Against the Evil of War - First Light - Canadian Centre for Victims of Torture
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Spring 2021
First Light
Against the Evil of War
A Biannual Publication of
The Canadian Centre for Victims of Torture (CCVT)
Accredited member of the International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims (IRCT)
First light Spring 2021
First Light
First Light, which is published semi-annually, is in-
tended to provide solid information to the interested
readers about the scourge of torture, war, genocide,
crimes against humanity and human trafficking and
In This Issue
their effects and what we can do in aiding survivors to
overcome the after-effects of their horrible experienc-
es. The CCVT views itself as part of a larger global com-
munity and is committed to the struggle for human
rights, peace, justice and the end of the practice of 4 Letter of an Ethiopian Refugee
torture, war, genocide, crimes against humanity and Claimant to the Editor
human trafficking.
By Rigbe Tsige
Editor: Ezat Mossallanejad, Counsellor and Policy
Analyst and Researcher
Layout Design: Ezat Mossallanejad 5 Feel the War
Cover: Youth clients of the CC VT at the Toronto BY: Elena Solokhina
Centre Island, photo by Nadia Umadat
6 War in Tigray and Crimes of In-
Public Education Committee ternational Law
Mulugeta Abai, Executive Director
Teresa Dremetsikas, Manager
Ezat Mossallanejad, Settlement Counsellor and Policy By Mulugeta Abai
Analyst
Mbalu Lumor, Senior Manager, Program and New-
27 The Hanging of Angélique
comer Services (poem)
Published By:
The Canadian Centre for Victims of Torture
29 Nadia Murad
194 Jarvis St. 2nd Floor, Toronto, ON M5B 2B7
Canada
Tel: 416-363-1066; Fax: 416-363-2122 The Crime of Rape and Sexual Vio-
Email: ezat@ccvt.org and mabai@ccvt.org; 30 lence in Tigray
Website: www.ccvt.org
Mandate: The Canadian Centr e for Victims of Tor - By Mulugeta Abai
ture (CCVT) aids survivors of torture, war, genocide
and crimes against humanity to overcome the lasting
effects of torture and war. Working with the communi-
ty, the Centre supports survivors in the process of suc- Internal Displacement: The Invisible
cessful integration into Canadian society, works for 36 Cost of War
their protection and integrity, and raises awareness of
the continuing effects of torture and war on survivors
and their families. The CCVT gives hope after By Cal Furlong
the horror.
Editor’s Note: The infor mation pr ovided in this 38 An Investigation into Uighur Geno-
publication is not controlled by the CCVT and there- cide in XinJiang, and the long-term
fore may not reflect the Centre's views. impact of “Re-education” camps on
Uighur Children
© Canadian Centre for Victims of Torture.
All rights reserved. This publication may not be repro-
duced without permission from the publisher. By Gabrielle Allohverdi
Acknowledgement of the source is appreciated. 43 March 25/26: Global Action Days to
End War in Yemen
By Anne Khan
2
First Light
Spring 2021
In This Issue (continued) In This Issue (continued)
46 A Trilogy by Anthony Frolov
60 Canada and Ukrainian Plane Crash in
Iran
46 Wronged and Invaded CCVT Letter to the Right honorable Jus-
tin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada
47 Feelings of a Captured Soul
62 After-effects of Armed conflict Between
47 New Life on New Soil Azerbaijan and Armenia
CCVT letter to the Honourable
48 Sri Lanka – The Fight for Justice François-Philippe Champagne
Minister of Foreign Affairs
By Lotus Sahana Alphonsus & No-
elle Alphonsus
64 Journalists at Risk
CCVT Letter to the Right honorable Jus-
51 Reflections of A Youth Counsellor: tin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada
Supporting Refugee Survivors
of Sexual Violence
by Nadia Umadat 65 Resettlement of Tigrayan Refugees
CCVT Letter to the Right honorable Jus-
54 Success story tin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada
By Mona Kalil
67 The Women’s International War
Eduardo Galeano against War Crimes Tribunal on Japan’s Military
56 Sexual Slavery
57 A Reflection: Supporting Separat- By: Ezat Mossallanejad
ed Refugee Youth
By Leah MacDonald 70 CCVT Programs and Services
A short explanation of ten current pro-
58 Rohingya Genocide in Myanmar
grams offered by the Canadian Centre for
Victims of Torture (CCVT)
CCVT letter to the Canadian Minis-
ter of Foreign Affairs
72 A quote
From Mahmoud Darwish
First Light 3
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First Light
Letter of an Ethiopian Refugee Claimant to the Editor
By Rigbe Tsige
been abducted; regional leaders were execut-
ed. The country has witnessed ethnic-based
mass murders and internal displacements - a
day-to-day observation in Oromia, Amhara,
Southern and Tigray regional states.
