A ROAD MAP FOR 21st CENTURY
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A ROAD MAP
Editors
Sarah Witham Bednarz
Susan Heffron
FOR 21st CENTURY
Niem Tu Huynh
GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION
Geography Education Research
Recommendations and Guidelines for Research in Geography Education
A Report from the Geography Education Research Committee of the Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education ProjectRoad Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project
Geography Education Research
Recommendations and Guidelines for Research in Geography Education
Editors
Sarah Witham Bednarz, Susan Heffron, Niem Tu Huynh
Association of American Geographers
Washington, DC
2 of 74This report was created by the Road Map for 21st Century The National Geographic Society is one of the world’s largest nonprofit scientific and
Geography Education Project. educational organizations. Founded in 1888 to “increase and diffuse geographic knowledge,”
the Society’s mission is to inspire people to care about the planet. It reaches more than 400
million people worldwide each month through its official journal, National Geographic,
Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project
and other magazines; National Geographic Channel; television documentaries; music; radio;
Daniel C. Edelson, Principal Investigator films; books; DVDs; maps; exhibitions; live events; school publishing programs; interactive
Virginia M. Pitts, Project Director media; and merchandise. National Geographic has funded more than 10,000 scientific research,
conservation and exploration projects and supports an education program promoting
The Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project is a collaboration between the geographic literacy.
National Geographic Society, the Association of American Geographers, the National Council for
Geographic Education, and the American Geographical Society. The views expressed in the report The Association of American Geographers (AAG) is a nonprofit scientific, research, and
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of these organizations. educational society founded in 1904. Its 11,000 members from more than 60 countries share
interests in the theory, methods, and practice of geography (including GIScience, geographic
The Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project has been supported in part by education, and geographic technologies). The AAG pursues its mission through its many
the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DRL-1049437. Any opinions, findings, and conferences, scholarly publications, research projects, educational programs, topical specialty
conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not groups, and its extensive international network of colleagues and organizational partnerships,
necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. which encompass professionals working across public, private, and academic sectors all around
the world.
The National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) works to enhance the quality,
quantity, and status of geography teaching and learning in primary, secondary, university, and
informal educational settings. It develops and promotes curricular materials and two journals,
fosters best practices in pedagogy and geotechnology, connects educators through online
communication and through its annual conference, supports research in geographic education,
recognizes exceptional supporters and teachers of geography, and collaborates with other
organizations that have similar goals.
The American Geographical Society is an organization of professional geographers and
other devotees of geography who share a fascination with the subject and a recognition of its
Suggested citation:
importance. Most Fellows of the Society are Americans, but among them have always been
Bednarz, S.W., Heffron, S., & Huynh, N.T. (Eds.). (2013). A road map for 21st century geogra-
a significant number of Fellows from around the world. The Society encourages activities
phy education: Geography education research (A report from the Geography Education Research
that expand geographical knowledge, and it has a well-earned reputation for presenting and
Committee of the Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project). Washington, DC:
interpreting that knowledge so that it can be understood and used not just by geographers
Association of American Geographers.
but by others as well—especially policy makers. It is the oldest nationwide geographical
Information about the project and copies of reports are available at http://natgeoed.org/roadmap. organization in the United States. Its priorities and programs have constantly evolved with
the times, but the Society’s tradition of service to the U.S. government, business community,
Copyright © 2013 by the National Geographic Society. All rights reserved. and nation-at-large has continued unchanged.
3 of 74Geography Education Research Committee
Sarah Witham Bednarz, Chair
Texas A&M University
Susan Heffron, Co-Chair
Association of American Geographers
Niem Tu Huynh, Research Coordinator
Association of American Geographers
Margaret Smith Crocco, University of Iowa
Richard A. Duschl, The Pennsylvania State University
David Lambert, University of London
Lynn S. Liben, The Pennsylvania State University
William Penuel, University of Colorado Boulder
Eui-kyung Shin, Northern Illinois University
Diana Stuart Sinton, University of Redlands
Michael Solem, Association of American Geographers
Joseph P. Stoltman, Western Michigan University
David Uttal, Northwestern University
4 of 74Project Steering Committee Project Advisory Board
Daniel C. Edelson, Principal Investigator and Gilbert M. Grosvenor, Chair
Chair, Assessment Committee National Geographic Society
Virginia M. Pitts, Project Director
Susan Heffron, Association of American Geographers and Harm de Blij, Michigan State University
Co-Chair, Geography Education Research Committee
Richard G. Boehm, Texas State University-San Marcos
Doug Richardson
Association of American Geographers Barbara Chow, The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation
Jerome E. Dobson, American Geographical Society and Jack Dangermond, Esri
Study Director, Public Understanding and Values Study Michael F. Goodchild, University of California, Santa Barbara
Kristin Alvarez Brian McClendon, Google
National Council for Geographic Education
Alexander B. Murphy, University of Oregon
Joseph Kerski
National Council for Geographic Education M. Duane Nellis, University of Idaho
Robert Dulli Trevor Packer, The College Board
National Geographic Society
Lee Schwartz
Sarah Witham Bednarz, Chair
Geography Education Research Committee
Emily M. Schell, Chair
Instructional Materials and Professional Development Committee
Kathleen J. Roth, Co-Chair
Instructional Materials and Professional Development Committee
Richard J. Shavelson, Co-Chair
Assessment Committee
5 of 74Table of Contents
Executive Summary............................................................................. 7 Chapter 4: Building Capacity in Geography Education Research........ 48
Preface................................................................................................ 10 Strategy 1: Coordinate Research
Strategy 2: Develop Lines of Research
Chapter 1: Context and Goals for the Road Map for
21st Century Geography Education Project........................................ 16 Examples of Lines of Research
The State of Geography Education in the United States
Chapter 5: Geography Education Research Committee
The Importance of Geography Education
Recommendations............................................................................... 56
The Need for a “Road Map” for Geography Education
Recommendations Focused on Charge 1
Establishing a Destination: Goals for K–12 Geography Education
Recommendations Focused on Charge 2
Describing the Destination: Effectiveness and Balance
Mapping a Bright Future
Appendix A: Geography Education Research Committee
Biographies......................................................................................... 62
Chapter 2: Improving Research in Geography Education.................... 26
Research in Education as a Model for Geography Education
References........................................................................................... 64
Crafting an Agenda in Geography Education
Chapter 3: Review of Geography Education Research......................... 32
Status and Characteristics of Research in Geography Education
Research on Key Research Questions for Geography Education
In the online version of this report, the icon on the lower left corner of the following pages will bring you back to this Table of Contents.
