procrastination is unclear. It has been
broad dimensions termed Openness to suggested that peaks of negative affect in
experience, Conscientiousness, Extraver- sufferers of depression may lead to the
sion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism (ab- increase in procrastination (Uzun Ozer,
breviated OCEAN; Cooper, 2006). The Big O'Callaghan, Bokszczanin, Ederer, &
Five model is commonly used to explore Essau, 2014). Additionally, while procras-
individual differences in personality tination may improve mood in the short run
through one of these five main traits or their by avoidance of aversive tasks, the
facets (Weisberg, DeYoung, & Hirsh, consequences of task delay decrease mood
2011). Conscientiousness is a trait related to in the long run, creating a depression spiral
dutifulness, self-discipline, orderliness, self- (Lindsley, Brass, & Thomas, 1995).
efficacy, achievement striving and
cautiousness (Maples, Guan, Carter & Interest in the relationship between sexual
Miller, 2014). A large-scale meta-analysis orientation and personality arose from
analysed correlations using data from over observations that the personalities of some
200 separate sources to find good predictors homosexual men appear more feminine,
of procrastination (Steel, 2007). The and some homosexual women more
findings highlighted several strong and masculine, than their heterosexual
consistent predictors of procrastination, counterparts (Pillard, 1991). The hypothesis
such as lack of self-efficacy (a component predicting such average differences was
of conscientiousness) and impulsiveness, termed ‘sexual inversion’. To test this
which is associated with both extraversion hypothesis, studies examined differences in
and neuroticism. In addition, primary traits traits that were known to vary between men
associated with conscientiousness such as and women, such as assertiveness and
distractibility, self-control, organization, dominance, associated with masculinity, as
and achievement motivation were strong well as compassion and nurturance,
predictors of procrastination. When each of associated with femininity (Pillard, 1991).
the Big Five factors was examined as a A narrative review of these earlier studies
whole, conscientiousness was the strongest has found differences in these traits
predictor with an average correlation between homosexual and heterosexual
coefficient of r=-.65 between measures of participants that provide support to the
conscientiousness and procrastination. hypothesis (Pillard, 1991; Lippa, 2005).
However, this viewpoint is somewhat
When looking at mental health and procras- outdated and runs the risk of perpetuating
tination, depression is one of the most outdated stereotypes. Later methodologies
studied, where consistent positive corre- have turned to wider models of personality
Copyright © 2018, Archives of Psychology. All rights reserved. http://www.archivesofpsychology.orgBanbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 3 of 15 to examine homosexual-heterosexual differ- raborty, McManus, Brugha, Bebbington & ences. A meta-analysis published in 2005 King, 2011). reviewed four studies that compared scores of over 6400 participants in measures of the The current study employed a correlational Big Five personality traits (Lippa, 2005). design to investigate the relationship be- The analysis distinguished four groups, tween sexual orientation and procrastination heterosexual men and women, and homo- behaviour. The hypothesis was loosely sexual men and women. A small (raw effect based on the sexual inversion hypothesis, as size g=-.17) yet significant difference in well as studies which have looked at conscientiousness was found between procrastination among men and women heterosexual men and women, indicating (e.g. Lippa, 2005; Weisberg et al, 2011). It that women have somewhat higher levels of was predicted that levels of procrastination conscientiousness on average (Weisberg, might vary between gender and sexuality, it DeYoung & Hirsh, 2011). A larger (raw was the possible mediation of this effect size g=-.35) and significant relationship by conscientiousness and level difference was found between heterosexual of depression. and homosexual men, suggesting that To expand, conscientiousness has been homosexual men have higher levels of shown to be higher in homosexual men than conscientiousness on average. However, no heterosexual men (g=0.35; Lippa, 