Uniquely KoreaRetaining Visual Authenticity - Deanna Cannon - in Cultural Presentations - Digital Commons @ Liberty University
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Korea Uniquely
Retaining Visual Authenticity
in Cultural Presentations
Deanna Cannon
Master of Fine Arts Thesis Project Liberty University
School of Communication & the Arts
Department of Studio and Digital Arts
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to those whose love and support have
helped this project blossom into something special.
To my chair and thesis committee whose
encouragement and guidance led me to a deeper
understanding of my topic and research.
To all my professors who challenged me to grow in my
skills and gain confidence in my abilities.
To my sisters for all their support, both academically
Korea
Uniquely
Retaining Visual Authenticity
in Cultural Presentations
and emotionally.
To my parents who supported me throughout my
academic career and always encouraged my interest
in illustration. And especially to my mom who
introduced me to Korea and has always been there to
guide me as I delved deeper into my Korean heritage.
Diane Xu, Chair
Heather Burt, First Reader
Kami Anderson, Second Reader
© 2021 Deanna Cannon
Written and Designed by Deanna Cannon
deannabohae.art/thesis
Todd Smith, Department ChairAbstract Contents
As educators and creators seek to introduce students to cultures from around
the world to increase cultural awareness, visual media has also become a
powerful tool to disseminate the visual culture of a people. When media Chapter One: The Problem ........................................................06
misrepresents a culture, the introduction to the culture can be flawed and
create more problems. How then can media creators ensure that their Chapter Two: Research Report ...................................................10
representations are accurate? This project proposes that careful research
balanced with an observation of the culture’s visual presentations can help
guide cultural representations toward authenticity. Research Rationale .......................................................12
Research Methods ........................................................ 13
This research specifically explores the problem of misrepresenting traditional
Korean culture in American media. The generalization of East Asian cultures Summary of Findings ................................................... 16
in American media caused by both past events and current events has lead Conclusion ....................................................................40
to a distorted view of Korea. However, good representations of traditional
Korean culture can help eliminate these stereotypes and generalizations
by demonstrating the uniqueness and richness of Korean culture. Through Chapter Three: Visual Process ....................................................42
research of traditional Korean cultural elements like hanbok, hanshik,
architecture, Hangul, and pottery as well as visual observations of Korean Design Plan ...................................................................44
visual media, this study aims to demonstrate the importance of viewing
Design Process ..............................................................45
cultural objects in context and through the eyes of the members of the culture.
Because the misrepresentation of Korean culture stems in part from limited
American education on historical Korea, the end goal of this research project Chapter Four: Final Solution ......................................................62
was to create an illustrated book for American elementary school children
that will introduce them to an authentic and informative representation of
historical Korea. The book’s visuals were created based on a combination Chapter Five: Conclusion ............................................................80
of research and observation of cultural artifacts and visual presentations in
drama, animation, illustration, and historical reenactments.
Appendix .................................................................................... 84
Bibliography ............................................................................... 87Chapter
One
The Problem
Uniquely Korea 07Introduction Research Problem
Although Korea has played an important role in East Asian
history for thousands of years, the American understanding
of Korean culture is limited, and American audiences often
To the American eye, Asian culture overall world in 1876 after signing Japan’s Treaty of are unable to distinguish Korea’s traditional culture from the
looks deceivingly similar. People eat rice Kangwha (Y. Kim). Thus, when Korea became traditional cultures of China and Japan.
and use chopsticks. Red dragons decorate more known to countries like England, France,
the clothes, furniture, and porcelain vases. and the United States, their understanding of
Words are written as complicated pictograms. Korea’s unique culture and history was limited
Although the names of East Asian countries by their earlier knowledge of China and Japan.
like China, Korea, and Japan are recognized,
While global awareness of East Asia and
Research Questions
their cultures are sometimes loosely
categorized as ‘Asian’ or ‘Oriental.’ Hanchao Korea has increased since the 19th century,
Lu notes in her forward for Culture and visual recognition of Korea’s rich heritage is • How have American audiences misidentified Korean culture?
Customs of Korea that while Asia’s importance still limited in America. Ko, Chun, and Lee
note that when “compared to neighboring • What are the key aesthetics of Korea’s traditional cultural elements?
on a global scale has been recognized, “Asia
remains for most of us a relatively unfamiliar, countries, such as Japan and China, [Korea’s]
• What design elements (i.e. motifs, colors, and patterns)
if not stereotypical or even mysterious, great lifestyle and traditional values are
are unique to traditional Korean culture?
‘Oriental’ land” (Clark xi). not effectively conveyed to the world” (201).
Korea’s efforts—both individual and • How has Korea portrayed their distinctive visual culture
Of course, people who are more familiar with national—to communicate their traditional in modern times through visual media?
East Asia can distinguish between the cultures heritage have faced obstacles throughout
of China and Japan and even identify some their history, the two most recent being the
elements of their respective cultures. Kung fu Japanese occupation and the Korean War.
and dragons remind one of China while ninjas
and sushi remind one of Japan. However, even
though Korea has become more well-known
However, despite these obstacles, Korea has
been slowly gaining recognition in many
Knowledge Gap
in America in recent decades, many people countries including America through the
would still find traditional elements of Korea’s spread of its popular culture such as K-pop Research on Korean culture has been primarily limited to defining
material culture unfamiliar or difficult to and K-dramas. With the increasing attention Korean aesthetics or analyzing interpretations of Korean culture in
distinguish from Chinese or Japanese culture. towards Korean entertainment, it may America and other countries. Some research has been conducted
seem surprising that misconceptions about on promoting Korean culture in the global market and introducing
Why is Korea’s traditional culture less well- Korea still exist in America and that Korea’s Korean culture to new audiences.
known in America? At first glance, it may traditional culture is still confused with
seem to some that Korea was historically Chinese and Japanese cultures. Because these The question that remains to be answered is how to visualize
less advanced or that Korea was established misconceptions and confusion persist, there traditional Korean culture in order to present an authentic
as a civilization much later than China or is need for Korea’s traditional heritage to interpretation of Korean culture to American audiences. Both Sung
Japan, but neither of these answers would be be distinctly and authentically presented to and E. Lee note in their studies that cultural authenticity is vital
correct. Instead, Korea is not as well-known American audiences. to a beneficial presentation of culture. According to E. Lee, this
due to opening up to Western influence and authenticity can be developed through careful cultural research and
trade later than China or Japan. While China This thesis reviews the misunderstanding and cultural immersion. Thus, the balanced use of cultural research and
has had contact with Western countries misrepresentation of Korea’s material and research of authentic presentation needs to be further examined.
since ancient times through the Silk Road non-material culture in America and attempts
(Beckwith) and Japan encountered the to provide a visual solution that authentically
Spanish and Portuguese in the 1500s (Latz presents the visual distinctness of Korea’s
et al.), Korea first opened to the Western material and non-material culture.