A week before, the prime minister declared
war against the Tigray regional state, in the
northern part of Ethiopia and home of about
seven million Tigrayans. In recent days, air
bombardments used against Mekelle the capi-
tal city of Tigray regional state and some other
parts of the region. The purpose of this attack
is to Isolate the people of Tigray from the rest
of the world. Mr. Ahmed has cut of the power
supply, internet connection, telephone ser-
vice, air, and land transport and all means of
communication. In addition to this, the central
government has declared state of emergency
in Tigray and Oromia regional states. Be-
cause of this, people have become frustrated.
Due to their fear and frustration, people have
November 11, 2020 been unable to run their day-to-day activities.
Despite, the international community efforts in
Dear Editor, encouraging both sides to come to the negoti-
ation table, the federal government is putting
As a woman of Ethiopian origin and an asy- pressure against its own people with a geno-
lum seeker in Canada I am extremely con- cidal policy.
cerned about the violence and aggression by As a result of the black out of communication
the federal government of Ethiopia in collab- in Tigray, I personally could not communicate
oration with the Eritrean government towards with my family (sister, brother, cousins, auntes
its own people. I would like to bring it to your and uncles). I do not know where they are.
attention that Ethiopia is currently on the Currently. The federal troops are engaged in
verge of a catastrophic civil war. fierce fighting against the people of Tigray in
Since the current prime minister took power, all fronts. They have blocked all roads pre-
thousands of people have been internally venting food and humanitarian aid entering
displaced; many government officials includ- Tigray. The prime minister of Ethiopia, in col-
ing the chief of staff have been mysteriously laboration with the Eritrean president Isaias
murdered; female university students have Afwerki, the notorious tyrant, is now attacking
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First Light
Spring 2021
his own people from Eritrean side.
People of Tigrayan origin residing in other
parts of Ethiopia are being removed from their Feel the War
jobs only because they are Tigrayans. They
include civil servants, private business owners, By Elena Solokhina
commercial aircraft “pilots’’. All Tigrayan mem-
bers of the defense force and security guards
were expelled from their duties and put under
house arrest. On social media and other gov-
ernment outlets, the prime minister is inciting Don't talk about war, don't talk!
ethnic cleansing policy against the people of But live it through with feelings all un-
Tigray living in the other parts of Ethiopia by locked!
encouraging people to be vigilant of
“individuals Tigrayans.” You are a baby, all alone and hungry.
Furthermore, Mr. Ahmed has imposed travel You are a child whose mother nobody
restrictions, particularly against individuals of can find.
Tigran ethnicity. You are teenager in the world, that's
Ethiopia is about to enter a dangerous ethnic- armed and angry,
based civil war, and I believe that you may be Preparing to kill yourself to calm your
able to expose the dangerous situation to dif- tired mind.
ferent concerned bodies:
You are a soldier after war returning,
Demanding for the immediate cessa- Of living tired, hungry, very sick.
tion of hostilities and war against Without father, daughter - no childhood,
the Tigrayan people. Without son, a mother, walking with a
Demanding an immediate cessation of stick.
killings and ethnic based violence
and displacement of people in all This is the face of war - heart wrenching
parts of Ethiopia. image.