6 of 74Executive Context and Improving Research Building
Summary Preface Goals Research Review Capacity Recommendations Appendix A References
than 30% of American students were proficient in research communities develop and adopt to maximize the
Executive Summary geography, meaning that they were able to perform at cumulative impact of education research in geography?
the level that is expected for their grade. More than
Introduction The first question is addressed in Chapter 2. This
70% of high school graduates are not prepared to do the
Committee suggests two strategies to improve geography
In our rapidly changing, interdependent, and complex ordinary geographic thinking required in the course of
education research: (1) careful consideration of education
world, the importance of “the geographic advantage” caring for themselves and their families, making conse-
research in related fields, including science and math-
(Hanson, 2004) and geography education is evident. quential decisions in the workplace, and participating in
ematics education, more specifically, research in learning
Geography education provides critical preparation for the democratic process.
civic life and careers in the 21st century. It also is es- progressions or trajectories and related instructional inter-
sential for postsecondary study in a wide range of fields We need better and more research before we can un- ventions; and (2) creation of a framework for geography
from marketing and environmental science to inter- derstand even the most fundamental ways individuals education research. The framework consists of two parts:
national affairs and civil engineering. In the modern develop proficiency in geography. The current state of the practices of geography and four key research ques-
world, every member of society increasingly is called on geography education across the United States is a threat tions. The geographic practices, which Geography for Life
to make decisions that have far-reaching consequences. to our social, political, and economic well-being. argues are essential to learning and thinking proficiently
Geography education helps prepare people to make in geography, are:
these decisions. A Road Map for 21st Century
• formulating geographic questions;
Geography Education: Geography
• acquiring, organizing, and analyzing geographic
Yet the current state of geography education in the Education Research
United States is a concern. Although examples of information; and
excellence in geography education can be identified in The Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education • explaining and communicating geographic pat-
every part of the country, they are the exception. More Project focuses special attention on the practices of terns and processes.
typically, the amount of geography instruction that stu- thinking geographically and doing geography, that
To understand in depth how students learn each of
dents receive, the preparation of their teachers to teach is, the behaviors that comprise geographic inquiry
these geographic practices, four education-related key
geography, and the quality of instructional materials are and problem solving. The project adopts the learn-
research questions are proposed. These questions are ap-
inadequate to prepare students for the demands of the ing goals of the second edition of Geography for Life:
plicable to geography learners of all ages and educational
modern world. National Geography Standards, Second Edition (Heffron
backgrounds, whether they are engaged through schools
& Downs, 2012) to provide a structure outlining what
Assessments of geographic concepts and skills confirm or informal communities. The four key research ques-
students must know and what they must be able to do
the failure of our educational system to provide students tions are: (1) How do geographic knowledge, skills, and
to be geographically proficient.
with an adequate understanding of geography. The 2010 practices develop across individuals, settings, and time?
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), This report focuses on two questions, posed as charges (2) How do geographic knowledge, skills, and practices
known as “The Nation’s Report Card,” indicated that to the Geography Education Research Committee: develop across the different elements of geography?
the overwhelming majority of American students are (1) What areas of research will be most effective in im- (3) What supports or promotes the development of geo-
geographically illiterate (National Center for Education proving geography education at a large scale? graphic knowledge, skills, and practices? (4) What is nec-
Statistics, 2011). It found that fewer (2) What strategies and methodologies can relevant essary to support the effective and broad implementation
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Summary Preface Goals Research Review Capacity Recommendations Appendix A References
of the development of geographic knowledge, skills, and individuals and groups reading and responding to this Recommendations Focused on Charge 2
practices? Together, the practices of geography and key report to prioritize the recommendations.