2005), significant difference was found between and strongly predicts lower levels of heterosexual and homosexual women with procrastination (r= -.65; Steel, 2007). How- regard to conscientiousness. ever, levels of depression, that are higher in The prevalence of mental health disorders non-heterosexuals, are negatively correlated among homosexual and bisexual with procrastination (r=0.28). Therefore, it individuals is generally believed to be was hypothesized that homosexual men higher than in the general population would procrastinate less than heterosexual (Gilman et al., 2001). A meta-analysis men, and vice versa for women. published in 2008 reviewed 25 studies Conscientiousness was also predicted to related to the prevalence of mental health mediate the relationship between procras- problems in homosexual or bisexual tination and sexual orientation in men, populations compared to heterosexuals while depression was predicted to moderate (King et al., 2008). Data was gathered from the effect. While no significant difference over 225,000 participants revealed that the in conscientiousness has been demonstrated risk for suicide attempts in non- in research between homosexual and heterosexuals was twice as high as in heterosexual women, a higher level of heterosexuals. The risk for depression and depression is found in non-heterosexual anxiety disorders, as well as substance women. Therefore, it was hypothesized that dependence, was at least 1.5 times higher in depression will mediate the relationship non-heterosexuals. Similarly, a study between procrastination and sexual published in 2011 examined this trend in a orientation in females. There appears to be UK based population and found non- limited research on whether levels of heterosexuals had an increased risk for procrastination vary with sexual orientation depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and heterosexual groups. Mental health obsessive-compulsive disorder, suicidal among gay and lesbian groups appears thoughts and substance dependence (Chak- higher than heterosexual groups, where Copyright © 2018, Archives of Psychology. All rights reserved. http://www.archivesofpsychology.org
Banbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 4 of 15
procrastination has been associated with www.onlinepsychresearch.co.uk, as well as
depression and compromised self-efficacy social media groups on Facebook:
(e.g. Ferrari, Barnes & Steel, 2009). The Psychology Experiments, and Survey
results might enable better evaluation of the Sharing. A link to the survey was posted
risk for procrastination in different groups. along with a short description and the
Substantiating a difference in procrastina- inclusion and exclusion criteria. Once
tion between populations of different sexual participant recruitment was completed, the
orientations may also lead to additional links were removed from these websites.
research on the roots of such differences,
which could assist with understanding the
underpinnings of the phenomenon. Further, 2:3 Measures
having a better understanding of whether Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS; Steel,
procrastination varies among different 2010). The PPS is a 12-item questionnaire
sexual orientation groups will augment the designed to measure procrastination
development of gender and sexuality behavior. All items are rated on a 5-point
specific healthcare interventions. Likert scale to indicate the degree to which
participants identify with the statements
2:0 Method presented. The questionnaire is composed
of items from previous widely used
2:1 Design procrastination scales, selected through
factor analysis in a study with over 4,000
The current study employed a cross- participants. This questionnaire was
sectional, correlational design to investigate referred to as ‘pure’ since items address the
the relationship between sexual orientation actual act of procrastination, making it a
and procrastination behaviour. The study more specific measure. This measure has
also examined the possible mediation of high reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of
this relationship by conscientiousness and 0.92. Validity was supported by inclusion
depression. Convenience sampling was of several measures of procrastination in the
used to enable comparison between the factor analysis, and convergence of the PPS
different groups of sexual orientation. For with other related scales.