Facilitating or initiating a national World leaders, headsmen and complicit
peace and reconciliation dialogue folks
for the establishment of an all- Don't talk about war, don't talk!
inclusive transitional government in It screams before your eyes without
Ethiopia. words.
Pressuring the prime minister of Ethio-
pia to stop the atrocities through Elena Solokhina
imposing travel and other sanc- Employment Services and Skills Training
CCVT
tions.
I am hopeful that you will make a great contri-
bution to be a voice for the voiceless innocent
people.
Thank you
Rigbie Tsige
First Light 5
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First Light
War in Tigray and Crimes
of International Law
By Mulugeta Abai
ture in Tigray by relying on the availa-
ble sources, testimonies by witnesses
and official statements.
Root Causes of the Conflict
War should neither be judged by its
spontaneous outbreak nor by propa-
ganda of the parties involved in the
conflict. According to the German gen-
eral and military theorist, Karl von
Clausewitz:
“War is not an independ-
ent phenomenon, but the
continuation of politics by
Almost all wars are intertwined with different means. Conse-
cover-ups and keeping people in dark- quently, the main lines of
ness by the ruling cliques and war- every major strategic plan
mongering forces. The extent of war are largely political in na-
crimes and crimes against humanity, ture, and their political
therefore, may come to the fore years character increases the
after the initial outbreak of the war. more the plan encom-
This is particularly true about the pre- passes the entire war and
sent war in Tigray, Ethiopia, specifical- the entire state. The plan
ly when we consider that Ethiopia’s for the war results directly
government has openly rejected fre- from the political condi-
quent calls for independent investiga- tions of the two belliger-
tions into the deadly and devastative ent states as well as from
conflict in Tigray, by mentioning that it their relations to other
“doesn’t need a babysitter”. This es- powers.” (1).
say is a modest attempt to investigate On November 4, 2020, Ethiopian Prime
the heinous crimes of international na- Minister, Mr. Abiy Ahmed Ali, formally
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declared war on the Tigray National Re- peace accord with the Eritrean tyrant,
gional State (TNRS) calling his action a Mr. Isaias Afwerki, who had been ruling
“law enforcement operation” in order to the Eritrea with an iron fist since 1993.
“protect the constitution and restore the This persuaded the Nobel Prize Com-
rule of the law.” The roots of this war, how- mittee to grant Mr. Ahmed the 2019 No-
ever, can be traced back to few months bel Prize on Peace on October 11,
after his sudden ascendance to power. 2019.
In April 2018, the ruling Ethiopian People’s Mr. Ahmed’s peace agreement with Mr.
Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) Afwerki, was considered by many, in
selected Mr. Ah- those days, as
med to be the inter- shaking hand with
im Prime Minister the devil due to the
with the mission of latter’s human
bringing peace and rights records.
harmony to the eth- Since its independ-
nically fragmented ence, Eritrea has
Ethiopia. He was been notorious as a
mandated to lead closed, military and
the country through totalitarian society
a national free and referred to by hu-
fair election by May man rights advo-
2020. Before Mr. cates as “an open-
Ahmed’s coming to air prison” or the
power, Ethiopia “North Korea of Af-
was ruled by rica”. The regime
EPRDF, a coalition has maintained full
of four parties, in- control of every as-
cluding Tigray Peo- pect of people’s life.
ple’s Liberation Front (TPLF) that ruled the Despite neighbourhood between Tigray
regional and autonomous Tigray National and Eritrea and their ethnic similarity,
Regional State (TNRS). It should be Mr. Ahmed did not involve Tigray and its
acknowledged that the TPLF’s representa- leader Mr. Debretsion Gebremichael in
tion in the cabinet and parliament has al- peace negotiations. The lack of trans-
ways been minimal and it had not held parency and denial of Tigrayan partici-
prime minister’s office for the past eight pation, suspected the latter to consider
years. The TPLF, however, had a great the pact as a conspiracy between Ah-
influence over the EPRDF and Tigrayans med and Afwerki to eliminate the TPLF.