08 Uniquely Korea Uniquely Korea 09Chapter
Two
Research Report
• Research Rationale
• Research Methods
• Summary of Findings
• Conclusion
Uniquely Korea 11Research
Research Methods
Rationale In order to answer the research questions,
two types of research were conducted. The
first type of research was a literature review
that explored the available literature on the
These categories are typically considered some
of the main elements of a culture.
Clothing : Hanbok
thesis topic and questions. This research was This category addresses what they wore in
The main question that this research seeks to answer is important for establishing a good background traditional Korean culture.
how to authentically visualize the uniqueness of Korea’s on which to build the visual research, the
traditional culture to an American audience. second type of research used. Food: Hanshik
This category addresses what they ate in
Representing another culture in visual media requires good In preparation for the final solution, visual traditional Korean culture.
research into the details of each cultural element: What research was conducted to guide the direction
does the traditional clothing look like? What color are the of the visuals and to ensure a more accurate
houses? What kind of food did they eat? These types of
Architecture
and authentic presentation of traditional
This category addresses where they lived in
details are important to an accurate depiction of a culture, Korean culture. The visual research for this
traditional Korean culture. The category
and many artists will ask such questions as they prepare to project focused on three main ideas:
includes both the royal palaces and hanok,
visualize another culture.
• Examining preserved cultural artifacts the traditional Korean house.
This research is no different. Various elements of traditional
Korean culture were examined and researched. However, • Observing the presentation of Written Language: Hangul
this type of research direction alone could not fully answer traditional culture in Korean This category addresses how they wrote in
the question of how to visualize traditional Korean visual media traditional Korean culture.
culture authentically.
• Comparing the visuals and
aesthetics used in both
Arts: Pottery
To authentically visualize a culture, an understanding of
This category addresses how they created
both the cultural objects and their context is necessary.
Observing the cultural artifacts and the pottery in traditional Korean culture.
Observing the presentation of traditional culture in Korean
visual presentations of those artifacts
visual media provides context for cultural objects from an For each cultural element that was depicted,
creates a balanced approach toward
authentic perspective. a sampling of preserved cultural artifacts were
depicting a culture. Thus, both artifacts
gathered and analyzed. The primary source
and presentations were researched for each
of the sampled artifacts was online museum
element depicted in the final visual solution.
exhibitions and image collections. However,
hanshik could not be directly examined
Cultural Artifacts because it is food. Instead, hanshik research
was based on available literature.
The main categories of cultural objects Once the artifacts were analyzed, the next step
that were examined include clothing, food, in the research was to ask “How is the cultural
architecture, written language, and pottery. object portrayed in context?”
12 Uniquely Korea Uniquely Korea 13Historical Reenactments
Visual Media Visual Research was conducted using image boards and artifact analysis.
Historical reenactments include fashion
For the purposes of this research, the context shows and cultural productions at tourist
of the object was drawn from its presentation sites as well as historical documentaries.
in Korea’s visual media. The main categories Photographs and recordings from these
of visual media that were observed include
drama or film, historical reenactments, and
shows can, like film, show cultural elements
in context. Because these productions have
Image Boards Artifact Analysis
animation or illustration. a somewhat educational purpose, the display
of cultural elements may be more historically Image boards are collections of images based The artifact analysis method was used to
Drama/Film accurate than those shown in drama or film. on a shared theme or category. To use this guide the observation and examination of
method, images are gathered and put together both the cultural artifacts and the visual
Through the live-action reproduction of Illustration/Animation either physically on a board or electronically presentations. This method provided an
Korean traditional culture in historical on the computer. The benefits of this method organized structure for making observations.
dramas and film (known as sageuk, 사극), it Illustration and animations depicting was having an organized way to compile Observations were guided by a worksheet
is possible to observe a more natural use of traditional culture are unique because they images and an opportunity to infer trends and covering four main sections of analysis. These
Korean cultural elements while also observing are artists’ representations of cultural objects. themes from the overall collection of images. four sections included material analysis,
how Korea presents their culture to other The artists would have researched the objects aesthetic analysis, historical analysis, and
Koreans. Korean historical dramas and films and then determined the best way to visualize Design Plan interactive analysis. Material analysis referred
fall into several categories. those objects. Observing Korean illustration to the physical makeup of the object, and
and animation provided insight into how to The initial image boards were created through aesthetic analysis covered the object’s visual
Historically-based stories draw on historical authentically visualize Korean traditional Pinterest, an online platform for saving and appearance. Historical analysis dealt with the
events and people. MBC’s Tree with Deep culture through drawing. sharing images. A board was created for each object’s historical background. Interactive
Roots (뿌리 깊은 나무) is an example of a cultural object category and its presentation analysis considered how the object was used.
historically-based drama that recounts King in each of the three types of presentations. Within each of these sections, the worksheet
Sejong the Great’s work on the creation of the
Korean alphabet Hangul.