What strategies and methodologies can relevant research
research questions provide an agenda and direction for
Recommendations Focused on Charge 1 communities develop and adopt to maximize the cumula-
geography education research.
What areas of research will be most effective in improving tive impact of education research in geography?
The second question posed to the Committee, “What geography education at a large scale?
Recommendation 6
strategies and methodologies can relevant research com-
The Committee recommends interdisciplinary and
munities develop and adopt to maximize the cumulative Recommendation 1
multidisciplinary approaches, drawing on relevant
impact of education research in geography?” is addressed The Committee recommends that geography
research results.
in Chapter 4. The Committee recommends connecting education researchers engage in systematic
the relatively small community of geographers and others efforts to identify learning progressions in
Recommendation 7
who conduct research in geography education with the geography both within and across grade bands
The Committee recommends that geography
(e.g., grades K–4, 5-8, 9-12).
broader community of scholars from the learning sci- education researchers follow established
ences, education, and related fields. This cooperation and principles for scientific research in education
Recommendation 2
collaboration will inform, assist, and enable more genera- (National Research Council, 2002), and that they
The Committee recommends research that
tive activities such as developing a suite of exemplars that examines the components and characteristics of collect data scientifically from large samples of
can be used in geography and other fields. It also will exemplary geography curricula. students in schools, other learning environments,
encourage studies that align to the key research questions and laboratory settings.
suggested previously; are situated in a problem context; Recommendation 3
focus on the core ideas, knowledge, skills, and practices The Committee recommends research to Recommendation 8
of geography; draw from research about cross-cutting investigate the characteristics of effective The Committee recommends researchers develop
themes and foundational concepts from other disciplines; geography teaching. and study exemplary programs, curricula, tasks,
and use common tasks, measures, and assessments. measures, and assessments to build the body of
Recommendation 4 knowledge about effective geography teaching
Recommendations The Committee recommends research about and learning.
fieldwork and its impact on learning geography
The report concludes with 13 recommendations to knowledge, skills, and practices. Recommendation 9
improve research in geography education and, thus, The Committee recommends building partnerships
to develop a more geographically proficient and liter- Recommendation 5 with formal and informal educators to conduct
ate society. The Committee recommends that research about research in a range of learning contexts and
teacher preparation in geography be conducted to share findings among the community of
The Committee’s recommendations are organized with the goal of determining what is needed to geography education researchers.
around the two key charges to the Geography produce educators able to understand and teach
Education Research Committee. A hierarchical order for student mastery of the content and practices
of recommendations is not implied as both charges of geography.
are equally important. The Committee leaves it to the
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Recommendation 10 National Science Foundation’s (NSF) Fostering online tools and exemplars and that suggests
The Committee recommends the creation or Interdisciplinary Research on Education (FIRE), areas in need of additional research.
designation of an institution to coordinate the can prepare participants for a range of career
implementation, dissemination, and knowledge Recommendation 13
opportunities that promote and disseminate
transfer of research results.
geography education research. The Committee recommends that the National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Geog-
Recommendation 11
The Committee recommends development Recommendation 12 raphy assessment be conducted at more frequent
of “learning research” opportunities. Pre- and The Committee recommends the development and regular intervals and that more funding for
post-doctoral training programs, similar to the and publication of a handbook that includes greater analysis of the test results be provided.
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We have pursued these issues through the develop- (1) pose significant questions that can be investigated em-
Preface ment of three consensus reports, including this one, pirically; (2) link research to relevant theory; (3) use the
This report is a product of the Road Map for 21st that cover: most appropriate and effective methods that permit direct
Century Geography Education Project (referred to as investigation of the research question(s); (4) provide a
• assessment,
the Road Map Project), supported in part by a grant coherent and explicit chain of reasoning, linking evi-
• geography education research, and
from the National Science Foundation (NSF), Grant dence to theory, and describe procedures in a sufficiently
No. DRL-1049437. The Road Map Project was created • instructional materials and professional detailed fashion to allow replication; (5) be replicable and
development. generalizable in a range of settings and populations; and
to respond to a directive from Congress in the NSF’s
fiscal year 2010 budget to “work with external partners The fourth issue of public support for geography educa- (6) embrace ideals of scholarly behavior through wide dis-
with experience in geographic education to improve tion was the focus of a study of public understanding semination, peer review, and public scrutiny.
geography teaching, training, and research in our and values; results will be published in 2013.