dominated the Ethiopian security agencies (2)
due to their historical struggles against the Hopes soon turned into the despair in
Derg regime of terror and the secessionist Ethipia, as the Prime Minister, Abiy Ah-
move by Mr. Afwerki of Eritrea. med failed to control army, police and
During the first few months of his rule, Mr. militia from brutal suppression of ethnic
Ahmed introduced some far reaching civil movements in different part of the coun-
liberty reforms and released political pris- try. Mr. Ahmed failed to acknowledge
oners. In July 9, 2018, he concluded a
First Light 7
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First Light
ment has failed to make sustainable ef-
that Ethiopia, like many African na-
forts to protect displaced people and sus-
tions, is a diverse multi-ethnic society.
tain inter-ethnic violence. This has led to
Ethiopian population is composed of
further displacement in ethnically diverse
more than 70 ethnic groups: Oro-
Ethiopia. More often than not Mr. Ahmed
mo (34.49%), Amhara (26.89%), So-
has forced displaced people to return to
mali (6,20%), Tigrayans (6.07%),
their homes without any guarantee for
Sidama (4.1%), Gurage (2.53%), We-
their safety and security.
layta (2.31%), Hadiya (1.74%),
In response to inter-communal conflicts,
Afar (1.73%), …. (3). The Ethiopian
Mr. Ahmed provided the military, police
constitution of 8 December 1994, has
and local militia with free hands to sup-
provided for a far-reaching decentrali-
press any vestige of the opposition. Ac-
zation based on ethnic diversity. It
cording to the Amnesty International, on a
guarantees “free cooperation be-
single day in December 2018, soldiers
tween equal Ethiopian peo-
from the federal military killed 13 people
Timkat celebration in Mekele January 19, 2014
in the town of Finchawa in West Guji.
ples.” (Beken, C.v.d., 2012, p. 146)
One of those killed was an old woman
selling milk on the street. Some 10,000
More than 2 million people in Ethiopia people, suspected of supporting the Oro-
are internally displaced due to inter- mo Liberation Army (OLA), were detained
communal conflicts and violence. and tortured by security forces in an oper-
Among them is the displacement of ation started in January 2019. Families
over a million Somalis from their were evicted from their homes. Houses
homes in Oromia into the desert of were destroyed and burnt. At least 39
the Ogaden. Mr. Ahmed’s govern- people were extra-judicially executed in
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Spring 2021
Oromia’s East Guji and West Guji zones.
suppressed opposition through impris-
In January 2019, the security forces at-
onment of their leaders and shutting
tacked a Qemant settlement in Metema
down the internet.
and killed fifty-eight people within 24
Mr. Ahmed’s term of office was up to
hours. This brutal attack resulted in the
October 5, 2020. He suspended the na-
displacement of hundreds of people. (4)
tional election in August in the pretext of
According to the Guardian (May 29,
Covid-19 and postponed it for nine to
2020), in Oromia’s Guji district the unrest
twelve months.
had driven 80,000 people from their
The TNRS and the TPLF considered
homes by the start of the year 2020. (5)
this as unconstitutional and conducted
The 34-year-old Oromo-language pop
their regional elections as was sched-
singer and song writer, Haacaaluu Hun-
uled for September 9, 2020, based on
deessa, was shot dead by unknown as-
the constitutional provision that national
sailants in Addis Ababa in the night of
and regional elections must be held
June 29, 2020. His music gave voice to
every five years. TPLF won 98% of the
Oromo people who are desperate for
votes, duly established its own state
economic well being and self-rule. De-
government. Mr. Ahmed spared no time
spite being an Oromo himself, Prime
to reveal his hostilities by rejecting the
Minister Ahmed, have paid little attention
election and even forbidding internation-
to the plight of Oromo people and their
al reporters from flying to Tigray, at the
call for self-determination. Hundessa's
Bole International Airport, to witness the
murder sparked demonstration across
elections.
Oromia region with police intervention.
