TUNNEL VISION - SPACEFLIGHT IN 2021 COVID-19 - AN AIRCREW MENTAL HEALTH CRISIS? MILITARY ROTORCRAFT REQUIREMENTS FOR 2040 - Royal ...
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
March 2021
AEROSPACE
SPACEFLIGHT IN 2021
COVID-19 – AN AIRCREW
MENTAL HEALTH CRISIS?
MILITARY ROTORCRAFT
REQUIREMENTS FOR 2040
www.aerosociety.com
March 2021
Volume 48 Number 3
TUNNEL VISION
150 YEARS OF THE WIND TUNNEL
Royal Aeronautical Society
Find Success with
AIAA Online Courses
AIAA online short courses help you stay sharp while improving your
knowledge base. The 2021 spring catalog features 11 courses spanning
an array of disciplines. We’re committed to assisting in your professional
development and maximizing your success. Enroll in an upcoming course.
Hypersonics: Test and Evaluation
18 March–8 April | 4 Lectures | 8 Total Hours
Design of Space Launch Vehicles
6 April–13 May | 12 Lectures | 24 Total Hours
Missile Aerodynamics, Propulsion, and Guidance
14–30 April | 6 Lectures | 12 Total Hours
Electrochemical Energy Systems for Electrified Aircraft Propulsion:
Batteries and Fuel Cell Systems
5 May–28 May | 8 Lectures | 16 Total Hours
Optimal Control Techniques for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
On Demand | 20 Lectures | Approx. 9 Total Hours
Can’t attend the live online lectures?
Courses will be available on demand.
BROWSE THE FULL COURSE CATALOG
aiaa.org/SpringCourses
Volume 48 Number 3
March 2021
EDITORIAL Contents
A second lost summer? Regulars
4 Radome 12 Transmission
The latest aviation and Your letters, emails, tweets
The development and swift roll-out of Covid-19 vaccines in the UK had raised aeronautical intelligence, and social media feedback.
hopes for the beleaguered airline, airport and travel sector that restrictions analysis and comment.
58 The Last Word
would start to lift and international flights resume. However, this optimism
11 Pushing the Envelope Keith Hayward looks at
had harsh reality applied when Transport Secretary Grant Shapps MP told Rob Coppinger considers investment in aerospace and
BBC Breakfast that international holidays and business travel this year would the implications of artificial how much the UK should
intelligence on the protect its strategic assets
‘depend on everybody having their vaccinations’, adding that people ‘would from foreign takeovers.
flightdeck.
have to wait for other countries to catch up’. Current estimates for the UK
suggest that the adult population could all have the jab by autumn but it could Features
take until 2023-24 to vaccinate the entire global population. Predictably,
32
Wambampram
these statements have drawn fury from the UK aerospace sector, who are
already hanging on by their fingernails and battling to survive. Indeed, as
AEROSPACE goes to press, the UK has just introduced tighter restrictions 14
QinetiQ
for those entering the country, with a ten-day mandatory quarantine from high-
risk pandemic areas and up to ten years in prison for falsifying travel history. Digital testing
Of course, there is likely to be a staggered easing of restrictions as individual QinetiQ is developing new
nations complete vaccination programmes and countries get the all-clear as Winds of change digital systems and airborne
holiday destinations. However, for the passenger, the uncertainty of new rules How the creation of the test platforms which will
first wind tunnel by the accelerate the flight testing
makes for a stark choice – either to take a risk booking flights with ever- Aeronautical Society in 1871 of new and modified aircraft.
changing restrictions that may see holiday dreams dashed by the emergence led to their development
around the world.
of new strains or hot zones, or potentially wait at least another year before 36 Blade runners for
contemplating foreign travel. For UK airlines, with idle aircraft and for airports 20 Son of the An-2 2040+
Russia’s latest project to Report on the RAeS Next-
with empty runways, there may not be the option of a ‘second lost summer’ develop a utility aircraft Generation Military Rotorcraft
without immediate and massive government sector-specific support. The UK successor to the legendary conference: Future Military
aviation sector is already on the ropes – another grounded summer could An-2 biplane. Medium-Lift Helicopter for
2040+.
knock it out. Boeing
22
AAR
Tim Robinson FRAeS, Editor-in-Chief
tim.robinson@aerosociety.com @RAeSTimR
40
Correspondence on all aerospace matters is welcome at: publications@aerosociety.com
Spaceflight in 2021 –
Editor-in-Chief Editorial Office 2021 AEROSPACE subscription a look ahead Keeping it in-country
Tim Robinson, FRAeS Royal Aeronautical Society rates: Non-members, £190
+44 (0)20 7670 4353 No.4 Hamilton Place
An overview of international India repositions its approach
To place your order, contact: commercial and state-funded to the MRO industry post-
tim.robinson@aerosociety.com London W1J 7BQ, UK Wayne J Davis
+44 (0)20 7670 4300 +44 (0)20 7670 4354
crewed and uncrewed space Covid-19.
Deputy Editor
publications@aerosociety.com aerosubs@aerosociety.com missions in 2021.
Bill Read, FRAeS
+44 (0)20 7670 4351 www.aerosociety.com Any member not requiring a print 28 Covid-19 – a hidden
bill.read@aerosociety.com AEROSPACE is published by the Royal version of this magazine should mental health crisis? As the 42 Logbooks under scrutiny
Production Manager
Aeronautical Society (RAeS). contact: membership@aerosociety.com pandemic takes a mental toll on Alan Dron investigates the
Wayne J Davis Chief Executive USA: Periodical postage paid at pilots and professionals is it time problem of false pilot licences
+44 (0)20 7670 4354 Sir Brian Burridge CBE FRAeS Champlain New York and additional for airlines to up their game? and the implications for safety.
wayne.davis@aerosociety.com Advertising offices.
Publications Executive
Chris Male, MRAeS
+44 (0)20 7670 4346
partners@aerosociety.com
Postmaster: Send address changes
to IMS of New York, PO Box 1518, Afterburner
Champlain NY 12919-1518, USA.
+44 (0)20 7670 4352 Unless specifically attributed, no 46 Message from our President
chris.male@aerosociety.com material in AEROSPACE shall be taken ISSN 2052-451X 47 M
essage from our Chief Executive
Production Executive to represent the opinion of the RAeS.
Annabel Hallam Reproduction of material used in this 48 Book Reviews
+44 (0)20 7670 4361 publication is not permitted without the 51 Library Additions
annabel.hallam@aerosociety.com written consent of the Editor-in-Chief.