Visual Observation The boards included sections (sub-folders)
when necessary to further subdivide. For
included specific questions that helped focus
the research observations.
example, the board for ‘Hanbok in Drama/
Some dramas are set during a historical Both the cultural artifacts and visual media
Film’ was divided into subsections by men and Design Plan
period but tell completely fictional stories. For were observed to gather information about
women’s hanboks as well as by social status.
example, tvN’s 100 Days My Prince (백일의 the key aesthetics and visuals. The key
Two worksheets were prepared to guide the
낭군님) is a story set during the Joseon period aesthetics that were observed based on After the image research was completed, the observations of the cultural objects and the
but under the reign of a fictional king. findings from the literature review include images on the Pinterest boards were used to visual presentations. Each worksheet included
simplicity, naturalness, and harmony. The create collage mood boards to help guide each questions about the objects and visual
Modern re-imaginings of Korea as a monarchy key visuals that were observed were colors, illustration. The mood boards were created presentation based on the four sections of
incorporate elements of Korea’s past. MBC’s patterns, and motifs. using Adobe Illustrator. A moodboard was artifact analysis: material, aesthetic, historical,
Princess Hours (궁) presents a re-imagining of also made for each cultural object category. and interactive analysis. The questions about
a modern Korea with a royal family. Both images of cultural artifacts and images
Key Aesthetics Key Visuals the cultural object focused primarily on its
from visual presentations were included in the physical qualities while the questions about
This research drew sources from all three
• Simplicity • Color mood board. Including both sets of images the presentation considered the context of the
categories when possible in order to compare
in the mood board provided an overarching object. The worksheets and the questions are
the presentations in each.
• Naturalness • Patterns comparison of the original artifacts and those included in the appendix.
presented in Korean visual media.
• Harmony • Motifs
14 Uniquely Korea Uniquely Korea 15Literature Review
can become misleading and filled with
What is Culture? generalizations. Because culture is so complex,
this research does not endeavor to capture
To understand the problem, the idea of or define the entirety of Korea’s traditional
culture must first be defined. Culture is a heritage. Instead, it will hopefully provide
broad term that covers so many aspects of an introduction to the beauty of Korea’s
a society. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary traditional material culture and contribute to
defines culture as “the customary beliefs, the discussion of Korea’s rich past.
social norms, and material traits of a
racial, religious, or social group.” From this
broad definition, the idea of culture can be
Misunderstanding Korea
narrowed down into two types: material
America’s first glimpse of Korea culture
and non-material culture. Wagner defines
Summary of Findings material culture as “the physical artifacts of
a particular group of people” (72). Material
culture then covers cultural elements like food,
housing, clothing, and art while non-material
culture refers to beliefs and ideas of the
occurred at the 1893 World’s Columbian
Exposition in Chicago (K. Kim). During the
exhibition, the Korean delegation was so
overwhelmed with questions that confused
Korea with China and Japan that a frustrated
The literature review provides background on the historical misidentification delegate posted a list of key facts about
people (Wagner 72).
of Korean culture by American audiences and on Korea’s history and cultural Korea to explain that Korea was not a part
aesthetics. Visual research explored a method of observing and comparing cultural This research explores the visuals of of China and spoke a unique language that
artifacts with media presentations that could be beneficial for design research. traditional Korea in material culture, was different from Chinese and Japanese (K.
specifically highlighting the cultural elements Kim 82-83). Such confusion is not surprising
of Hangul (the Korean alphabet), hanbok considering the limited access most 19th
(traditional Korean clothes), architecture, century Americans had to information about
hanshik (Korean food), and traditional pottery. Korea, a newly introduced country. However,
However, identifying and understanding a this story would pain many Koreans and
culture is not an easy task because culture Korean Americans even today because it is a
encompasses so much about a people and reminder of both how much and how little
who they are. Although a culture’s material has changed since then.
artifacts can be carefully studied through
Korea’s traditional culture has often been
research, these studies cannot fully convey
incorrectly identified as Chinese or Japanese
the depth of an entire culture. Wagner notes
by American audiences. This misidentification
that “the ideal of seeing an entire world
could be attributed to many different factors.
through a handful of pottery shards…is not
However, three of the main factors include the
only ambitious, it’s problematic.” (76). Thus,
influence of China historically on Korea, the
Wagner proposes studying material culture in
impact of the Japanese Occupation, and the
context by taking into consideration the non-
concept of Orientalism. Each of these factors
material culture of a people.
influenced the initial American view of Korea
Even with this more balanced approach, starting in the 19th century and continues to
defining culture is a complicated task that affect the view of traditional Korea even today.
16 Uniquely Korea Uniquely Korea 17Misconstrued Connection to C. Kim, the Japanese colonial government damage to Korea’s cultural legacy (122). Another effect of the Japanese occupation was
systematically suppressed Korea’s culture Kang agrees, noting in her study of Korean an inaccurate interpretation of Korean culture.
to China by banning the Korean language, requiring cultural artifacts that imperial Japan used In the study “White Hanbok as an Expression
Because of Korea’s close ties historically to Koreans to adopt Japanese names, and the artifacts to portray to other nations that of Resistance in Modern Korea,” Seo explores
China, Korean traditional culture has been eventually outlawing certain types of Korean Korea was declining culturally in contrast the use and meaning of the white hanbok
influenced by Chinese culture much like traditional dress (137). S.W. Song writes that to the rise and modernization of Japanese (Korean traditional dress) and its subsequent
European cultures have alternately influenced “Japanese language education was relentlessly culture. As the primary source of information development into a symbol of resistance
each other throughout history. In his book enforced and Japanese traditions and lifestyle about Korea until the end of World War II, during the Japanese occupation. Seo notes
The History of Korea, C. Kim discusses the replaced those of a Korean nature” (315). The Japan’s portrayal of Korea as “backwards and that the origin of the Korean people’s love of
formation of Korea as a nation and the forced name changes challenged the Korean primitive compared to Japan made it into white clothing was rooted in both an aesthetic
influence that China had as the center of the people’s connection to their forefathers (Clark textbooks [and] museums” (Blakemore). choice and the influences of Confucian
Asian world. He notes that because of Korea’s 49) and impacted their identity as a separate philosophy. However, when Japan began
and distinct people because family and Second, Japan, to justify their colonization interpreting Korean culture, their scholars
proximity to China, “Korea’s culture and
ancestral heritage was an important part of of Korea, distorted history and strove to asserted that the wearing of white was the
society had to progressively adapt and evolve
the Korean cultural identity. remove the significance of the Korean cultural result of either poverty or mourning for a lost
to avoid becoming absorbed by the massive
influence on their land. Jang, in his book A cause (white was traditionally worn at funerals
entity of China” (C. Kim 2). Thus, even while
Through propaganda advertising, the Japanese Representation of Nationhood in the Museum, in Asian countries) (Seo 124-125).