sexual orientation, each of the genders was
divided into groups of sexual orientation. International Personality Item Pool – 120
Analyses were conducted comparing (IPIP-120; Maples, Guan, Carter & Miller,
heterosexual to non-heterosexual, as well as 2014). The IPIP-120 is a 120-item self-
heterosexual, bisexual and homosexual report measure of the big 5 personality
groups. factors (including conscientiousness). Each
factor is assessed by 24 items rated on a 5-
point Likert scale. Each factor is divided to
2:2 Participants 6 facets, assessed by 4 questions each. The
437 men (40.3%) and women (59.7%) IPIP-120 was developed as part of a study
completed an online survey via survey that tested another widely used 300-item
monkey. Recruitment was through adver- big-5 personality questionnaire (The IPIP-
tisements placed on websites dedicated to NEO) and compared it to an established
participant recruitment for academic inventory (NEO PI-R). High reliability was
studies: www.callforparticipants.com, and demonstrated in these studies with a
Cronbach’s alpha of .89 and .84,
Copyright © 2018, Archives of Psychology. All rights reserved. http://www.archivesofpsychology.orgBanbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 5 of 15
respectively. This measure was used since it Monkey and Google Forms (two equivalent
provides a reliable estimation of versions were used). The first page of the
conscientiousness, with fewer items than survey was an information and consent
other commonly used personality question- page that participants were required to read
naires. and agree to prior to participation. The
information sheet included information
Assessing depression was closely modelled about the study and researchers and
on The Rasch-Derived Centre for Epide- possible risks of participation. Participants
miological Studies Depression Scale – were informed that their participation was
Short Form (Cole, Rabin, Smith & voluntary and that they could withdraw
Kaufman, 2004). This is a 10-item 4-point their participation at any time. After
Likert measure and provides a quick providing consent, participants completed a
assessment level of depression. This scale demographics section (only gender, sexual
was developed as a tool for screening orientation and age were mandatory), the
depression in the general population. The 12-item PPS, the 24 conscientious related
Cronbach’s alpha was 0.82 and 0.75. Its items of the IPIP-120, and the ‘modelled’
validity was estimated by having 10-item depression scale. This was
participants complete the short form along followed with a debriefing form which
with the full 20-item scale from which it included a list of organizations to provide
was derived, as well as the Beck Depression additional support.
Inventory, a widely used measure of
depression. Correlations between these
measures were high, 0.73 for the CES-D 3:0 Results
20-item scale and 0.74 for Beck’s
Depression Inventory, supporting the 3:1 Sample Characteristics
scale’s validity. 437 participants contributed to this study.
Assessing sexual orientation was closely 261 participants were women (59.7%), and
modelled on the, ‘Measure of Sexual 176 were men (40.3%). The mean age of
Orientation’ (Safren & Heimberg, 1999). the sample was 25.95 (SD=10.15), and it
The Measure of Sexual Orientation includes ranged between 18 and 66. Age was
one item rated on a 5-point scale. unevenly distributed, with over half of the
Participants rate themselves either exclu- participants 22 years old or younger. Of
sively heterosexual, heterosexual with some male participants, 51.1% reported to be
homosexual experience, bisexual, homosex- exclusively heterosexual (straight), 31.8%
ual with some heterosexual experience, or exclusively homosexual (gay), 6.8% mostly
exclusively homosexual. homosexual, 5.1% mostly heterosexual, and
5.1% bisexual. Of female participants,
70.1% reported to be exclusively
2:4 Procedure heterosexual (straight), 11.5% mostly
heterosexual, 10.7% bisexual, 5.7%
Ethical permission was obtained via the exclusively homosexual (gay), and 1.9%
Institutional Review Board. A computer- mostly homosexual.
ized survey was prepared using Survey
Copyright © 2018, Archives of Psychology. All rights reserved. http://www.archivesofpsychology.orgBanbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 6 of 15
Table 1. Sexual orientation
Group Males Females Total
n % n %
Exclusively heterosexual 90 51 183 70 Total heterosexual
n=273, 62.5%
Mostly heterosexual 9 5 30 12
Bisexual 9 5 28 11 Total non-heterosexual
Mostly homosexual 12 7 5 2 n=164, 37.5%
Exclusively homosexual 56 32 15 6
Total 176 100 261 100 n=437, 100%
For comparability purposes, questionnaire themselves throughout the spectrum of
scores were converted to a 0 to 1 scale. This possible scores. On the other hand, the
was achieved by deducting the minimal range of scores for conscientiousness was
possible score from the actual score, then .67, from .33 to 1, and no participants rated
dividing by the range of possible scores themselves within the bottom third of possi-
(Kolen, Tong, & Brennan, 2009). Using this ble scores. Internal consistency reliability
scaling method, 0 is the lowest possible estimates for all three questionnaires were
score in a questionnaire, while 1 is the high, with Cronbach’s alphas of 0.917 for
highest. The mean score for procrastination the procrastination scale, 0.875 for the
was .47 (SD=.23), for conscientiousness .67 conscientiousness scale, and 0.859 for the
(SD=.13), and for depression .38 (SD=.21). depression scale (Field, 2009). Significant
The range for procrastination and depres- correlations were found between all three
sion was 1, meaning that participants rated variables (see table 2).