Book Review Editors Printed by Buxton Press Limited, 52 New Members Spotlight
Tony Pilmer and Katrina Sudell Palace Road, Buxton, Derbyshire 53 2021 Council Elections
book.reviews@aerosociety.com SK17 6AE, UK
54 RAeS Diary
Original artwork
©Wayne J Davis/RAeS Distributed by Royal Mail 56 Elections
Additional content is available to view online at: aerosociety.com/aerospaceinsight
Including: Reimagining the future of civil aviation, Morphing aircraft designs, The need for a
Read AEROSPACE and the insight blog on your
European civil X-plane, New Member spotlight, In the February issue of AEROSPACE, Spaceflight in smartphone or tablet with the AEROSPACE app
Online 2021 – A look ahead, How Cool Aeronautics went digital, Biomimicry in aerospace design. APP available from iTunes and Google Play
Front cover: A Boeing concept model being tested in the supersonic wind tunnel at NASA’s Glenn Research Center. (NASA)
@aerosociety i Find us on LinkedIn f Find us on Facebook www.aerosociety.com MARCH 2021 13
Blueprint
INTELLIGENCE / ANALYSIS / COMMENT
Clean wing
Removing the engines and pylons from the
wings saves 8,000kg in weight and also
allows for a highly efficient laminar-flow
wing, reducing drag.
V-tail
Without the need for a large
vertical rudder for asymmetric
handling, the tail and
empennage can be lightened
with a V-tail configuration,
saving 3,000kg in weight.
Rear propulsor
The IP2 would feature dual contra-rotating ducted fans, powered by
brushless electric motors that would encircle the rear fuselage.
Not having to protect or reinforce the fuselage against uncontained
fan-blade separation from wing-mounted engines would also save
Conseil et Technique
weight.
4 AEROSPACE
Specifications
Aeronautical fineness 17
MTOW 75,000kg
Endurance (current technology) 78min
Endurance (predicted) 5hr
Battery packs
By reducing its structural weight and
removing 20,000kg of fuel, this would
allow heavy batteries to be installed, says
the firm. Conseil et Technique envisages
a ‘plug & play’ solution to quickly recharge
or swap battery packs at airports, as well
as being able to shift the packs internally
before flight to account for different pay-
loads and CoG.
AIR TRANSPORT
Electric tailspin
French engineering and design consultancy Conseil et Technique has revealed a concept for
an electric-powered A320-sized airliner, the Integrated Propeller Plane (IP2), that shifts the
engines from the wings to an integrated propulsion fan around the tail driven by brushless
motors. As well as zero-emissions, Conseil et Technique says that, by relocating the engines
from the wing, this will reduce 8,000kg of structural weight, eliminate asymmetric handling
problems on take-off, enable laminar-flow wings and also remove uncontained engine fan
blade issues. Using today’s battery efficiency of 0.15kWh/kg, the firm says that the IP2 would
be able to fly for 78 minutes, rising to 323 minutes with 0.4kWh/kg batteries, expected to be
available in five years time. IP2, says the company, could also be adapted to use hydogen
propulsion.
MARCH 2021 5
Radome
COVID-19
AIR TRANSPORT AEROSPACE
Matthias Ripp
Over 50% of airline pilots currently Rolls-Royce mulls two-
not flying week summer shutdown
UK engine manufacturer business who would
Rolls-Royce is reported have to take two weeks
to be considering a unpaid leave through
two-week temporary wage reductions spread
shutdown of its out over the year. The
commercial engine firm has been particularly
business during the hard-hit by the collapse
summer to assist in in long-haul flights flown
stemming losses caused by widebody aircraft
A survey carried out by Goose Recruitment and industry publication FlightGlobal by the pandemic. First powered by its engines.
has revealed that over half the pilots surveyed are currently grounded. The Pilot reported by the Sunday The firm is already
Survey 2021 received replies from 2,598 pilots around the world which showed that Telegraph, the decision undertaking a cost-
30% were currently unemployed, 17% were furloughed, 6% were employed in other would affect 19,000 reduction plan, aiming to
aviation jobs and 4% were now working in other industries. staff in its civil aerospace save more than £1bn.
AIR TRANSPORT AEROSPACE
IATA: ‘2020 worst ever Zhuhai Air Show to return in 2021,
year for civil aviation’ while other air shows shuffled
China’s Zhuhai Air Show,
In its full-year data from International traffic was cancelled in 2020 due to the
2020, airline industry down 75.6% in revenue global pandemic, is now set
group IATA says that passenger kilometres to return in 2021, say the
the pandemic caused (RPK) while domestic organisers. The aerospace
the worst-ever year in RPK also fell 48.8%. trade exhibition, China’s
Zhuhai Air Show
history for civil aviation, IATA is now forecasting, largest, is now due to take
with passenger air despite the roll-out of place before November this
traffic plunging 65.9% the Covid-19 vaccine, year. Meanwhile, other trade
compared to 2019. RPKs to still be around exhibitions and air shows have
Hopes of a recovery in 50% lower than 2019 either been cancelled or postponed. Both EBACE planned for May and ABACE
the second half of the levels, due to more scheduled for April have been cancelled, while AERO Friedrichshafen, set for April
year were dashed when severe lockdowns and a has been postponed to June. In the UK, Yeovilton Air Day and the Royal International
countries implemented myriad of different travel Air Tattoo, set for July have been cancelled, while Cosford Air Show, planned for
new restrictions. restrictions. June, has been postponed.
NEWS IN BRIEF
reached 8,150ft, causing equipped with a maritime services to begin in the
A preliminary accident the aircraft to roll more UAV specialists General sensor fit, including a second half of 2023.
report from Indonesia’s than 45° and plunge into Atomics-ASI has multi-mode maritime radar
National Transportation the sea. announced that it is to and AIS system to identify Coventry in the UK is set
Safety Committee (KNKT) bring a SkyGuardian shipping. to become one of the
into the crash of a Sriwijaya US budget carrier MALE drone to the UK first cities to host eVTOL
Air Boeing 737, that killed Southwest Airlines has to demonstrate in the ThalesAleniaSpace has services when a pop-up
62 onboard, has found an announced its first annual maritime patrol and ASW announced it has been hub from Urban Air Port
imbalance in thrust that loss in 48 years as the role. The company’s selected by Telesat to launches later in 2021. The
led the aircraft to dive into airline industry reels from MQ-9B, which forms build a 298-satellite eVTOL and delivery drone
the Java Sea after take-off the effects of the Covid-19 the basis of the RAF’s LEO broadband site, ‘Air One’ in partnership
from Jakarta on 9 January. pandemic on travel. In its new Protector UAV, megaconstellation, with Hyundai and Coventry
Safety investigators, annual results, the airline will be based at RAF Lightspeed. First City Council will be located
working on ‘black box’ reported it had lost a Waddington during satellites of the Ka-band by the Ricoh Arena, with
data found that the left record $3.5bn in 2020, the the summer trials for constellation are expected the firm saying it expects
engine throttle lever moved first time it has posted a NATO partners. The to be launched in two to have fully commercial
back when the aircraft loss since 1972. SkyGuardian will be years, with commercial eVTOL pads in 2022/23.
6 AEROSPACE
DEFENCE AIR TRANSPORT
Spirit Aero and Northrop Grumman From rags to Jet A1
to work on UK LANCA prototype
Japan Airlines (JAL) has technology developed by
operated a commercial flight the Research Institute of
using sustainable aviation Innovative Technology for the
fuel (SAF) made from used Earth (RITE).
clothing. The two-hour flight Boeing announced
was operated on 4 February that it has committed to
on a Boeing 787 from Tokyo delivering airliners able to
Haneda to Fukuoka. JAL has fly on 100% sustainable
been involved in a project to aviation fuel by 2030.