adopting ideas from China, Korea retained a
sought to influence the Korean people toward analyzes the role Japanese scholars had in
distinctively Korean culture. However, China’s
assimilation. Bae, in a study of Japanese forming the initial discourse on Korean’s K. Kim also discusses this misinterpretation,
cultural influence has often been emphasized
occupation period advertising, notes that historic and artistic culture and explains how noting that Yanagi Muneyoshi, a Japanese
in discussions on Korean history and culture
advertising helped to promote Japanese “they made efforts to prove the importance scholar, believed that the white clothing
causing Korea to sometimes be considered as
culture over Korean culture through imagery of the influence of Chinese civilization on reflected the Korean people being an unhappy
only a “mere replica of China” (C. Kim 1).
of women in kimonos and the limitation of Korea in the fields of archaeology and art and sad people and that the overarching
Hangul (Korean alphabet) text (115-116). The history” (19). If China played a larger role essence of Korean aesthetics was “the beauty
Impacts of Japanese Occupation limiting of Korean and promotion of Japanese in the formation of Korean culture, then of sadness” (158). According to M. Shin,
was essential for assimilating Koreans into Korea’s influence in Japan could be redefined Yanagi also believe that the use of white
The Empire of Japan annexed Korea as a
new Japanese citizens (S.W. Song 314). as China’s influence. With total control over showed Korea’s “weakness and inferiority”
colony in 1910 and controlled Korea until
Korea’s historical artifacts as well as the (134). Thus, even those who were more
1945 (Y. Kim). During this period, Japan used The cultural imperialism of Japan not only presentation of those artifacts, Japan could sympathetic toward the Korean people like
ethnographic research to support their ideas tried to remove Korea’s language and clothing easily suppress Korea’s historical influence Yanagi also misinterpreted Korean culture
of imperialism and colonialism (M. Shin). but also their traditional food. According on Japan and emphasize “those aspects of due to the influence of the distorted historical
Japan’s ethnographic and archaeological to Bae, Suzuki’s advertising of Ajinomoto Korean material culture which illustrated record and imperial Japan’s perspective on
research was used to justify Japan’s (a chemical seasoning) that presented Chinese influences” (K. Kim 141). Korea as a failed nation.
annexation of Korea by emphasizing common Japanese flavors as modern and desirable
ancestry and a weak Korean state (M. Shin was “a form of colonization and signified a According to K. Kim, Japan supported their
124). According to M. Shin, Japan before Orientalism, Stereotypes, and
cultural strategy to degrade and discriminate distortion by falsely asserting that ancient
and during the occupation period compiled indigenous cultures by advocating Japan’s Korea had been a colony of China in the Misrepresentation
information about Korea’s economy, geography, culture as superior” (116). north and a colony of Japan in the south. This
laws, religion, and cultural practices (120- Progress in global knowledge after the
assertion undermined Korea’s position as an
122). This information was used to not only This culture war not only challenged Korea’s liberation of Korea and the Korean War
independent nation in East Asia. C. Kim also
“justify Japan’s occupation but also to define traditional culture but also affected the has helped to restore Korea’s status as an
discusses this distortion of Korea’s heritage,
new targets for colonial power” (M. Shin view of Korea outside of Asia. K. Kim, in independent culture and nation in the Far
noting that Japan endeavored to portray
120), including the power to define Korea’s her research, attributes two ways that the East. However, some vestiges of imperial
Korea as being “historically dependent on
traditional culture and identity (Shin 124). Japanese occupation damaged the global Japanese propaganda still survive, and Korea’s
external powers” like China and Japan (132).
view of Korean traditional culture. First, unique culture is often stereotyped into a mix
Thus, the Japanese occupation helped to fuel
Blakemore notes in her article “How Japan used their position of power to loot of ‘Oriental’ culture.
the idea that Korea was culturally inferior to
Japan Took Control of Korea” that Japan Korean temples, excavate ancestral tombs, Japan and only a miniature China.
strengthened its hold over Korea by “wag[ing] and demolish historic buildings. K. Kim
an all-out war on Korean culture.” According notes that this “cultural pillage” caused
18 Uniquely Korea Uniquely Korea 19In her dissertation, Sung examined how in American picture books. This portrayal of Korean culture in Lost and found that Japan, the short uses a Korean pop song sung
Korean-Americans have been misrepresented seems to be a continued misconception of the South Korean sets often used Chinese in Korean for the closing scene. The use of a
in children’s picture books. Sung found that Korea as promoted by imperial Japan in the or Japanese aesthetics and cultural elements Korean song with Japanese-themed content
many illustrations present an “imagined” 19th century. Lee’s research also discovered because the production staff had difficulty is misleading because the audience would
image of Korea based on “existing stereotypes a similar trend of presenting Korean culture finding Korean props in America (49-50). naturally assume that the background song
and images about Chinese and Japanese as static and outdated. Lee notes that Korean news media and bloggers also pointed was in Japanese unless they were familiar with
immigrants” (153). Lee, who also researched representations of this kind could lead to out the errors and misrepresentations Japanese or Korean. The problem is further
the depiction of Korean culture in American an “oversimplifying, fixating, and exoticizing including the use of Vietnamese hats for accentuated by Disney’s actually identifying
picture books, attributes this stereotyped [of ] the Korean culture” (241). According to Korean fishermen (Baek), a Japanese-style the song as Japanese in the subtitles. The
representation of ‘Asian’ culture to orientalism Sung, the problem with representing Korea temple for a Korean background (hama213, English subtitles on Disney+ display
which she defines as “a structure of Western as ‘exotic,’ ‘Asian,’ and ‘outdated’ is that these Fischer), and an old walking bridge for “Japanese Pop Music Playing” when this song
thoughts that make certain generalizations images of Korea in books (and other media) Hangang Bridge (Y.S. Kang). Cha notes that plays (Tokyo Mater 00:05:57). The absence
about the part of the world known as the inevitably “becomes the audience’s personal this misrepresentation of Korea in Lost did of music credits on Disney+ for Tokyo Mater
East” (23). In other words, the Western knowledge of Korean culture” (181). not happen suddenly but has grown out of outside of credit to the score composer BT
understanding of Asian countries and cultures past misrepresentations such as M*A*S*H prevents even minimal clarification that the
is often based on a generalized view of the M. Baker and Hicks both highlight this (1970s), Do the Right Thing (1989), and Falling song is Korean rather than Japanese.