Nation’s schools” (U.S. House of Representatives, 2009,
Development of the Road Map
p. 767). Building on three decades of collaboration, the Purpose and Charges of the Project and the Geography Education
four national geography organizations—the National Geography Education Research Research Report
Geographic Society, the Association of American Committee Three committees were organized to address the key
Geographers, the American Geographical Society, and issues identified by the Road Map Project: Assessment;
This report was created by the Geography Education
the National Council for Geographic Education—re- Geography Education Research; and Instructional
Research Committee convened by the principal in-
sponded to this opportunity with a proposal to create a Materials and Professional Development. The Chair
vestigator and educational partners of the Road Map
set of consensus reports that would create a Road Map and Co-Chair for the Geography Education Research
Project. It represents a consensus of the members of the
for large-scale efforts to improve geography education Committee, Sarah Witham Bednarz and Susan Heffron,
Geography Education Research Committee.
over the coming decade. were selected by the four partner organizations as part
The report focuses on two questions, posed as charges to of the proposal process in May 2010. A Project Steering
The Road Map Project provides a plan for this initiative. the Committee: Committee was formed in September 2010 to coordi-
Its goal is to learn from the experiences of earlier edu- nate all project efforts; the Project Steering Committee
1. What areas of research will be most effective in
cational improvement efforts in geography and other improving geography education at a large scale? was composed of representatives from the four national
subjects to establish guidelines and set priorities for the geography organizations, the leadership of the Geography
2. What strategies and methodologies can relevant
future of geography education. Education Research Committee, and the leadership of the
research communities develop and adopt to
maximize the cumulative impact of education
other two committees (Daniel C. Edelson and Richard
In planning for the Road Map Project, the collaborat- J. Shavelson of the Assessment Committee, and Emily
research in geography?
ing organizations identified four issues critical for the M. Schell and Kathleen J. Roth of the Instructional
improvement of geography education: (1) assessment, The principles for scientific research in education out- Materials and Professional Development Committee).
(2) instructional materials and professional development, lined in the report of the National Research Council, This Committee was charged with selecting members for
(3) research in geography education, and (4) public sup- Scientific Research in Education (2002), form the founda- each committee that included representatives of some
port for geography education. tion of this report. Research in geography education must or all of the following groups:
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Summary Preface Goals Research Review Capacity Recommendations Appendix A References
• academic experts in geography education, January 28-29, 2011, Kickoff Meeting Suggestions from all three committees were prioritized
• academic geographers, (Washington, DC): Introductions to the project and and synthesized, in preparation for the next round of
to the membership of the three committees were made. reviews. Second drafts were made available for public
• academic experts in education in other areas of
The Geography Education Research Committee shared comment in March 2012. A review board was estab-
social and behavioral sciences and science,
influential research in the field and brainstormed about lished to invite outside organizations in relevant fields
• K–12 practitioners (teachers and administrators),
key geography education research questions. This was to identify one reviewer for each report. Those review-
and
followed by a review and revision of its charge. ers were asked to provide feedback during the public
• experts in the specific foci of each commit- comment period. Committee members were invited to
tee report group (assessment, education re- June 16-18, 2011, Geographic Thinking Workshop
comment on both sets of drafts.
search, instructional materials, and professional (Washington, DC): Eighteen eminent scholars from
development). geography (academic and applied), spatial thinking, and April 26-27, 2012, Project Steering Committee
related disciplines (geology, history, and science educa- Meeting (Washington, DC): The Project Steering
Members of the Geography Education Research tion) provided unique perspectives about the core ele- Committee meeting took place after comments were
Committee were selected to represent a range of talents ments of thinking, doing, learning, and teaching geog- received from the public review. On the first day, the
and perspectives. The Committee includes cognitive raphy. The Geography Education Research Committee Geography Education Research Committee Chair, Co-
scientists, educationalists, geography educators, geogra- dedicated the last day of the meeting to discussing and Chair, and Research Coordinator reviewed each public
phers, learning scientists with research expertise in science extracting essential themes from the presentations to lay comment and decided how each would be addressed.
education, and psychologists. Administrative support for the foundation of the report. On the second day, the Project Steering Committee
the Geography Education Research Committee was pro- shared comments each had received and worked to-
vided through the Association of American Geographers, September 23-24, 2011, Geography Education
gether to clarify terminology and definitions to main-
which hired Niem Tu Huynh as the Committee’s research Research Committee Meeting (Washington, DC):
tain consistency across the three reports.
coordinator. The three Road Map committees have The Committee vigorously discussed the areas of
coordinated efforts through regular teleconferences and research likely to be most useful in improving geog- May 18-19, 2012, Geography Education Research
meetings led by Principal Investigator Daniel C. Edelson raphy education. A table of contents was drafted and Committee Meeting (Evanston, IL): Committee
but each separate committee was empowered to make its Committee members were given writing assignments members reviewed and discussed each chapter of the re-
own decisions and to exercise independent editorial judg- that would form the initial draft report to be reviewed port and suggested revisions. Based on these comments,
ment over its own product. in January 2012. a third draft was produced and shared with Committee
members for their review.
January 3-4, 2012, Geography Education Research
The Geography Education Research Committee met
Committee Meeting (Washington, DC): Summer 2012: As each chapter was reviewed by
five times over the course of the writing process. These
The primary meeting goal was to review the initial Committee members, changes were made, and content
meetings sometimes were held in conjunction with the
draft report. A professional writer, hired to organize finalized.
other two committees to allow an exchange of ideas.
the writing, attended the meeting. The writer was
A timeline for development efforts follows:
tasked with preparing a report, which was reviewed by
all Road Map Project committees from January 20 to
February 3, 2012.