MoD
convert cotton clothing into In 2018 the company
The UK MoD has awarded £30m to Spirit AeroSystems in Northern Ireland (formerly SAF since October 2018, made the world’s first
Bombardier Belfast) and Northrop Grumman UK to design and manufacture a ‘Loyal which involved 50 local 100% sustainable fuel
Wingman’ prototype for the RAF’s Lightweight Affordable Novel Combat Aircraft (LANCA) companies collecting over flight using a 777 freighter
project. The contract will see ‘Team Mosquito’ build a technology demonstrator UCAV with 250,000 pieces of clothing in its ecoDemonstrator
the goal of a flight-test programme by the end of 2023. which were processed using programme.
SPACEFLIGHT AEROSPACE
ESA opens call for new H2-powered Miniliner would offer
cadre of astronauts 30-40% savings, says Pipistrel
Pipistrel Aircraft
For the first time in 11 ESA is also set to launch
years, the European a Parastronaut Feasibility
Space Agency has Project, which will
announced it is explore the possibility
recruiting a new cadre of those with physical
of astronauts. ESA disabilities going into
says it is “strongly space. Applications
encouraging women for ESA’s new cadre
to apply, because we of astronauts are set
are seeking to expand to open on 31 March
gender diversity in our and to run until 28 May. Slovakian manufacturer Pipistrel has revealed more details of its Miniliner concept for a
ranks”. Alongside the A six-stage selection 20-seat zero-carbon airliner for regional point-to-point travel. Conceptual design studies
move to increase its process will take place, on the aircraft, which would feature hydrogen propulsion and have a range of up to
diversity in age, ethnicity, which is expected to 1,000km, have found that direct operating costs on a per seat basis could be slashed
background and gender, finish in October 2022. by up to 30-40%, says the company.
Limited (HAL) revealed concept for the Indian three passengers.
On 17 February, Aircraft lessor Nordic a new concept for Air Force to have it ready
Canada’s De Havilland Aviation Capital (NAC) an indigenous ‘Loyal by 2024-25. Airbus Helicopters has
Aircraft announced that has delivered the first of Wingman’ UCAV weapon announced it has won
it would be suspending 15 Embraer ERJ-190s system. The CATS SpaceX has announced the first offshore order for
production of its Dash 8 to US start-up carrier (Combat Air Teaming it will fly a commercial, its new H160 helicopter,
Q400 regional turboprop, Breeze Airways. Breeze, System) comprises non-government piloted with PHI to operate four
which it acquired from which hopes to start the CATS Warrior spaceflight which will H160s in the Gulf of
Bombardier in 2018 operations later this stealth drone, the CATS spend several days Mexico on behalf of Shell.
through its parent group, year, is to use a fleet of Hunter air-launched orbiting the Earth at
Longview Aviation Capital. secondhand E190s on cruise missile and the the end of 2021. The Microsoft is to join
The manufacturer will not point-to-point regional Alpha-S, swarming mini- Inspiration4 flight has forces with a UK start-up
be producing any aircraft routes. munitions that would be been chartered by Satavia to investigate
beyond already confirmed launched by the ‘Loyal businessman Jared whether AI can be used
orders. Some 500 jobs at At the Aero-India air Wingman’ Warrior. HAL Isaacman who will fly the to predict and reduce
its Downsview factory are show in February, is planning to accelerate four-seat SpaceX Crew the impact of contrails on
expected to be affected. Hindustan Aeronautics development of this Dragon capsule with climate change.
MARCH 2021 7
Radome
GENERAL AVIATION SPACEFLIGHT
Bombardier to end Learjet Chinese, UAE and US
production after 58 years probes arrive at Mars
China’s Tianwen-1 space months, before deploying
probe has become the a lander and a rover to
latest mission to reach the planet’s surface. If
Mars, successfully successful, it will become
inserting itself into Martian only the second-ever
orbit on 10 February. country to land a lander
Bombardier
The spacecraft joins the safely on Mars. Meanwhile,
UAE Hope probe, which as AEROSPACE goes
arrived in Mars orbit on to press in mid-February,
After almost 60 years, Bombardier is to end production of its iconic Learjet business 9 February and became NASA’s Perseverance
jet in Wichita, Kansas, amid declining demand during the pandemic. Some 1,600 jobs the first Arab misson to rover (and Ingenuity
are to go with Bombardier focusing on its larger cabin models, such as the Challenger reach Mars. Tianwen-1 mini-helicopter) is set to
and Global series, to save cash. First flying in 1963, the original Learjet 23 became a is now set to survey the attempt to land on 18
legendary business jet, ushering in the age of fast, private jet travel. planet for about two February.
AEROSPACE AIR TRANSPORT
EASA approves 737 United Airlines places $1bn eVTOL
MAX return to flight order
Archer Aviation
On 27 January the requirements. EASA’s
European Union Aviation requirements are broadly
Safety Agency (EASA) similar to those required
granted its approval for by the US Federal Aviation
the grounded Boeing Administration (FAA) with
737 MAX to be returned the exception of allowing
to service in mainland flight crews to intervene
Europe. The EASA to stop a stick shaker from
Airworthiness Directive continuing to vibrate once
is subject to software it has been erroneously United Airlines has placed a provisional $1bn order for ‘up to 200’ of new start-up Archer
upgrades, electrical wiring activated by the system Aviation’s eVTOL air taxis, with an option for a further $500m worth of the vehicles as a
rework, maintenance and prohibiting certain ‘microfeeder’ service to get passengers to its hubs. Archer had previously been in stealth
checks, operations manual types of high-precision mode with its four-person Maker eVTOL, which will fly up to 60miles at 150mph. Its cost
updates and crew training landings. per passenger, says Archer, is expected to be 1/35th of that of a helicopter.
NEWS IN BRIEF
variant, the F-15EX, which probe on the Moon by Aerobility and Civic Air conduct autonomous
Starting on 15 February, is destined for the USAF. 2023. The country is Transport Association beyond visual line of
the UK has introduced The first flight took place also aiming to develop (CIVATAglobal). The sight (BVLOS) drone
new travel restrictions from Boeing Defense’s its own spaceport with white paper urges eVTOL operations in the US
for international arrivals facility in St Louis, with the international co-operation, manufacturers and urban National Airspace
from 33 ‘red list’ countries F-15EX getting airborne as well as sending an air mobility developers to System (NAS).
who must pay £1,750 to for 90 minutes. The USAF astronaut into space and ensure that air vehicles Massachusetts-based
quarantine in a hotel for is expected to acquire 144 developing its satellite and the infrastructure are American Robotics is
ten days. Those who fail F-15EXs, with the first two industry. ‘designed with disabled now authorised to fly
to quarantine could be hit to be delivered later this access, user interfaces, remotely small (up to
by fines of up to £10,000, quarter. Not enough attention and adaptations’ in 20lb) Scout UAVs in
while those falsifying is being paid by the mind, with accessibility rural areas.
travel history could face Turkish President Recep emerging ‘air taxi’ sector considered from the start.
ten years in prison. Tayyip Erdogan has to accessibility issues Aeroflot has announced
announced ambitious for wheelchairs and The US FAA has given a loss of RUB 96.5bn
On 2 February Boeing plans for a national other users, according the go-ahead for the ($1.3bn) for 2020,
conducted the first ever space programme, with to a new report from UK first US commercial compared to a profit
flight of its latest F-15 the goal of landing a disabled flying charity drone operator to of Rb5.3bn in 2019.