Eastern world that distinguishes what is ‘Asian’ concept of representation becoming personal Down (1993). According to Baek, Hong Jeong-
in comparison to Western civilization. knowledge in their articles on the 1970s wook, a member of South Korea’s Ministry of On May 16, 2020, Cartoon Network’s Twitter
American television show M*A*S*H* which Foreign Affairs and Trade, voiced concern over account posted a fanart of their characters
Sung found in her research that Korean was set in Korea during the Korean War. M. the misrepresentation of Korea in American wearing hanbok for Asian American Heritage
culture was often portrayed using generic Baker notes in his article that the “hit sitcom dramas like Lost because of the wide reach month demonstrating that Korea’s traditional
Asian cultural icons or cultural icons that ‘MASH’ distorted the views of a generation of popular American dramas not only in culture is becoming more known in America.
align more with Chinese culture, including the of Americans” on South Korea while Hicks America but across the world. However, Cartoon Network angered many
prominent use of the color red, dragons, and writes that his initial ideas about Korea were Korean fans, because the post used the
dumplings. Although some Korean cultural influenced “almost exclusively” by M*A*S*H*. More recent portrayals of Korea in American kimono emoji and cherry blossom emoji
icons were included, Sung asserts that these Although it was a popular show in America, film have been significantly better than the which are both associated with Japanese
icons were selected for their ‘exoticness’ M*A*S*H* sadly portrayed Korean culture portrayal in Lost. Marvel’s Age of Ultron (2015) culture. As in the Disney’s Tokyo Mater case,
rather than for an authentic representation inaccurately sometimes even using a blend of and Black Panther (2018) both filmed parts the use of these emojis could be an innocent
of Korean culture. Traditional clothing and Vietnamese and Japanese elements to portray of their Korean scenes in actual Korean mistake by someone unfamiliar with Korean
hairstyles were often misrepresented through ‘Korean’ culture (Cha). According to IMDb, the cities like Seoul and Busan (McNary, Kil). and Japanese cultures. These mistakes, though,
either faulty research or careless attention writers even made mistaken references about Filming real Korean locations helped to add are a sad reflection of how easy it is to
to detail. Sung notes that “a lack of research Korea such as Korea having jungles and being authenticity to the presentation of Korea misidentify and generalize East Asian cultures.
can easily dismiss the value of little details located in Southeast Asia. although both films provide only a glimpse
that have long term history in Korean of the cities during action-packed chase
Since the 1970s, American audiences have
society” (208). It is these small details that
help distinguish Korean culture from other become more familiar with Korea. The
scenes (Iwanek). The progress towards a more
authentic portrayal of Korea in American film The Importance of
Asian cultures. Without these details and
attention to authentic representation, the
Korean Wave or Hallyu has helped introduce
more of Korea’s culture to America. However,
is encouraging; however, misrepresentation
continues to mar these efforts. Unintelligible
Cultural Awareness
representation of Korean culture becomes even with the rise in popularity of Korean Korean dialogue, Macau-style interior design, While mix-ups like confusing two cultures’
muddled in a mix of exotic ‘Asian-ness’ that cultural products such as K-Drama, K-Pop, and misuse of hanbok were just some of the traditional dress or language seem relatively
could be potentially interpreted as Japanese and Korean food, there continues to be problems that T.K. found in his review of innocent, low awareness of a culture can
or Chinese culture. problems with proper identification of Korea Black Panther. have serious consequences. In his research
and its culture in America. Some of these
on English children’s perceptions of Jewish
In her research, Sung found that a comparison errors are the result of faulty assumptions or Korean culture also continues to be confused
culture, Short argues that understanding
of the illustrations of Korean culture in just carelessness in research. In 2004, ABC’s with Japanese culture even in 2020. Disney
Jewish culture is a prerequisite to
Korean-American books and in Korean U.S. television show Lost included Korean recently re-released their Tokyo Mater
understanding the Holocaust because the
books highlighted the inaccurate portrayal of characters and episodes set in South Korea short from their Cars franchise on Disney+.
“children’s initial understanding [of Jewish
Korean culture as old-fashioned and outdated (H. Kim). H. Kim explored the representation Although the animated short is set in Tokyo,
culture and identity] might be so ill-informed
20 Uniquely Korea Uniquely Korea 21as to prevent them from commiserating with the modernization of a backwards, exotic impacted by the Japanese occupation. During Jeon purchased thousands of Korean artifacts
the victims of the Holocaust despite what they land—a perfect echo of the occupation-era this time of hardship, Korean independence including books, paintings, ceramics, and
subsequently learn about it” (394). propaganda. The evil of trying to destroy a activists worked tirelessly to not only work sculptures to prevent them from being
people’s heritage will not be a serious issue toward independence but also preserve destroyed or sold to Japanese and other
Gray furthered this research in a similar study to those who do not know or care that that and protect Korea’s cultural heritage from foreign collectors (K. Kim 164). These
that considered both the students’ perception heritage exists. With this kind of perspective, Imperial Japan’s cultural genocide. Because of artifacts include several of Korea’s designated
of Jewish people and their understanding of the struggles of Korean-Japanese political their selfless work, Koreans today can study National Treasures (Cultural Heritage, “Chun”).