Table 2. Correlations between continuous variables.
Variable 1 Variable 2 R
Procrastination Conscientiousness -.715**
Procrastination Depression .358**
Conscientiousness Depression -.404**
** All correlations were significant at a pBanbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 7 of 15
Table 3. Means and standard deviations of continuous variables
Sexual Orientation Gender Procrastination Conscientiousness Depression
M SD M SD M SD
Exclusively heterosexual Men .50 .23 .66 .13 .33 .19
Women .43 .21 .70 .13 .36 .21
Non-heterosexual Men .47 .25 .67 .13 .43 .24
Women .51 .21 .64 .13 .44 .21
Procrastination and Gender. In order to variables, conscientiousness, depression
determine which of the comparisons led to and age, were examined in order to detect
the significance of the analysis of variance, possible continuous mediators (Frazier, Tix,
multiple t-tests were conducted. The first & Barron, 2004). Significant correlations
comparison conducted was between were calculated between gender and
heterosexual men and women. The conscientiousness (r(271)=-.141, pBanbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 8 of 15
Age
ay by
Gender c (c’)
(heterosexuals) Procrastination
ax Conscientiousness bx
Figure 1. Mediation path model
Female Group. The next comparison was R2=.026; b=0.076, t(259)=2.64, pBanbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 9 of 15 Male Group. A similar analysis was heterosexual men (M=.33, SD=.19) and conducted for male participants. The women (M=.36, SD=.21) and non- average procrastination score for heterosexual men (M=.43, SD=.24) and exclusively heterosexuals (M=.50, SD=.23) women (M=.44, SD=.21), with significant was slightly higher than the average for results (F (3,433)=6.10, p
Banbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 10 of 15
relationship was mediated by levels of supports the use of this measure as a
conscientiousness, which was found to be predictor of procrastination. The marginal
strongly negatively correlated with levels of p-value for mediation by depression (0.067)
procrastination. Similar to Steel (2007), we suggests that a larger sample, especially for
found conscientiousness to be a consistent the non-heterosexual group, may be
predictor of procrastination. required to more accurately characterise the
mediating variables of the relationship
However, contrary to the hypothesis, this between sexual orientation and procrastina-
effect was strongly mediated by tion in women.
conscientiousness, but not by depression,
although depression did vary significantly The current study did not actively seek out
between the groups. Lee; Kelly & Edwards non-heterosexual participants, and relied on
(2006) examined procrastination and chance exposure to these demographics.
neuroticism in the context of On the other hand, the majority of non-
conscientiousness and depression and found heterosexual participants included in
that depression had no direct link to Lippa’s meta-analysis were scouted in gay
procrastination but rather it was mediated and lesbian clubs and pride parade festivals,
by conscientiousness. Nevertheless, the whereas the heterosexual ones were mainly
relationship between sexuality, procrastina- from colleges (Lippa 2000 & Lippa 2003).
tion and depression cannot be completely The difference in the method of sampling of
discounted. Indeed, many studies (e.g. heterosexual and homosexual participants
Lindsey et al, 1995; Steel, 2007; Uzun et al, in Lippa’s studies introduced bias that may
2014) have reported higher levels of have impacted the results. Research look-
depression among non- heterosexual groups ing at procrastination and sexuality remains
and may in part explain the higher level of scarce and forming comparisons with non-
procrastination reported by lesbian women heterosexual studies has proven challeng-
in this study. ing. Indeed, how these relationships are
mediated by consciousness in the context of
However, contrary to the findings reported sexuality requires further examination.