8 AEROSPACE
AEROSPACE DEFENCE
France opens call for
DARPA
DARPA
airport hydrogen ideas awards
French flag carrier,
Air-France-KLM, Paris
by the EU, to develop
zero-carbon passenger
contracts
airports group Groupe aircraft by 2035, by for missile
carrier drone
ADP, Paris region and looking for ideas for the
manufacturer Airbus have storage and distribution
issued an unprecedented of gaseous and liquid
‘worldwide call’ for hydrogen at main airports.
expressions of interest to The partners hope to
explore the opportunities hear from companies, The US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has shortlisted three
for creating a hydrogen large and small, start-ups, US companies to compete in its LongShot programme to develop a UAV capable of
fuel infrastructure for universities and research employing multiple air-to-air weapons. The contracts have been awarded to General
airports around Paris. labs. The deadline for Atomics, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman for preliminary Phase I design work
The aim is to support applications of interest is on UAVs which offer significantly extended engagement ranges, increased mission
French plans, backed 19 March. effectiveness and reduced risk to piloted aircraft.
SPACEFLIGHT AIR TRANSPORT
Lockheed Martin picks rocket for first NATS to fast-track green
vertical launch from Britain Lockheed Martin
transatlantic routes
NATS is set to trial new recently. Separately, a
‘free flight’ routing for the new study published in
North Atlantic in March, Environmental Research
allowing airlines to ignore has found that the current
standard transatlantic organisation of routes
tracks and save fuel across the North Atlantic
and time by using the has the potential to be
most efficient route. The 16% more fuel efficient.
tests are set to begin The report found that
Lockheed Martin has selected California-based start-up ABL Space Systems to provide in March, according to current flight tracks across
the rocket and associated launch systems for the UK’s first-ever vertical space launch The Independent, with the North Atlantic are
from British soil – known as UK Pathfinder Launch. ABL’s new RS1 rocket will launch the scheme enabled by typically several hundred
from the Shetland Space Centre, Unst, Scotland in 2022. The first payload will be an the new satellite ADS-B kilometres longer than
orbital manoeuvring vehicle, developed by MOOG UK, and able to deploy cubesats. that went into service fuel-optimised routes.
Revenues for the same Correction
period were RUB In the February edition of ON THE MOVE
229,766m, a decrease AEROSPACE, in the list president nominates a directors – Janet Collyer,
of 58.4% from 2019. of books received, it was Warwick Brady, CEO of permanent replacement. Paul Everitt and Ben
stated that the author of I sell
Passenger numbers fell by aircraft: no ‘plane’ business
Southend Airport owner Stocks.
85% in Q2 but the carrier was Brian M Dixon. It should Stobart Group, is to Atlantic Aviation Group
announced that cargo have been David M Dixon. become the new CE of has appointed Pfizer Jiten Chopra is the new
revenues for Q4 increased Swissport. Ireland’s HR Director CFO of Indian carrier
We apologise for any
by 78% compared with Eileen O’Riordan as a IndiGo.
confusion caused.
Q4 2019. Air Commodore Paul non-executive director.
Godfrey RAF is to be the Chairman of Aviation
UK trainer jet developer Private Chinese launcher inaugural commander Virgin Galactic has Heritage UK is former
Aeralis has been awarded start-up, iSpace failed of the newly formed UK announced Seth Zaslow Flight International Editor,
a three-year contract on its second launch Space Command. as its VP of Investor Allan Winn, taking over
from the RAF’s Rapid on 1 February, with its Relations. from Vulcan to the Sky
Capabilities Office (RCO) Hyperbola-1 rocket losing John P Roth is to serve CEO Dr Robert Pleming
to explore its concept for a control during its first as Acting Secretary of The UK ATI has appointed who sadly passed away in
modular jet trainer. stage burn. the US Air Force until the three new non-executive early February.
MARCH 2021 9
By the Numbers
Understanding the world of Aerospace through data
Wind tunnels from around the world
RUSSIA
FRANCE C ST B
Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute: CHINA
CSTB Jules Verne Climatic Wind T-101, Zhukovsky. Ts AG I FL-62, Shenyang.
Tunnel, Nantes. 24m x 14m x 24m Run by Aerodynamics Research
6m x 5m x 12m Institute and AVIC
Used for testing structures and 17,000m3, Transonic.
vehicles in extremes of temperature Opened in May 2020.
and weather. Xi n h u a
UK
CANADA RWDI Aircraft Research Association Ltd
RWDI Wind Tunnel, (ARA), Bedford.
A ir b u
Guelph, Ontario s 2.7m x 2.4m RUSSIA
7.32m long. Transonic Mach 1.4. Central Aerohydrodynamic
A RA Institute: T-2, Zhukovsky.
6m x 14m
Ts AG I
O nt ar i
oT
e
ch
UK
Airbus Filton, Filton, UK,
3.65m, subsonic.
CANADA
ACE Climatic Wind Tunnel,
Oshawa, Ontario.
MRI
JAPAN
MRI Large Wind Tunnel,
Meteorological Research
Institute, Tsukuba.
18m x 3m x 2m
Projects include studying
turbulence caused by buildings
USA and spread of volcanic gas.
LENS-X hypersonic wind B oei
ng
tunnel, Buffalo, NY.
Mach 30 LE
N
Claimed to be world’s
S
fastest wind tunnel.
Ec
o
no
mi
c Times
USA
Boeing Subsonic
NA Wind Tunnel,(BVWT)
S
Philadelphia, US,
A
6.1m, subsonic. INDIA
C SI R Hypersonic Wind Tunnel (HWT)
Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO), Hyderabad.
USA Opened in December 2020
Ames Research Centre. I EAv
Hypersonic – Mach 5-12.
Un
iv
24m x 37m
er
Subsonic.
sity
AUSTRALIA
Largest wind tunnel in the world.
of Adelaide
SOUTH AFRICA Adelaide Wind Tunnel,
Council for Scientific and Industrial Thebarton.
BRAZIL
T3 Hypersonic Shock Tunnel, Research (CSIR), Pretoria.
Institute for Advanced Studies 7.5m x 6.5m x 13m
(IEAv).
Largest hypersonic wind tunnel in
Latin America.