The federal and regional governments
The death toll was at least 166 people,
did not recognise each other and re-
injuries 167 and 1,084 arrests, including
garded the other party as illegal. On No-
the arrest of high-ranking opposition
vember 4, 2020, Mr. Ahmed con-
leaders such as the media magnate and
demned the TPLF as a terrorist group,
activist Jawar Mohammed. Officials re-
labelled its leaders as a gang of crimi-
peatedly pointed to the involvement of
nals and declared war against Tigray.
Oromo Liberation Front and TPLF. (6)
The war, among others, rooted in op-
Mr. Ahmed’s records made him so un-
posing visions about future direction of
popular that within several months “Abiy
Ethiopia. While, Mr. Ahmed advocates,
must go” became a new slogan. Intoxi-
a centralized state with power at the
cated with power, he chose not to go. He
hands of the prime minister, the TPLF
concentrated power in his own hands,
supports a multinational federal policy
filled government’s positions with his al-
with cultural, linguistic, and economic
lies and repeatedly overruled Parlia-
autonomy for the states, as explicitly
ment. He charged Tigrayans with corrup-
expressed in the Ethiopian constitution.
tion and purged them from the govern-
The government’s establishment of the
ment, security services and state-owned
Administrative Boundaries and Identity
corporations. In December 2019, he dis-
Issues Commission on 20 December
banded the EPRDF and merged several
2020 can be considered as a manifesta-
ethnically based regional parties into a
tion of this difference. The Commission
single party named the Prosperity Party,
was directly responsible to the prime
in which the TPLF was excluded. He
First Light 9
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minister who was mandated to look into ployed the Ethiopian National Defence
the reasons behind identity and border Force (the army), mobilized the Special
conflicts and suggest solutions to par- Forces, the State Police, the militia, and
liament. This was criticized by TPLF civilian volunteers from Amhara Nation-
and others as an anti-democratic move al Regional State (ANRS) in an on-
with the intention of restriction the au- slaught against Tigray. Mr. Ahmed uti-
thority of regional states in this matter. lized full support from Eritrea in this op-
(7) eration. On Nov. 8th, the Ethiopian army
Before Mr. Ahmed, Ethiopia was one of announced that there would be "no mer-
the most economic growth success in cy" for Mekelle's residents when its sol-
Africa for 15 years. This was mainly diers "encircle" the city. (9)
due to the rejection of the neo-liberal Mr. Ahmed refused scores of calls from
model of economic growth. Unlike outside for the peaceful settlement of
On November 4, 2020, the Ethiopian PM, Mr. Abiy Ahmed, deployed army against
Tigray region
EPRDF, Abiy Ahmed has frequently the dispute and pressed on with the of-
shown his intension to introduce his fensive. On November 22, 2020, military
own open and liberal economy: “The spokesman Colonel Dejene Tsegaye
dramatic change brought by Prime Min- told state-run Ethiopia Broadcasting
ister Abiy Ahmed in 2018 repudiated Corporation that “the next phases are
the authoritarian economic model that the decisive part of the operation, which
was previously seen as an important is to encircle Mekelle using tanks”. He
aspect of Ethiopia’s positive develop- warned the residents of this city of half a
ment story.” (8) million populations as follows: “We want
to send a message to the public in
The War Mekelle to save yourselves from any
artillery attacks and free yourselves
On November 4, 2020, Mr. Ahmed de- from the junta ... After that, there will be
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no mercy.” This was followed by the Among the first United Nations docu-
message of Mr. Ahmed: “We urge you ment dealing with crime of international
to surrender peacefully within 72 hours, nature is the Convention on Prevention
recognising that you are at the point of and Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
no return.” (10) cide, adopted by the United Nations
The Ministry of Defence and the Prime General Assembly, 9 December 1948.
Minister announced that Ethiopian Air According to Article II of this convention,
Force planes had carried out multiple air “genocide means… acts committed with
strikes against TPLF military installa- intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a
tions. national,
The army took ethnical,
control of Tig- racial or
ray’s capital of religious
th
Mekelle on 28 group.”
of November.