the Holocaust’s cause. According to Gray’s relations regarding issues like the Dokdo and share their ancestors’ material culture One of the most important documents
research, some of the students’ perceptions Island dispute or the reparations for the and non-material culture through historical that Jeon preserved and protected from
of the Jews and Holocaust were influenced comfort women can be easily minimized or documents and artifacts. the Japanese was an original printing of the
by stereotypes like the ‘Rich Jew’ that are even dismissed by American audiences. Hunminjeongeum, the original record of King
remnants of Nazi propaganda (432). Both K. Kim notes that leaders of the independence Sejong’s Korean alphabet Hangul (Cultural
Short and Gray conclude that addressing Even though information about Korean movement and upholders of Korean Heritage, “Chun” 19).
misunderstandings about Jews and Jewish culture has become more accessible over the patriotism like Oh Se-chang (an important
culture is important for teaching students years, misconceptions about Korean culture leader in the March 1st Movement 삼일 He further contributed to the preservation of
about the cause and impact of the Holocaust. still exist in America. These misconceptions 운동) believed that “collecting and preserving Korea’s material culture through the founding
Although their research involves the English have arisen due to many factors, some the national patrimony would serve as the of the first Korean museum Bohwagak later
awareness of Judaism and Jewish culture, innocent such as just being unfamiliar foundation for both individual and national known as Kansong Art Museum (Cultural
Short and Gray’s conclusions could be applied with Korea and some more sinister such as strength in being Korean” (162). Heritage, “Chun”). The Kansong Art and
to America’s understanding of Korea’s culture imperial Japanese propaganda. Learning Korean newspapers like the Chosun Ilbo Culture Foundation notes that the museum
and history. more about what distinguishes Korean printed Korean literature in defiance of the is “the result of a pioneer’s tearful effort to
culture from other Asian cultures could help Japanese (C. Kim) while Korean scholars protect the spirit and soul of our people and
Much like the remnants of Nazi propaganda address misconceptions while also reducing published books and essays on Korean awaken self-respect towards our history and
in Europe affects the view of Jews and Jewish the impact of past representations of Korean history, art, and philosophy that challenged culture in the future.” Jeon’s work allowed
culture, Imperial Japanese propaganda culture in America. Japanese assertions and strove to preserve Korea to retain many important pieces from
continues to affect the American view of Korea’s cultural identity (K. Lee). Bae argues their cultural legacy and has been vital for
Korea and its culture. In 2018, Korea hosted that Japanese propaganda fell short in Korea studies of Korean art and material culture.
the Pyeongchang Winter Olympics and was
able to highlight some of its rich cultural Preserving and because “Korea consumers in fact perceived
the forced information in advertising images” The Korean Wave and Its Impact
heritage. However, NBC’s coverage of the Promoting Korean and rejected the cultural assimilation (119).
opening ceremony was criticized for its lack
of depth and “endless generalities about Culture During the Japanese occupation, there were
Korea and its culture has, in the past
two decades, become more prominent
what constituted ‘Asian’ culture” (Greene, many Koreans who helped Korea retain its internationally through the Korean Wave or
Ryan). Analyst Joshua Cooper Ramo also Since the first Korean exhibition in America cultural identity; however, for the study of Hallyu, which refers to the spread of Korean
received backlash from Korean Americans in the 19th century, Korea has worked to Korea’s material culture the contributions of popular culture through K-Pop (Korean music)
and Koreans for misrepresenting the Japanese preserve and promote their cultural heritage. Jeon Hyeong-pil (전형필) are perhaps most and K-Dramas (Korean television dramas).
occupation of Korea with his claim that The Japanese occupation of Korea took the significant. Jeon Hyeong-pil was a collector Hallyu from the mid-1990s to the early 2000s
“every Korean will tell you that Japan is a narrative of Korea’s history and culture out of Korean artifacts during the Japanese mainly impacted Asian audiences, most
cultural, technological and economic example of Korea’s hands. However, because of the occupation and spent his fortune protecting notably in China and Japan (Chung). The
that has been so important to their own efforts of both Koreans in the past and in Korean pottery, artwork, and historical 2010s saw Hallyu’s reach extend to countries
transformation” (Baker, Persio, Selk). the present, Korea has been able to take back documents (K. Kim). Through the influence outside Asia including Africa, Europe, the
their narrative. of Oh Se-chang, Jeon Hyeong-pil realized the Middle East, and North and South America
His comment overlooked the atrocities of importance of preserving Korea’s cultural (Chung). Spread to North America was
the Japanese occupation and misrepresented heritage (Cultural Heritage Administration,
Resistance against Japan’s initially slow; however, the rise of streaming
Korean history to NBC’s American audience. “Chun Hyung-pil”). Oh Se-chang is recorded services like Hulu, DramaFever, and Netflix
Commentary like Ramos’ during the 2018 Cultural Imperialism to have told Jeon that “our cultural properties helped to bring K-Dramas to American
Winter Olympics ignores the horrors of are our national legacies containing the spirit
As discussed earlier, the view of Korean audiences (Chung). Because of Korean
the Japanese occupation and instead of our nation” (Cultural Heritage, “Chun” 18).