10 AEROSPACEPushing the Envelope
Exploring advances on the leading edge of aerospace
Robert Coppinger
Teaching AI airmanship
A
rtificial intelligence (AI) is the ubiquitous a pilot who is momentarily confused by what his gut
technology buzzword and, in aviation, AI tells him and what the multi-functional displays say.
is the solution for robot electric vertical With a spectrum of flight deck applications, from
take-off and landing taxis and the decision support, advising a go-around, for example,
military’s autonomous combat drones. all the way to emergency intervention, AI would
However, it also has a great deal of potential for the appear to be a worthy investment.
airliner fight deck. The public face of AI development
has been the grand masters of strategy games,
HARVIS – AI support for reduced crew
such as chess and China’s Go, being trounced by a
computer. The state-of-the-art AI software today can Making the decision to go-around is one of the use
be given the basic rules of a game and, after playing cases for AI that is being studied by a European Union
for many hours, can develop strategies for defeating project, Human Aircraft Roadmap for Virtual Intelligent
its opponent, human or machine. Flying an aircraft full System (HARVIS). The €826,000 three-year project
of passengers is going to require more than just basic is looking out to the 2030s when AI might support
rules and will need a level of reliability and integrity for reduced crew operations. Rome-based human factors
AI that has never been seen before in avionics. specialist Deepblue is a HARVIS consortium member
and results dissemination manager. Deepblue’s
The robot airliner Stefano Bonelli explained that the one of the larger
obstacles to flight deck AI is not what people expect.
The Boeing 737 MAX debacle demonstrates the
Looking across at AI’s evolution for terrestrial purposes,
importance of software testing. While the concept of
robot co-pilot development would appear to be a case
the robot airliner has been proposed in the past, it is
of simply loading the software into the flight simulator
not an option that is seriously being considered by
and running every imaginable scenario ad nauseum.
any aviation authority or researched. Where AI has
However, HARVIS researchers have found that
been investigated is for improving flight operations by
it is not that easy. They discovered that the 20-odd THE BOEING 737
aiding pilot performance, for example, decision support.
Socio-economic developments far beyond aviation
pilots that are normally considered sufficient for MAX DEBACLE
may also drive a greater change to the flight deck. aviation research are not enough. For training, existing DEMONSTRATES
Before the Covid-19 pandemic, the airline industry AI requires 2,000 pilots and getting this amount of THE IMPORTANCE
data is a challenge. The 2,000 pilots could have to sit
was talking about a pilot shortage. The US military, OF SOFTWARE
with a view to possible future pilot shortages, has through many video examples of landings and give
their judgement on whether a go-around was the
TESTING. WHILE
been developing what it calls a ‘drop-in’ solution to
right decision or not. Even once AI is trained, there is THE CONCEPT
make aircraft, designed for two pilots, operable by
one. A ‘drop-in’ AI co-pilot could certainly enable the another difficulty. Normally pilots collaborate in the OF THE ROBOT
airline industry to entertain the prospect of reduced cockpit to make decisions and take actions but this AIRLINER HAS
crew operations. The US military’s tests have involved way of working is not possible, for now, with AI. Instead, BEEN PROPOSED
Sikorsky helicopters and flight tests are already AI would give short instructions without any conferring. IN THE PAST,
beyond pilot support. Another use case HARVIS has looked at is IT IS NOT AN
Fully autonomous test flights are expected this emergency landings where an engine has failed or
OPTION THAT IS
year. The use of AI could go further – in emergency there is an on-board medical emergency. Here, simple
situations. Crash investigations have discovered instructions about where to land would seem easier SERIOUSLY BEING
that pilots can rely more on their instincts than to achieve. However difficult the technical challenges, CONSIDERED BY
what the instruments are telling them. Artificial the final obstacle may be public acceptance, come ANY AVIATION
intelligence could therefore intervene and act on the the 2030s, that a computer is making life or death AUTHORITY OR
instruments’ data rather than the aircraft waiting for decisions in the cockpit. RESEARCHED.
MARCH 2021 11Transmission
LETTERS AND ONLINE @aerosociety i Find us on LinkedIn f Find us on Facebook www.aerosociety.com
i
.
Hybrid-Electric Trijet design analysed
The Hybrid-Electric Trijet
TU Braunschweig
concept, as featured in
the February issue of
AEROSPACE(1), looks
interesting at first sight but
has the following points which
need consideration:
- Central entry door. This is
in line with the wing leading Hardingham Sword
edge, thus no clearance for winner Jenny Body
the mobile air stairs and the
escape slide would end up on
Rolls-Royce
top of the wing.
- No over wing escape hatch.
The Hybrid-Electric Trijet is a concept design from Germany for a laminar flow narrow-body aircraft.
- Engines partly buried in the
wing trailing edge. Uneven - Outer wing folding. The not possible due to the aft heavy structure and a disc
airflow over the fan disc, inlet B777X only folds the wing tip; mounted centre engine. burst could remove the fin
airflow shielded at high angles the concept appears to fold the - Centre engine. Replace ‘tail and tailplane. Apart from the
of attack, ingestion of rain, aileron section which would be strike’ with ‘nacelle strike’; above, the forward section of
snow and ice from wing and a major certification issue. a very tall undercarriage the concept looks quite good.
it is not possible for the fan - No aft entry/service/ would be required to prevent
blades to be inspected during escape door. This would this! Attaching the nacelle Peter Gambardella,
the pre-flight walk around. be a requirement but is to the fin would require a MRAeS
Will Scotland defend the UK? Yvonne Elsorougi [On
Jenny Body Sir Robert
As reported in AEROSPACE, our Atlantic and North Sea in-depth reappraisal of our have to be dismissed out Hardingham Presidential
the closing months of maritime and air defence strategic defence provision of hand. Perhaps the only Sword Award recipient Ms
2020 saw fascinating and region but help guard NATO’s and be vastly expensive to acceptable option would Jenny Body] It is fantastic
thought-provoking virtual northern flank. re-deploy. be to ensure the key base to see Jenny winning this
conferences that provided 4. The Scottish nationalists 10. An independent Scotland facilities are excluded from award. Very well deserved for
insight into evolving UK demand the removal of all could upset the delicate any sovereignty transfer and all her years of dedication to
defence requirements and military nuclear weapons and East-West balance of military perhaps the UK’s Cyprus the aerospace industry and
policies, including important facilities, key assets in the power in Europe weakening bases could be the model. But the commitment she has
developments in cyber and Atlantic Alliance. the West for no advantages. any such compromises would shown through her Royal
space access resilience. 5. The SNP has no credible do nothing to avoid potentially Aeronautical Society activities
However, there was one defence plan of its own, could No doubt an independent catastrophic harm to the for education, skills, diversity,
subject that was completely not fund one and its strategic Scottish government would collective Western defence in inclusion and equality. Many
passed by, even though it geographical value to the UK be extremely keen to maintain Europe at a time when Russia congratulations, Jenny!
could become, later this year, cannot be replaced. the employment levels and is continuing almost weekly
as divisive and gamechanging 6. The SNP would seek to economic gain that today air and sea manoeuvres right
for Great Britain’s future be neutral and outside NATO, flows from so much UK up to UK national boundaries. Andrew Gray
as Brexit. The prospect of like Ireland, but particularly defence spending north of The former Leader of the Congratulations Jenny –
Scottish independence, and vulnerable to a Russian the border, especially warship SNP has his own TV show on I always remember your
its consequences for UK incursion or anchorage. building, but also support the Russia Today channel and, leadership in A400M!