The TPLF
leadership re-
treated to the
mountains. Lo-
cal resistance
has reportedly
been continu-
ing. Tigray re-
mained sealed
off from the Tigray Leader, Debretsion Gebremichael, called for peace and
world during asked the African Union to intervene.
and even after
the military op-
erations. Thousands of people, includ- Throughout human history, attempts
ing civilians and four aid workers, were have been made to regulate the way
killed and nearly a million fled their states can wage war. These include at a
homes during air strikes and ground bat- minimum standard that belligerent par-
tles in Tigray. An estimated 55,000 peo- ties should observe during the war (jus
ple have so far fled to neighboring Su- in bello) and after the conflict (jus post
dan. More than half of those uprooted bellum). The aim of such attempts has
as a result of war are children. Mekelle, been to alleviate the suffering of all
and other cities, are left with the short- sides. It was not until 1864 that the rules
age of food, fuel, running water and in- of war were enshrined in the First Gene-
adequate medical care. Eritrean refu- va Convention adopted by twelve gov-
gees are facing the threats of life and ernments. This ground-breaking docu-
starvation. ment laid the foundation for the Interna-
tional Humanitarian Law (the four Gene-
Crimes of International nature va Conventions of August 12, 1949) to
limit the impacts of war on non-
First Light 11First light Spring 2021
First Light
combatants. It protects those who are a State, of an act of aggres-
wounded during the war or shipwrecks, sion which, by its character,
captives and the civilian population. In- gravity and scale, constitutes
ternational Humanitarian Law (IHL) is a manifest violation of the
also known as the law of war or the law Charter of the United Na-
of armed conflict. tions… act of aggression
means the use of armed force
Torture is also considered a crime by a State against the sover-
against the family of nations under com- eignty, territorial integrity or
mon article 3 of the IHL and article 6 of political independence of an-
the UN Convention against Torture and other State…. Any of the fol-
Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading lowing acts, regardless of a
Treatment or Punishment, adopted by declaration of war, …. shall
General Assembly of the United Nations qualify as an act of aggres-
on 10 December 1984. This was reiter- sion: (a) The invasion or at-
ated by the Rome Statute for Interna- tack by the armed forces of a
tional Criminal Court (ICC) State of the territory of anoth-
er State, or any military occu-
The Rome Statute of ICC established pation, however temporary,
the International Criminal Court as a resulting from such invasion
permanent institution with jurisdiction or attack, or any annexation
over “persons for the most serious by the use of force of the terri-
crimes of international concern” which tory of another State or part
“shall be complementary to national thereof; (b) Bombardment by
criminal jurisdictions.” (Rome Statute, the armed forces of a State
Art. 1) The court has jurisdiction with re- against the territory of another
spect to: (a) The crime of genocide; (b) State or the use of any weap-
Crimes against humanity; (c) War ons by a State against the ter-
crimes; and (d) The crime of aggression. ritory of another State….” (11)
(Art. 5)
The states parties to the Rome Statute The definition of the crime of genocide in
of ICC defined the crime of aggression Rome Statute is similar to the definition giv-
in their amendment to the Statute adopt- en in Article 2 of the 1948 Genocide Con-
ed by consensus on 11 June 2010 at vention mentioned above.
the Kampala Review Conference. Ac-
cording to Article 8 bis of this amend- The concept of “crime against humanity"
ment: that was introduced by the Nuremberg Tri-
bunal, is well defined in Article 7 of the
“crime of aggression” Rome Statute. It states that the following
means the planning, prep- acts constitute crimes against humanity,
aration, initiation or execu- when they are committed as part of a wide-
tion, by a person in a posi- spread or systematic attack directed
tion effectively to exercise against any civilian population, with
control over or to direct the knowledge of the attack: (a) Murder;
political or military action of (b) Extermination; (c) Enslavement;
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(d) Deportation or forcible transfer of pop-
crimes are systematic and widespread
ulation; (e) Imprisonment or other severe
and carried out against an identifiable
deprivation of physical liberty in violation
group irrespective of the make up of
of fundamental rules of international law;
that particular group.