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Organization of the Report 4. What is necessary to support the effective and In this report, we do not suggest that there is a single
broad implementation of the development of way to conduct geography education research. However,
The report consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides geographic knowledge, skills, and practices? the Committee recommendations and lines of research
the overall context and goals for the project. It pro- presented here, underpinned by the principles of scien-
vides the definition of geography used in the Road Map Chapter 3 begins by charting the direction of previ-
tific education research, provide a plan for the focused,
Project and argues for the importance of geography ous geography education research. The chapter then
concerted, and systematic efforts needed to enhance
education in preparing young people for the decision synthesizes the literature organized around the four key
geography education research.
making required of 21st century citizens. It describes research questions, summarizing what is known about
evolving views of geography education in the United how students learn and identifying gaps in the research Acknowledgments
States through a brief review of four efforts to reform literature.
We wish to extend our appreciation to a number
and reconceptualize it. The chapter concludes with a Chapter 4 addresses the second charge: What strategies of people who contributed to this report. Notably,
description of the practices of geography as they relate and methodologies can relevant research communities we thank the key contributors to this report, the
to the skills and perspectives presented in Geography develop and adopt to maximize the cumulative impact of members of the Geography Education Research
for Life: National Geography Standards, Second Edition education research in geography? The chapter proposes Committee: Margaret Smith Crocco, Dean, College
(Heffron & Downs, 2012). two strategies to accomplish these goals: (1) organize of Education, University of Iowa; Richard A. Duschl,
Chapter 2 addresses the first charge: What areas of research around a coordinated set of priorities focused on Waterbury Chair Professor, Secondary Education, The
research will be most effective in improving geography the four key research questions, and (2) identify and use Pennsylvania State University; David Lambert, Professor
education at a large scale? The chapter outlines two attributes that characterize effective, replicable research of Geography Education, Institute of Education,
strategies to enhance geography education research: in geography education. The chapter also suggests the University of London; Lynn S. Liben, Distinguished
(1) careful consideration of education research in related development of exemplars as a method of coordinat- Professor of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State
fields, including science and mathematics education; ing geography education research, and it describes four University; William Penuel, Professor of Educational
and (2) creation of a geography education research research projects to illustrate and communicate what the Psychology and Learning Sciences, University of
agenda based on the practices of geography outlined in Committee considers to be key features of studies that Colorado Boulder; Eui-kyung Shin, Associate
will advance the agenda in geography education. Professor, Northern Illinois University; Diana Stuart
Chapter 1 and organized around the following four key
Sinton, Director of Spatial Curriculum and Research,
research questions.
Finally, Chapter 5 presents a set of specific recom- University of Redlands; Michael Solem, Educational
1. How do geographic knowledge, skills, and mendations for researchers, educators, policy mak- Affairs Director, Association of American Geographers;
practices develop across individuals, settings, ers, and funders about the actions required to further Joseph P. Stoltman, Professor of Geography and
and time? develop and expand research in geography education. Science Education, Department of Geography, Western
2. How do geographic knowledge, skills, and The recommendations address issues identified by the Michigan University; and David Uttal, Professor of
practices develop across the different elements Committee in previous chapters. The ultimate goal of Psychology and Education, Northwestern University. In
of geography? this project is to improve learning and teaching in ge- addition we wish to acknowledge the contribution of
3. What supports or promotes the development of ography and thereby develop a geographically proficient the individuals who helped hone and edit this docu-
geographic knowledge, skills, and practices? and literate society. ment: Amy Ashley, Arizona State University, and Robert
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S. Bednarz, Texas A&M University. Thanks go also to Joy Gersmehl, James Hauf, Joseph Kerski, Daniel Montello, Sarah Witham Bednarz
K. Adams and Mark V. Revell, Association of American and Rebecca Theobold for providing comments on Chair, Geography Education Research Committee
Geographers, for providing background information the report. We also thank the other Committee chairs, College of Geosciences, Texas A&M University
on careers in geography. The testimony of the geogra- co-chairs, project director, and research directors for
Susan Heffron
phers, cognitive psychologists, and others who spoke at their feedback across all three reports: Audrey Mohan,
Co-Chair, Geography Education Research Committee
the June 16–17, 2011 Geographic Thinking Workshop Virginia Pitts, Kathleen Roth, Emily Schell, Richard
Association of American Geographers
(listed on page 15) was especially helpful, particularly Shavelson, and Jill Wertheim. Finally, we thank Doug
that of Susan Hanson for elucidating the geographic Richardson, Executive Director, Association of American Niem Tu Huynh
advantage; and Roger Downs for giving us the idea of Geographers, and Daniel C. Edelson, Vice President for Research Coordinator, Geography Education
exemplars as a way to develop geography education Education, National Geographic Society, and princi- Research Committee
research. The Review Board (listed on page 14) provided pal investigator for the Road Map for 21st Century Association of American Geographers
crucial feedback that helped us immensely in crafting the Geography Education Project, for facilitating and giving
final report. In addition, we thank Simon Catling, Phil us the freedom to complete a challenging project.