defence, is the elephant in 7. The MoD continues to infrastructure for such major along with us all, favours good
the room that it appears invest £billions into new, defence programmes as relations with Russia, but not
nobody across the defence expanded, base facilities the new Dreadnought-Class all Scottish MPs are relaxed Roger Bourne Great
establishment wants to and shipyards in Scotland Trident nuclear submarines, about Moscow’s actions at news! Congratulations
address, certainly not in public. on the Clyde and at RAF and new P-8 and Wedgetail home and abroad. Many Jenny. You have been a
Yet: Lossiemouth. AWACS fleets. Why should realise that weakness wins tremendous contributor to, and
8. The new MoD Space Westminster pay rental you no favours when dealing ambassador for, the valued
1. The MoD is the largest Command plans to use new fees for freehold defence with The Bear. The defence work of the RAeS.
single employer in Scotland. satellite launch and support sites it already owns, and consequences of the potential
2. Our bases in the Clyde and facilities, yet to be established, is rebuilding? Demands breakup of the UK are surely
Highlands and Islands are in Scotland. for a say in how the assets worthy of debate. David Bailey
essential to UK defence. 9. Any future constitutional are used (such as banning Congratulations Jenny,
3. They safeguard not only change would require an nuclear weapons) would Richard Gardner MRAeS thoroughly deserved!
12 AEROSPACEH175 – the new Puma? BA 777 Heathrow crash and ATC
@AndyNetherwood
Airbus
Marc-Anthony Payne/Wikipedia
[On BA38 777 Heathrow
crash lecture] Absolutely
fascinating behind the
scenes look at Heathrow
ATC during the BA38 crash
Airbus H175 ordered by from @adamspink who
China’s Rescue and Salvage was supervising. Well worth
Widerøe flies higher Bureau for S&R missions. watching on the
@AeroSociety YouTube
@JonathanLandolt [On
@Rotorfocus [On Airbus channel if you missed
Norwegian regional carrier
pitches H175 as RAF Puma it. In awe, as ever, at the
Widerøe overtakes Lufthansa
replacement in RAeS Future professionalism of air traffic
in number of flights] Lufthansa
Military Rotorcraft Conference, controllers. I was on the On 17 January 2008, a @jayjay23a3 During
is in no obligation to fly, while
see p 36] Given that H175 edge of my seat throughout. BA Boeing 777-200ER training, one of the criteria
Widerøe has to provide
was never to be militarised, as Absolutely fascinating, thank landed short of the runway we’re being assessed on
flights as part of the PSO
it’s half Chinese, this is quite a you. I think you nailed the at Heathrow Airport after ice is our temperament and
agreements. It really does
surprising proposal. lessons learned as well. crystals blocked fuel flow to communication. It’s all about
prove the point.
the engines. There were 47 hiding your inner flap!
injuries but no fatalities.
Career uncertainty @Pilotsparky Not really a @AdamSpink Thanks
sustainable answer. It would Andy, that means a great deal @Sea_SJJC The reassuring @RobbieKiwiMac Without
@IMEcheE [On Tips on coming from you.
be easier to get an EC225 calmness of the controller’s a doubt we are blessed
dealing with career uncertainty
approved. voice is astounding. Having with phenomenally capable
as a young person] In our
watched videos of myself and industry-leading ATC at
content series with the @LisaDBond1 Aaah yes. under pressure in Heathrow, just saying what
@AeroSociety and @TheIET, The day I watched you as
@GbhvfRon Very interesting. @RNGibSqn, I can attest to my 20+ years of international
hear from @AeroSociety’s supervisor. And as all the
Key question would be ‘is how necessary and difficult flying has shown me.
Prof Jonathan Cooper and phones constantly rang –
there money being set aside it is to remain calm, clear and
Sir Brian Burridge as they swore that was one job I’d
in the Defence Budget for the professional when things go
discuss the issue of dealing never ever do!
procurement and support of a wrong #BA38.
with disappointment and
Puma replacement?’ Second
uncertainty as a young
question would be ‘in what
professional(2).
timescale?’
Typhoon with attitude From the RAeS photo archives
@thomas_embleton [On
RAeS/NAL
Eurofighter
‘Beast Mode’ Eurofighter
Typhoon fitted with dual
Meteor racks for 14 x
BVRAAMs] This is something
I’ve wanted to see for a long
time! Just wish they sorted out
the conformal tanks.
@VirtualAvi8or Aerospace
engineers: So how many
missiles do you want?
Eurofighter: Yes.
Frank Hedges Butler’s balloon Dolce Far Niente (45,000ft3)
about to ascend from Monmouth Gas Works on 16 April
@Justin_Br0nk Cool, but @Bradninchfellow When @Mark_Ranger Pretty 1906 during an Easter House Party at The Hendre, Lord
prohibitively expensive to run you have to shoot down the much what the USA want the Llangattock’s seat (Charles Rolls’ family home). Passengers
in any real life situation. Even entire Belgian airforce in one F15EX for. included Frank Hedges Butler, Mr John Holder, Prof
all out war, this is a no. go. Huntington and the Hon Charles Rolls. Descent was made
at Hardwick Farm, Upton St Leonards, Gloucester.
1. AEROSPACE, February 2021, p 4, Blueprint
2. ow.ly/7nlA50DqXUn
@aerosociety i linkedin.com/raes f facebook.com/raes www.aerosociety.com MARCH 2021 13HISTORY
150 years of wind tunnels
Winds of change
BRIAN RIDDLE, former Chief Librarian of the RAeS National Aerospace
Library, looks back at the early years of the wind tunnel’s 150-year history
which began with an experimental tunnel commissioned by the Royal
Aeronautical Society.
Wambampram
14 AEROSPACE“ …This is certainly enough to place it within the was reported in the RAeS’ Council minutes, dated
RAeS/NAL
very highest reaches of important scientific instruments 5 February 1872, that the Experimental Committee
and tools developed over the entire length of human had conducted ‘the first series of their labours (tests)
history,”(1) noted the leading aviation historian Richard … and were tabulating the results’, the first public
P Hallion. exhibition of the ‘new machine … for measuring the
W
relation between the velocity and pressure of the
hat is being described is the wind’(2) occurring at the Society’s General Meeting of
construction in 1871 – 150 Tuesday 18 April 1872 held at the Society of Arts.
years ago – of the world’s first At the meeting, Wenham described “how it acted
wind tunnel under the auspices as an ordinary anemometer, for ascertaining the
of the Aeronautical Society of direct force of the wind on a plane, when in a vertical
Great Britain. direction to its surface” by using a series of ‘planes’
The tunnel was designed by Francis Herbert mounted on a horizontal arm which could be set at
Wenham (1824–1908), one of the most influential various inclinations and vibrate in response to blasts of
figures in the pre-Wright era of aeronautics who air(3). Two years later, at the Society’s General Meeting
conducted extensive studies of cambered wings and of Tuesday 15 May 1874, Thomas Moy reported
aspect ratios, and had delivered the first lecture to that based on the “… valuable experiments …made
the Society entitled ‘Aerial Locomotion’ on 27 June at Messrs. Penn’s factory, at Greenwich … those
1866. In the Society’s Council minutes, dated 13 experiments went far beyond his expectations in
July 1870, it was reported that Wenham was among favour of aerial navigation, and gave upward pressures
those appointed to “… a Committee for experimental at small angles which were not expected from any
purposes”. At the Council’s meeting of 3 July 1871, existing theory. From the data furnished by these
the Experimental Committee reported that it: “… experiments, Mr. Moy had constructed a diagram of
had determined upon an Instrument designed by Mr. curves for pressures at different angles, and at speeds
Wenham for experimenting with a view of discovering varying from 10 to 40 miles an hour”(4).