by Lippa, (2005), who did not find a
significant difference between heterosexual Comparisons between the means of
and lesbian women, the current study found depression scores between subgroups of
conscientiousness scores for non-hetero- sexual orientation, as well as results from
sexual women were comparable to those of previous studies (Shearer et al., 2016),
men, and distinguishable from those of indicate a need to differentiate between the
heterosexual women. Lippa, (2005), had subgroups of sexual orientation in the
examined lesbian woman only, whereas this analysis. In addition to a larger sample
study grouped together non-heterosexual size, another option is quota sampling
and heterosexual groups. Although the participants from each of the subgroups. If
average procrastination score of the lesbian quota sampling is used, care should be
group in this study (M=.49, SD=.21) was taken that participant pools do not differ
nearly identical to the average of the non- significantly (Field, 2009). Incentives may
heterosexual group (M=.51, SD=.21), in be offered to reduce the rate of refusal and
actuality differences may exist masked by support the generalizability of findings
sampling error (Field, 2009). The strong (Grady, 2005; Wendler, Rackoff, Emanuel,
mediation by conscientiousness further & Grady, 2002).
Copyright © 2018, Archives of Psychology. All rights reserved. http://www.archivesofpsychology.orgBanbury S. et al. Archives of Psychology, vol. 2, issue 4, April 2018 Page 11 of 15
Further, these findings may not be In conclusion, this study revealed
representative of the general population. To differences in procrastination between the
expand, the majority of participants in this genders and in part non-homosexual groups
study were University students (mean age where it was found that lesbian women
26 years). Studies of student samples reveal procrastinate more on average than hetero-
higher rates of chronic procrastination than sexual women. These relationships were
in the general population, and it has been mediated by levels of conscientiousness,
estimated that 50% of university students which was found to be strongly negatively
engage in consistent and problematic correlated with levels of procrastination.
procrastination (Day, Mensink & O'Sulli- This may put lesbian women at greater
van, 2000; Chu & Choi, 2005). The vulnerability to the effects of procras-
outcomes in this study may mirror those tination where consideration of sexual
reported by Day et al., (2000), where orientation in future studies may serve to
procrastination mediated by meeting better characterize this relationship. For
deadlines and examination stress are example, looking at the link between
academic norms irrespective of sexuality. personality traits and coping strategies (e.g.
Indeed, this study was conducted during the daily hassles) may provide a better
summer examination period which has been understanding on how conscientiousness
shown to increase students’ overall may affect cognitive vigilance and/or
depression and stress-levels (Chernomas & avoidance in the context of sexuality.
Shapiro C., 2013). This may have resulted Studies wishing to examine personality
in an increased/varied baseline in levels of differences as a function of sexual
depression and/or stress among participants orientation should ensure adequate
thus affecting study outcomes. Certainly, a sampling to support generalizability of
more diverse sample is needed to improve results while recruiting a sufficiently large
the generalizability of findings. sample to differentiate between homosexual
and bisexual participants in the analysis.
Other facets of procrastination including We hope that this study will provide a
anxiety, impulsivity (Steel, 2010), self- platform for future research in
efficacy, perfectionism and coping understanding how multifaceted mediating
responses may supplement our factors of procrastination may influence
understanding of procrastination in the non-heterosexual groups coping strategies
context of sexuality and gender and how and in the development of sexuality-based
‘these relationships’ are mediated by well-being intervention programmes.
consciousness and depression. Interestingly,
research is now looking at the ‘benefits’ of * Arbel Vigodny, Samantha Banbury and
procrastination within an academic context Joanne Lusher declare no conflict of
and suggest that by accepting interest.
procrastination may help modulate stress
levels and increase motivational arousal
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