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Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project
Review Board
The following organizations nominated reviewers to serve on the Review Board of The following individuals nominated by these organizations reviewed one or more
the Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project: of the Road Map Project Committee reports:
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Assessment Committee Report Instructional Materials and
American Federation of Teachers (AFT) Professional Development
(AGI) Committee Report
American Geosciences Institute (AGI)
(NCSS) (AAAS)
Council of State Social Studies Specialists (CS4)
(AAAS) (CS4)
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS)
(NBPTS) (NCSS)
National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS)
(AFT) (AFT)
National Education Association (NEA)
(NBPTS) (NBPTS)
North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE)
(NAAEE) (NEA)
Geography Education Research
Committee Report
By participating in this review process, these organizations and individuals (CS4)
made an important contribution to the Road Map for 21st Century Geography (AGI)
Education Project. However, they were not asked to endorse the reports that (NCSS)
they reviewed, so the participation of these organizations and individuals does (AAAS)
not constitute an endorsement of the reports. While the members of the Review
(AFT)
Board were nominated by organizations, they did not represent the views of
their organizations in the review process. (NAAEE)
(NEA)
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Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project
Presenters
Workshop on Geographic Thinking
Washington, DC, June 16–17, 2011
The following invited speakers presented at a workshop Richard Duschl Janice Monk
on geographic thinking convened by all three com- The Pennsylvania State University University of Arizona
mittees of the Road Map for 21st Century Geography
Education Project in June 2011: Carol Gersmehl Daniel Montello
New York Geographic Alliance and University of California, Santa Barbara
Thomas Baerwald Renaissance Charter School
National Science Foundation Alec Murphy
Phil Gersmehl University of Oregon
Douglas Batson Michigan Geographic Alliance and
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency New York Center for Geographic Learning Nora Newcombe
Temple University
Scott Bell Patricia Gober
University of Saskatchewan Arizona State University Jeanette Rice
Rice Consulting, LLC
Sarah Brinegar Susan Hanson
U.S. Department of Justice Clark University Peter Seixas
University of British Columbia
Roger Downs Kim Kastens
The Pennsylvania State University Columbia University
Lynn Liben
The Pennsylvania State University
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Chapter 1: Context and Goals for the Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project
The State of Geography Education Assessments of geographic concepts and skills confirm grade, more than 30% of students scored below “basic,”
in the United States the failure of our educational system in geography, indicating that they had not mastered even foundational
indicating that the overwhelming majority of American geographic concepts or skills.
This report is one of three synthesis reports on geogra- students are geographically illiterate. The 2010 National
phy education from the Road Map for 21st Century From the NAEP results and other data, we conclude
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), known
Geography Education Project. The Road Map Project that an overwhelming majority of high school graduates
as “The Nation’s Report Card,”(National Center for are not prepared to do the ordinary geographic reasoning
has been a collaborative effort of four national orga- Education Statistics, 2011) found that fewer than 30% that is required of everyone in our society in the course
nizations: the American Geographical Society (AGS), of American students were proficient in geography; of caring for themselves and for their families, making
the Association of American Geographers (AAG), the more than 70% of students at fourth, eighth, and 12th consequential decisions in the workplace, and partici-
National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE), grades were unable to perform at the level that is ex- pating in the democratic process. Furthermore, we
and the National Geographic Society (NGS). These pected for their grade (NCES, 2011, Figure 1). At 12th conclude that more than 30% of high school students
organizations share a concern that the dismal state of
K–12 geography education across the United States is a Figure 1. Comparison of Results for Students in Grades 4, 8, and 12 on National Assessment of
threat to our country’s well-being, and by extension, the Educational Progress (NAEP) Geography Test in 1994, 2001, and 2010
well-being of the global community. The project partners
Trends in NAEP Geography Achievement Results
share the belief that geography education is essential for
for 1994, 2001, and 2010
preparing the general population for careers, civic lives,
and personal decision making in contemporary society. Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 12
It also is essential for the preparation of specialists ca- 100% 100% 100%
pable of addressing critical societal issues in the areas of
80%
social welfare, economic stability, environmental health, 80% 80%
and international relations. The Road Map Project part-
60% 60% 60%
ners fear that by neglecting geography education today,
we are placing the welfare of future generations at risk. 40% 40% 40%
While inspiring examples of highly effective geography
20% 20% 20%
education can be found in every part of the United
States, the amount of geography instruction that the 0% 0% 0%
overwhelming majority of students receive, the prepa- 1994* 2001* 2001 2010 1994* 2001* 2001 2010 1994* 2001* 2001 2010
ration of their teachers to teach geography, and the
quality of their instructional materials are inadequate to Below basic Basic Proficient Advanced
prepare students for the demands of the modern world.