Above: Francis Herbert the relations existing between velocity and pressure at Prior to the work of Wenham, the single most
Wenham. various angles”. important aeronautical theoretician of his era was
Opposite page: The main Sir George Cayley (1773–1857) who adapted the
wind turbine fan in building Beginnings as a fanblower whirling arm first designed in 1746 by Benjamin
Q121, part of the long Robins (and constructed by John Ellicott) for
retired wind tunnels in It was settled that the ‘Instrument’ which was to be measuring air resistance to determine the influence
Farnborough, Hampshire,
submitted to ‘the requisite test with a fanblower’ of the angle of incidence on aerofoils. Wenham’s
UK.
was to be constructed by an optical and physical invention of the wind tunnel – and its facility to allow
Below: A Gloster SS19B,
instrument maker, John Browning at John Penn and data to be gathered on wing shapes of varying
J9125, suspended in the
same Farnborough 24ft Sons marine engineering works at Greenwich (a thickness, length and aspect ratio – represented a
wind tunnel when it was in manufacturer of industrial ventilation fans) at a cost step change opening up new avenues for the study of
active use. of ‘about £25’ (around £3,000 in current values). It aerodynamic phenomena.
UK wind tunnel
RAeS/NAL
history
In Britain, aeronautical research – overseen by the
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (ACA), formed by
Lord Haldane in April 1909 – in the early decades of
the 20th Century was centred around two sites – the
National Physical Laboratory (NPL) at Teddington
and the Royal Aircraft Factory / Establishment at
Farnborough:
1903: Thomas Stanton constructs first wind tunnel at
NPL.
1907: Construction of the first wind tunnel at the Balloon
Factory, Farnborough, modelled on NPL design (over
20ft in length and 5ft square).
1917: Two 7ft tunnels constructed at Farnborough.
1919: Duplex wind tunnel built at NPL.
1933: Compressed air tunnel brought into use at the NPL.
1935: 24ft diameter tunnel opened at Farnborough.
MARCH 2021 15HISTORY
150 years of wind tunnels
European wind
tunnel history
The early evolution of the wind tunnel was
pioneered in Europe, and during the following
decade a number of significant developments
occurred using wind tunnels including:
1893: Ludwig Mach, son of the noted scientist
Ernst Mach, built a 7in by 9¾in tunnel in Vienna
specifically to photograph the motion of air,
pioneering the use of photographic techniques to
study airflow.
1894: A marine engineer Henrik Christian Vogt
(1848–1928) studied pressure distribution
around flat plates and various surfaces in a wind
tunnel (40in long and 4½ x 9in in cross-section)
constructed with the assistance of Johannes O. V.
Irminger (1848–1938) at the Eastern Gas Works,
Copenhagen.
1896: At the l’Éstablissement Central de
l’Aérostation Militaire de Chalais-Meudon, Charles Growing wind
Renard (1847–1905) its Director built a 13ft
Also in 1871, in Russia, a wind tunnel and a three-
31˝ diameter wind tunnel to study the stability of
component aerodynamic balance was designed
airships.
and constructed by V A Pashkevich at the Mikhailov
1896–1897: Two small-scale wind tunnels were Artillery Academy, St. Petersburg(5).
used by Poul la Cour (1846–1908), of Askov, The studies in 1884 of Horatio Frederick Phillips
Denmark, for windmill and wind turbine research. (1845–1926) to test the curvature and efficiency of
(The Danish Aerodynamic and Acoustic Wind various aerofoil sections in a wind tunnel of his own
Tunnel at DTU is named after him). design – 6ft long and 17in square – encompassed
1896–1897: Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky the next milestone. In ‘Experiments with Currents
(1857–1935) – later to be known as the ‘Father of Air’, published in Engineering, 14 August 1885,
of Soviet Rocketry’ – as part of his research into Phillips’ tunnel was described as ‘… A rectangular
designing a large metallic 200-passenger airship trunk of wood … open at the front end, had attached
built a small wind tunnel, similar to Wenham’s to it at the back end an expanding delivery tube
design with a one-component balance to measure of sheet-iron’ through which air would be sucked
drag coefficients at Borovsk near Moscow. (In total through the entrance into the tunnel using a steam
from 1871 through 1915, 18 wind tunnels were injection system to generate the airflow, effectively
constructed in Russia: eleven in Moscow, five in St incorporating a diffuser into a wind tunnel: “The
Petersburg and two in Kaluga). results obtained … are, we believe, the best hitherto
1899: In France, Étienne-Jules Marey (1830– recorded, and agree substantially with the highest
1904) extended his studies of the flight of results reached during the experiments made at
birds through rapid-sequence photographs to Greenwich …”.
photographing the flow of air over various shaped As Octave Chanute (1832-1910) noted in his
bodies by means of smoke in a wind tunnel. book Progress in Flying Machines – a key work in the
development of early aviation – Phillips’ experiments
led “… to the inference that much greater supporting
power is to be obtained from concavo-convex
surfaces than from the flat planes which hitherto have
been chiefly proposed for aeroplanes” (6).
Blowing across the UK
Back in Britain, from 1891–1894, Hiram Maxim
(1840–1916) constructed in the grounds of
Baldwyns Park, Kent, a huge biplane machine which
made a short uncontrolled powered ‘hop’ flight in
July 1894, just raising itself from the rails on which it
16 AEROSPACENASA
ran. Initially, Maxim used data gathered from a huge
whirling arm to develop his design but its limitations
led him to a construct an ‘Apparatus for testing the
US wind tunnel
lifting effect of aeroplanes and condensers in an air
blast’ – a wooden box ‘ …12ft long and exactly 3ft
history
square inside … connected … to a shorter box 4ft The following decades witnessed a major
square’ – which incorporated two propellers placed expansion of the development of wind tunnels in
vertically and horizontally and was powered by a the United States, at both research establishments
100hp steam engine. Maxim pioneered the use of and the growing number of academic institutions
wooden slats – placed in the tunnel horizontally, offering aeronautical courses, including:
vertically, and diagonally – to straighten the air flow 1913: Jerome Hunsaker, assisted by Edward P.
and thereby ‘ascertained the lifting effect … of various Warner and Donald Wills Douglas, constructs wind
forms and at varying velocities of the wind, and, tunnel based on NPL design at MIT.
also, the resistance offered by various bodies driven
1918: The US Army constructed its first ever wind
through the air’(7).
tunnel at McCook Field, Ohio, for high-speed
testing of instruments and aerofoils.
The blowing machine 1920: Operation began at Langley, VA, of the first
Outside of Europe, in 1893, Professor William NACA Wind Tunnel No.1.