culture outside of Korea was initially entertainment’s international success, the
recasts Japanese imperialism in Korea as
22 Uniquely Korea Uniquely Korea 23Korean government contributes and assists expressed their surprise at the interest shown Hallyu and Cultural Interpretation Interest in Korea because of Hallyu has led
the industry with the hopes that Hallyu in online discussions toward the hanbok some fans to move beyond an imagined
will help bring awareness to Korean culture costumes by international audiences (Keeley). Although the impact of Hallyu in spreading understanding and toward active learning. In
and help improve Korea’s image abroad. For The current interest in Korea’s history and more awareness about Korea cannot be her research of Korean studies students in
example, the popularity of Winter Sonata in traditions demonstrates the significance of denied, the effectiveness of Hallyu in helping Israel, Lyan notes that “hallyu has become
Japan “quickly and dramatically reshap[ed] the the production team’s effort to present “the international audiences learn about Korean a gateway to a broader interest in Korean
way the Japanese saw and understood Korea’s distinct look of the Joseon dynasty” through culture has been questioned. According to language, history, and society” (3772). Several
culture and people” (Chung 19). costuming and set design (James). Shulze’s research of online fan discussions, of the students that Lyan interviewed
international fans’ understanding of the believed that by studying Korea they could
Although K-Dramas tend to showcase culture presented in K-Dramas is based address the inferior perceptions of Korea
Traditional Korean Culture in Hallyu
Korea’s traditional culture more, K-Pop has on their collective, imagined idea of and encourage others to see their interest
Besides introducing international audiences also helped introduce audiences to Korea’s “K-Dramaland” rather than Korea specifically. in Korea as legitimate rather than strange
to Korea’s popular culture, Hallyu has traditional material culture— hanbok Thus, Shulze argues that K-Dramas “do not (3773-3774). While Lyan’s research is limited
helped introduce Korea’s traditional culture. in particular. Popular K-Pop groups have transmit a set definition of ‘Korean culture’” to the perspective of Israeli students, it does
Korean historical dramas showcase Korea’s introduced fans to the hanbok through their and warns against assuming that international highlight how Hallyu fans’ interest in Korean
traditional culture through the costumes, yearly Chuseok (추석, Korean Thanksgiving) audiences will “easily decode this culture” popular culture has increased their desire
historical buildings, and traditional food. greetings posted on social media. For these through a drama’s influence (393). G.M. to learn more about Korea’s history and
Interestingly, one drama that helped increase greetings, the artists wear hanboks and do a Kim also mentions the idea of an imagined traditional culture.
Hallyu’s global impact was a historical ceremonial bow. Although these photos and culture in her study on the interpretation of
Korean drama also known as a sageuk (사극) videos are created for Korean fans, they do Korean culture by international audiences
that showcased Korea’s traditional culture.
Dae Jang Geum (English title: Jewel in the
help introduce international fans to hanbok. and notes that the imagined understanding of
other cultures can lead to faulty and harmful
Korean Culture
BTS, a widely popular K-Pop group, was interpretations. The reason for these faulty
Palace) unexpectedly became popular in
recognized in 2019 by the Korean government interpretations, according to G.M. Kim, could As Korea has become more known on a global
many countries starting in 2003, and KOCIS
for their exemplary promotion of hanbok be due to the limited education on Korea in scale in the last decades, both Korean and
reports that over 87 countries purchased
through their performances (L. Kim). In 2020, U.S. schools which usually places Korea “on non-Korean scholars alike have examined
the rights to air Dae Jang Geum between
BTS promoted traditional Korean culture the margins of World History with a possible what makes Korean traditional culture unique.
2003 and 2011 (Chung 23). Through Dae
to American audiences while performing a glance at the Korean War” (485). The typical categories of Korean traditional
Jang Geum, international audience saw
special stage of their song “IDOL” on NBC’s culture that have been studied include
“depictions of traditional architecture, music,
Tonight Show (MSN). For the performance, There seems to be limited research on the clothing, architecture, food, art, and language.
attire, food, and medicine [giving] foreign
group wore hanbok-inspired costumes and actual extent of Korea-related topics in Chung et al. in their study “Aesthetics of
fans a distinctive taste of Korea’s culture
performed in front of Gyeongbokgung, a American education. However, Takeda’s study Korean Foods: The Symbol of Korean Culture”
and heritage” (Chung 24). The international
palace that showcases the architecture from of Asian-Pacific American representation in assert that the unique Korean culture can
popularity of Dae Jang Geum was unexpected
Korea’s Joseon period (MSN). 28 American Government textbooks provides be seen in Korea’s “basic food, clothing, and
because its historical and traditional content
an interesting look at the coverage of Asian shelter” (179). Overarching these categories
was created for a Korean audience. Perhaps gaining energy and inspiration from history in American schools. Takeda found are the ideas of traditional Korean aesthetics.
the success of the hanbok with international that mentions of Asian Pacific Americans and However, before examining the elements of
The recent success of Netflix’s Kingdom (2019),
audiences, Samsung recently showcased their contributions covered less than 0.50% Korean culture, it is important to understand
a zombie-thriller series set in Korea during
traditional Korean designs in their Real of each textbooks with a mean coverage of a basic history of Korea and its cultural beliefs.
the Joseon era, has introduced new audiences
8K Experience commercial. Models wore only 0.19% which is considerably low when
to Korea’s traditional culture and prompted
colorful modern hanboks with traditional compared with the representation of other
online conversations on Korea’s traditional Overview of Korean History
embroidery in sets that included traditional minorities. Although Takeda’s concern is
clothing and customs. From Reddit to Twitter,
Korean furniture, accessories, and paintings that a low awareness of Asian American American contact with Korea began in
viewers have posted their questions about the
(Samsung). The recent popularity of Korea’s accomplishments will discourage Asian the 19th century. However, Korea’s history
historical clothing in the series prompting
hanbok through the success of BTS and American students from participating in had begun thousands of years before. The
bloggers (Berman, Poh) and journalists (Y.
Kingdom, according to Park Yang-woo, Korea’s politics, his research also points to the first ancient Korean kingdom of note was
R. Yeo, Martin) to explain the costumes and
minister of Culture, Sports, and Tourism, general deficiency in American education GoJoseon (고조선) established in 2333 B.C.
their meaning. In an interview with The
shows that Korea’s traditional culture is on Asian topics. (Y. Kim). However, typical studies of Korean
Hollywood Reporter, the writer and director
becoming more a part of the Korean Wave. culture begin with the development of
of Kingdom Kim Eun-hee and Park In-je
24 Uniquely Korea Uniquely Korea 25Gogoryeo (고구려), Silla (신라), and Baekje Organized religious systems became more began to grow in Joseon (Hill 495). When Korean Aesthetics
(백제) during the Three Kingdoms Period in prominent during the Three Kingdoms Joseon opened to Western trade and influence,
the 7th century. According to Chang, each period with the rise of Confucianism and Christianity became more tolerated allowing Although Korean culture evolved over
of these three kingdoms “developed their Buddhism. These two belief systems coexisted many missionaries to come to Korea (Hill). thousands of years, there are some aesthetic
own cultures marked with distinctive ethnic in Korea in an interesting balance as each qualities that were retained from period to
characteristics” that differed from the culture influenced Korea’s political and social The Japanese occupation renewed the period. Korean aesthetics have been generally
in China (22). Gogoryeo, Silla, and Baekje beliefs. According to C. Kim, Gogoryeo and persecution of Christians when Japan described as having a focus on simplicity,
would eventually be unified under Unified subsequent Korean kingdoms “adopted both began using their Shinto religion to force nature, and harmony.