Test administrations in which accommodations were not permitted Source: NCES, 2011
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Summary Preface Goals Research Review Capacity Recommendations Appendix A References
are so far behind that it is unlikely they will ever reach In addition, we need to provide young people with the and events around the world and put appropriate
proficiency. To compare with textual literacy, this level opportunity to develop the understanding and inter- responses forward for decision-makers. We need peo-
of geographic illiteracy is analogous to having 70% of est to pursue the geography-dependent careers that ple who are able to operate on the ground in every
high school graduates unable to read a newspaper edito- are critical to our national interests. The Geo-Literacy kind of foreign context and can read the cultural and
rial and identify the assumptions, evidence, and causal Coalition, a consortium of businesses including physical landscape appropriately.
connections in its argument. Google, CH2M HILL, Esri, and the U.S. Geospatial
This Road Map Project is taking place against a backdrop
Intelligence Foundation, had the following to say about
in which many members of the global community are
The Importance of the importance of geography education for our nation
renewing their commitment to geography education. In
Geography Education (National Geographic, 2011):
Australia, a national curriculum is being introduced for
K–12 geography education is critical preparation for [America’s] inattention to [geography education] the first time. In England, geography is a component of
civic life and careers in the 21st century. It also is es- stands in contrast to the demand for geographically the recently introduced English Baccalaureate. In most
sential for postsecondary study in a wide range of fields, literate individuals in the workforce. There is substan- of the world, geography holds a higher place in the K–12
from marketing and environmental science, to interna- tial demand in both the public and private sectors for curriculum than it does in the United States. In most
tional affairs and civil engineering. people who have the ability to interpret and analyze countries, geography is required every year through age
geographic information. The number of jobs for 16, in addition to history or other social studies subjects.
Everyone in modern society faces personal decisions such analysts is growing rapidly, while the supply of In fact, the United States is almost unique in its treat-
that require geographic reasoning. These decisions, such Americans who can fill them is not. By not preparing ment of geography as part of a single curriculum with
as where to live and how to travel from place to place, young people for careers that depend on geographic
history, government, and economics.
can have an enormous impact on one’s life. We also reasoning, we are leaving ourselves vulnerable.
must make decisions that have far-reaching consequenc- The Road Map Project partners believe that we, as a
In our global economy, the understanding and ana-
es, such as which products to buy and how to dispose society, have a responsibility to prepare all young people
lytical skills developed through geography education
of them. While these decisions may seem insignificant, for their personal needs and civic responsibilities, and we
are essential to make well-reasoned decisions about
when they are multiplied by the number of people have a further responsibility to prepare sufficient num-
where to conduct business, how to conduct business
making them each day, they have enormous cultural, bers of young people for geography-dependent careers.
in particular locations, and how to transport materi-
economic, and environmental repercussions for other We are not currently living up to those responsibilities,
als and goods from one location to another. Critical
people and places. Finally, in our democratic society, we and we fear the consequences that our society will suffer
business choices such as where to build facilities,
all participate in societal decision making about public
how to design a supply chain, and how to market to if we continue to neglect geography education.
health, social welfare, environmental protection, and
different cultures all require geographic reasoning.
international affairs. In this era of such global challenges
The Need for a “Road Map” for
as ethnic and religious conflict, growing populations These skills are equally important for emergency
Geography Education
in poverty, increasing competition for limited natural preparedness, defense, intelligence, and diplomacy.
resources, and degradation of the environment, it is es- In our government and military, we need individuals Over the past several decades, a small but dedicated
sential that all members of society be prepared to make who understand the dynamics of specific locations community of geographers and educators has harbored
these decisions. Geography education helps prepare well enough to prepare for and respond to emergen- concerns about the state of geography education and
people for these tasks. cies. We need analysts who are able to track people has worked diligently to improve geography education.
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Summary Preface Goals Research Review Capacity Recommendations Appendix A References
Their greatest success has been in establishing a firmer accurately reflect its importance for our society. current state of the instructional materials for
place for geography in K–12 education. The Elementary teaching geography and the preservice and
This work targets the three audiences that are in the best
and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 2001 (January inservice education that teachers who are respon-
position to effect improvement in our system of public sible for geography education receive. Based on
8, 2002) recognized geography as a core academic sub-
education: this analysis and a review of the literature on the
ject, and all 50 states now have K–12 standards for ge-
ography. Geography has been included in the National 1. Front-line professionals: educators, teacher design of instructional material and the design of
Assessment of Educational Progress since 1994, and the educators, developers, and researchers who teacher professional development, the Committee
directly influence instruction, assessment, formulated recommendations and guidelines
College Board established an Advanced Placement exam
and research; for both instructional materials and professional
for Human Geography in 2001.
development that will lead to improvements in
2. Policy makers: individuals at national, state, and
However, these successes in improving the place of instruction and in learning outcomes.
local levels who establish the goals and processes
geography in the educational system have not been fol- The Assessment Committee studied the current
for public education; and
lowed up with the levels of effort or resources necessary state of assessment in geography and reviewed its
to bring about widespread improvement in the quality 3. Funders: decision-makers in government and history. Based on their analysis of existing assess-
of instruction. As a result, educators and students who private organizations who provide the funding to ment practices and a review of the literature on
have had the good fortune of being impacted directly support public education. assessment as a support for improving educational
by the efforts of the geography education reform com- outcomes, the Committee formulated guidelines
In planning the project, the partners identified five criti-
munity have benefited enormously, but they represent for developing assessment instruments and for
cal issues for improving geography education: conducting assessment that will lead to improve-
a small minority. As measured by NAEP, there has been
no broad improvement in students’ learning of geogra- 1. preparation and professional development ments in instruction and outcomes.