Charles Kernot (1845-1909) constructed the 1923: Variable Density Tunnel at Langley, VA.
first wind tunnel – ‘blowing machine’ – in Australia 1927: Propeller Research Tunnel (PRT) at Langley,
at the University of Melbourne for the study of VA, becomes operational.
The X-48B, a flying scale wind forces on buildings. In 1896, a mechanical
1929: 5ft Vertical Wind Tunnel at Langley, VA, for
model of a full-size blended engineering student Alfred J. Wells constructed the
wing body aircraft, in investigations of the spinning characteristics of
first wind tunnel in the United States – 30in2 – at the
Langley's historic full-scale aircraft.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as part
wind tunnel. 1930: 7ft by 10ft Atmospheric Wind Tunnel (AWT)
of his thesis.
On 17 December 1903, the Wright brothers at Langley, VA.
– Wilbur (1867–1912) and Orville (1871–1948) 1931: The Langley Full-Scale Tunnel – 30ft by
– achieved at the four hills of Kill Devil, near the 6ft test section housed in a nine-storey building –
village of Kitty Hawk, NC – the world’s first piloted, was constructed by NACA for testing of full-scale
sustained, controlled, powered flight in a heavier- aircraft. It was the largest wind tunnel in the world
than-air machine, with Orville Wright at the controls of at the time and was to stay in operation until 4
the Wright Flyer. Their achievement was founded on September 2009.
years of wind tunnel experiments on wing surfaces of 1936: 8ft High Speed Tunnel (HST) at Langley, VA.
various configurations – and with their own kite and
1938: 19ft Pressure Tunnel at Langley, VA
glider designs – and it was in their second tunnel (a
(later adapted in the 1950s to become the 16ft
Transonic Dynamics Tunnel (TDT)).
Bundesarchiv Bild
1938: Wright Brothers High Pressure Wind Tunnel
– based on the original 1908 Ludwig Prandtl
return flow design at Göttingen – inaugurated by
the Daniel Guggenheim School of Aeronautics at
MIT to simulate atmospheric conditions at various
speeds/altitudes.
Axda0002
Near right: German Replica of the Wright Brothers' wind tunnel at the Virginia
aviation laboratory, 1935. Air & Space Museum in Hampton, USA.
MARCH 2021 17HISTORY
150 years of wind tunnels
Airbus
RAeS/NAL
NASA
NASA
Boeing
RAeS/NAL
18 AEROSPACERight: The hypersonic
Randy Montoya / Sandia National Laboratories
wind tunnel at the Sandia
National Laboratories, US.
Opposite page, clockwise wooden box 6ft long and 16in square inside) that over the 1931 Douglas DC-1 airliner due to the extensive
from top left: A 1/40 scale 200 model aerofoil configurations in more than one wind tunnel testing undertaken at the Guggenheim
model of the airship Akron scale were tested, ‘a delicate instrument that would Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of
in the Full-Scale Wind
help the Wrights unlock the secrets of a wing’(8). Technology (GALCIT) in its 1929 10ft tunnel.
Tunnel; Airbus’ low-speed
wind tunnel at Filton, Europeans continued to lead the world in wind Research into high-speed aerodynamics (including
Bristol, here carrying out tunnel research through to the 1920s, the pioneering swept and delta wings) also led to faster, more efficient
tests on Concorde models achievements of 19th Century individuals built designs. Jacob Ackeret (1898–1981) constructed
in 1969; The triangular upon by the funding of national governments and during 1935–1936 the first wind tunnel capable of
planform of the sub-scale private individuals (such as Gustave Eiffel and Henri operating at Mach 2 at the Institüt fur Aerodynamik,
X-48B Blended Wing Deutsche de la Meurthe) to build major facilities. ZÜrich, Switzerland(9), much larger supersonic facilities
Body prototype is evident
as it awaits testing in the
Modelled on the European experience, the being built at Peenemünde, Germany, related to the
full-scale wind tunnel at National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) development of the A-4 / V-2 rockets.
NASA Langley; Sir George was established by the US Congress in March 1915, In 1938 the first wind tunnel in China – the 15ft
Cayley's Whirling Arm for and the nation’s lack of wind tunnels – only two such wind tunnel with interchangeable 18ft section for
testing aerofoils, rotated facilities existed in the United States in 1910: the full-scale engine and airscrew tests of National Tsing
by a weight; the Subsonic Wright Brothers’ tunnel in Dayton, OH, and Dr Albert Hua University in Peking – became operational. The
Ultra Green Aircraft
Francis Zahm’s 1901 tunnel (40ft long wind tunnel, Aeronautical Research Institute of Tokyo Imperial
Research (SUGAR)
Project being tested at the 6ft square in section, powered by a 12-horse-power University had already incorporated a wind tunnel
Ames Research Center electric fan) at the Catholic University of America in among its facilities when it opened in 1921.
wind tunnel; Full-scale Washington, DC – was a key concern. From Francis Wenham’s pioneering design, the
Wind Tunnel, NASA, The 1930s witnessed the development of more evolution of wind tunnels – which had transformed the
Centre: Étienne-Jules aerodynamically efficient aircraft designs – a reflection fundamental understanding of aerodynamics and fluid
Marey.
of wind tunnel evolution, the streamlined design of dynamics – had truly become worldwide.
(1)
Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age from Antiquity through the First World War, Richard P. Hallion, New York, US, Oxford University Press, 2003, p 116.
(2)
Seventh Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 1872, p 5.
(3)
Wenham’s tunnel was later described as “… a horizontal current was produced by a rotary fan, and the planes used were arranged so that they could
be fixed at any required angle. The vertical force or lift, and the horizontal force or thrust, were ascertained by means of steelyards” ‘Experiments with
Currents of Air’, Engineering, 14 August 1885, p 160.
(4)
Ninth Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 1874, p 6.
(5)
The First Aerodynamic Balances in Russia, Paper presented at the 9th International Symposium on Strain Gauge Balances, A. R. Gorbushin and Valery
S. Volobuyev, Seattle, 19-22 May 2014 ‘The Origin of Wind Tunnels in Russia’: Paper presented at ICAS 2016 30th Congress of the International
Council of the Aeronautical Sciences, DCC Daejeon, Korea, 25-30 September 2016.
(6)
Progress in Flying Machines,The American Engineer and Railroad Journal, Octave Chanute, New York, US, 1894, p 157.
(7)
Artificial and Natural Flight, Sir Hiram S. Maxim, Whitaker & Co, London, UK, 1908, pp 51-59.
(8)
The Bishop’s Boys: a Life of Wilbur and Orville Wright, Tom Crouch, New York, US, W. H. Norton and Company, 1989, p 222. Wilbur Wright summarised
his initial theories about “… the angle at which aeroplane and wind actually meet” in his first published paper ‘Angle of Incidence’, The Aeronautical
Journal, July 1901 pp 47-49.
(9)
The term ‘Mach number’ was introduced by Ackeret in his inaugural lecture at Federal Institute of Technology (ETH – Eidgenössische Technische
Hochschule), Zurich, on 4 May 1929.
MARCH 2021 19You can also read