Silla (676-935) and later evolve into Goryeo Confucianism and Buddhism as convenient assimilation (Clark 49). Christians who
(고려, 918-1392 AD) and finally Joseon (조선, political ideology and social morality” (25). refused to worship the Shinto gods were Simplicity
1392-1910) (Korean Culture). In 1896, King Confucianism influenced the state’s structure arrested for their defiance of Imperial
Gojong established the Empire of Korea while Buddhism provided moral thought for Japan (Hill 496). Korean Christians played In his book Korean Ceramics: The Beauty of
which lasted until Japan forcefully annexed the people. an important role in Korea’s national Natural Forms, Koehler examines the history
Korea in 1910 (Y. Kim). Korea was liberated independence movement as they fought of Korean ceramics beginning with the
from Japanese rule in 1945 following the end Under Unified Silla, Buddhism became religious persecution and Japanese Goryeo period and ending with the Joseon
of World War II and placed under the Soviet more prominent as the monarchy used imperialism. South Korea today practices period. While highlighting the differences
Union control in the north and U.S. control in Buddhist beliefs to support their rule (K. Lee). religious tolerance, and the major faiths between Korean, Japanese, and Chinese
the south (Y. Kim). From this division, today’s McCallion explains that Buddhism found held by Koreans are typically Christianity pottery, Koehler notes that Korean ceramics
North Korea and South Korea emerged. early success in Korea because it supported or Buddhism while Confucianist thought have a quiet stateliness that reflect the
the Korean people’s existent philosophy of continues to influence Korean traditions and simplicity and naturalness that are an integral
Through each period in Korea’s history, the respecting nature (408). Buddhism continued thought (Clark 30). feature of traditional Korean aesthetics
culture of Korea built upon the work of the to be the state religion under Goryeo, and (2013). Kwon and Lee in their study on the
previous generation. According to the Korean Buddhist leaders became influential gaining Although the predominant religion of Korea “Traditional Aesthetic Characteristics Traced
Culture and Information Service, “the unique great power and wealth (Clark 40). However, underwent changes at different periods in South Korean Contemporary Fashion
artistic sensibility reflected in the diverse their power eventually led to the corruption of history, some values and philosophies Practice” also signified simplicity as a key
artifacts and tomb murals of the Three and fall of Goryeo. Thus, when the kingdom remained consistent in Korean thought such trait of the Korean aesthetic. However, they
Kingdom Periods became richer and more of Joseon was founded in 1392, the new as Cheon Ji In and Hongik Ingan (홍익인간). proposed that the aesthetic of Korean culture
profound as Korea progressed” (64). Today, government worked to reduce the influence Cheon Ji In as mentioned earlier is the idea could be more accurately described as
the most recognizable traditional Korean of Buddhism (Clark 41) and established of universal harmony. According to Jung et al., naturalism with four unique characteristics:
culture draws upon the culmination of Korea’s Confucianism as the primary religion of this concept is “found in almost all aspects of “pure formality, symbolic decoration, playful
cultural development during the Joseon Korea (Jung et al. 25). Buddhism became traditional Korean culture, including language, spontaneity, and naturalistic simplicity”
period. Thus, most studies on Korean culture less prominent in society joining shamanism music, art, architecture, scientific inventions (158). Thus, Kwon and Lee argue that the
predominately cover the culture of Joseon and other folk beliefs as religions of the and even cuisine” (7). symbolism, playfulness, and simplicity found
while alluding to influences from earlier lower classes (Clark 42). Confucius thought in traditional Korean culture can better be
Like Cheon Ji In, Hongik Ingan was a belief
periods such as Unified Silla and Goryeo. permeated Joseon’s society impacting not explained as variations of naturalism.
held since ancient times in Korea. Meaning
only the customs of the people but also
“living for the benefit of humankind,” Hongik
Korean Beliefs and Philosophy their clothing and arts. McCallion notes Nature
Ingan is considered the founding philosophy
that Confucianism impacted the societal
of Korea and is attributed to Dangun, the
During Korea’s long history, different belief regulations on “fabrics, colors, motifs, Rutt, while describing a foreigner’s perspective
first ruler of GoJoseon (Jung et al. 8). This
systems became prominent at varying times. and accessories” (409). of Korean culture, presented spontaneity as
philosophy is evident in Korea’s history
The earliest key beliefs of the Korean people his overarching impression of Korean culture.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Christian through the lives of revered people such as
in GoJoseon were a reverence for heaven and He describes spontaneity as being in touch
books were brought to Joseon from China, Queen Seondeok of Silla, King Sejong the
a belief in the universe’s harmony (Jung et al.). with life and refers to an “atmosphere of the
introducing a new faith to the Korean people Great, and Heo Jun who all selflessly worked
Universal harmony was understood by ancient country people” even in aristocratic art (33).
(C. Kim). However, Christianity was soon to help improve the lives of the common
Koreans through the concept of Cheon Ji Thus, Rutt like Kwon and Lee ties the idea
outlawed and persecuted because of conflicts people and through the various Korean
In (Hangul: 천지인, Hanja: 天地人) which of spontaneity to a desire for naturalistic
with Confucianist ancestral rituals (Clark kingdoms’ peaceful attitude toward other
considers the relationship of the heavens, the presentation. Hammer agrees stating that the
47). Despite this persecution, Christianity countries (Jung et al. 8).
earth, and people (Jung et al.). “emphasis on nature also inspired the creation
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