phy during the 17−year period of testing. of teachers, The Geography Education Research Committee
2. instructional materials to support classroom reviewed the existing education and cognitive sci-
The project partners launched the Road Map Project instruction, ence research literature to identify gaps in our abil-
with the goal of increasing the scale and accelerating ity to answer significant questions about geogra-
3. assessment of learning outcomes and
the pace of efforts to improve geography education phy education based on research. Drawing on this
instructional effectiveness,
to meet our responsibility to prepare young people analysis, the Committee formulated recommenda-
for the world they will inherit. The partners have two 4. research on teaching and learning, and tions for research questions and approaches that
goals for this work: 5. cultivation and maintenance of public support.
will build a knowledge base to guide improvement
efforts for geography education in the future.
• first and foremost, to make future efforts to
The partners divided these issues among four efforts,
improve geography education more strategic, For the final issue—developing and maintaining public
focused, and coherent, so they can have greater deciding to address the first four issues through syn- support for geography education—the partners did
and more enduring impact; and thesis reports to be developed by three committees of not believe the existing knowledge base on public
experts identified by the project partners: beliefs and attitudes about geography education would
• second, to provide a rationale for establishing
requirements for geography education and allocat- The Instructional Materials and Professional support the development of a synthesis report at this
ing resources to improve geography education that Development Committee considered the time. Instead, the partners initiated a pilot study of
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Summary Preface Goals Research Review Capacity Recommendations Appendix A References
public beliefs and attitudes under the direction of the 1. reflect the essence of geography as defined by documenting, analyzing, and explaining: 1) the lo-
American Geographical Society. geographers; cation, organization, and character of physical and
2. convey the qualities of geography that capture its human phenomena on the surface of Earth; and
Establishing a Destination: Goals for distinctive benefits as a subject of study; and 2) the interplay of arrangements and processes,
K–12 Geography Education 3. focus on the portions of geography that have the
near and far, human and environmental, that shape
greatest value for students and society. the evolving character of places, regions, and eco-
The value of a road map is that it enables you to select
systems (p. 10).
a route to your destination. Therefore, the first step in We approached the challenge of defining the goals for
developing our Road Map for geography education was This report characterizes geography as being forward-
geography education from two perspectives—those
establishing a common destination. In education, des- thinking and essential to society for key issues includ-
of geographers and educators. To explore the perspec-
tinations are expressed in terms of learning outcomes, ing sustainability, economic stability, national security,
tive of geographers, we surveyed the existing literature
so in the case of geography education, we will be able and response to environmental change.
on the nature of geography, and we convened cur-
to say that we have reached our destination when our rent thinkers and practitioners for a workshop on A consensus also has evolved in recent decades about
schools make it possible for all students to achieve the “geographic thinking.” At this workshop, we invited a the key themes of geography. Pattison (1964) identified
learning goals for geography that we have set for them. wide variety of academic and practicing geographers, geography’s core as consisting of four “traditions,” the
Because the national geography standards were devel- cognitive scientists, and individuals with other relevant spatial tradition, the area studies tradition, the human-
oped through an earlier collaboration of the project perspectives to present on what it means “to think like land tradition, and earth science tradition. Taaffe
partners, they represent a logical choice of “destina- a geographer” or “to do geography.” To explore the (1974) identified three key organizers for geography:
tion.” However, the members of the Road Map Project perspective of geography educators, we examined the spatial organization, area studies, and human-land
committees thought we should use this opportunity to history of efforts to conceptualize geography education relationships. Contemporary geographers agree that the
consider alternatives as well. Therefore, as a collabora- during the past half century. We summarize the find- discipline focuses on a similar set of core ideas: spatial-
tive effort across all three committees, we conducted ings of these investigations below. ity, human-environment interaction, interconnections
an investigation into what it means to “do geography” between places, and place-based and regional analysis
Geographers on Geography
in the 21st century and what that implies for the goals (Abler, 1987; Baerwald, 2010).
We started our investigation with a review of the ways
of K–12 geography education. The remainder of this
that geographers have defined geography in recent Because geographers work on many of the same ques-
chapter describes that process and its outcomes.
decades. While there is great diversity of opinion tions and problems as specialists in other fields, they
Establishing goals for geography education is no small among geographers about where the boundaries of have faced the challenge of differentiating geography
challenge because geography is a broad field and it is geography lie, there is considerable consensus about from those fields. Susan Hanson confronted this chal-
constantly evolving. Fortunately, geographers and others its core. Geographers engage in a range of activities lenge in a presidential address to the Association of
have wrestled with this challenge for generations, and related to space, place, and the dynamic interactions of American Geographers. In this presentation, Hanson
we were able to benefit from that work. Our investiga- agents within and across spaces and places (Baerwald, (2004) described the unique aspects of geography as
tion was guided by three criteria that we believe the 2010; National Research Council, 1997). As described “the geographic advantage,” and she enumerated four
goals for K–12 geography education should meet. in a recent National Research Council report (NRC, aspects of this advantage:
Specifically, goals for geography education should: 2010), geography involves: 1. Geography considers the relationships between
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