(f) Torture; (g) Rape, sexual slavery, en-
forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, en-
The Rome Statute for International
forced sterilization, or any other form of
Criminal Court is based upon the princi-
sexual violence of comparable gravity;
ple of “complementarity”. The ICC in-
(h) Persecution against any identifiable
tervenes only when national courts are
group… on political, racial, national, eth-
unwilling or unable to prosecute and its
nic, cultural, religious, gender grounds
jurisdiction is not retroactive. It can on-
…; (i) Enforced disappearance of per-
ly investigate and prosecute crimes
sons; (j) The crime of apartheid; and
committed after 1 July 2002. It is diffi-
(k) Other inhumane acts of a similar char-
cult for the ICC to act in a country that
acter.
has not ratified the Rome Statute un-
less the state where the crime has
The definition of war crimes in the Rome
been committed accepts its jurisdiction.
Statute is based on the provisions of the
When a crime constitutes a threat to
International Humanitarian Law. Accord-
international peace and security, the
ing to these provisions, war crimes con-
UN Security Council can refer the case
sist of willful killing, torture, wilfully caus-
situation to the ICC. The Council also
ing great suffering, or serious injury to
has the authority to postpone any in-
body or health, extensive destruction and
vestigation.
appropriation of property, compelling a
prisoner of war or other protected person
In its actual practice, the ICC is not
to serve in the forces of a hostile Power,
mandated to prosecute authorities in
wilfully depriving a prisoner of war or oth-
power. Such prosecutions can be tak-
er protected person of the rights of fair
en as violation of the principle of na-
and regular trial, unlawful deportation or
tional sovereignty. Given today’s sys-
transfer or unlawful confinement, taking
tem of international relations and the
of hostages. (Article 8)
UN structure, it is hard to expect the
UN Security Council to activate the ICC
It is important to note the difference be-
for prosecution of ruling tyrants. Such
tween war crimes, genocide and crimes
decisions can be vetoed by a perma-
against humanity. Though they partly
nent member of the Security Council
overlap, crimes against humanity may
due to its close military, economic and
occur in war or peaceful times; also, un-
political ties with the offending ruling
like genocide, crimes against humanity
power.
are not intended to fully or partially de-
stroy a group of people. A Crime Against
Application of International Law
Humanity means any act, as listed by the
Rome Statue, committed as part of a
Due to the lack transparency, it is very
widespread or systematic attack directed
difficult to examine the perpetration of
against any civilian population, with
some categories of crime of internation-
knowledge of the attack. Also, these
First Light 13First light Spring 2021
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al nature in Tigray’s conflict: the crime of Article 95 (1-a) of the Ethiopian Constitu-
torture, treatment of wounded soldiers, tion allows deployment of army in excep-
violation of the rights of prisoners of war, tional circumstances:
sexual violence, etc. This is due to the “The Council of Ministers of
shutdown of internet, severing telephone the Federal Government
communications, strict censorship and may declare a state of
blocking journalist and independent ob- emergency in the event of
servers from access to Tigray. It is, how- external aggression or
ever, easier to examine the crimes of in- where conditions arise
ternational nature in the following areas: which endanger the consti-
tutional order and cannot
The War of Aggression be brought under control by
means of normal law en-
In early June 2018, the Prime Minister, forcement measures, or in
Abiy Ahmed revealed his intension of mil- the cases of natural disas-
itarization of the country. During a meet- ter or epidemic endanger-
ing with senior military officers, he said: ing public health.” (14)
“Following the efforts made to build ca- Article 33 of the United Nations Charter
pacity of our national defense, we built has provided for the peaceful settlement
one of the strongest ground and air force of the most serious conflicts before con-
in Africa…. We should build sidering armed
our naval force capacity in interverntion:
the future.” (12) He added “The parties to
that the military reforms any dispute, the
should "take into account continuance of
current fast changing world, which is likely to
socio-economic and political endanger the
situation in Ethiopia." (13) maintenance of
He exposed his ambition, international
despite the fact that the peace and se-
landlocked Ethiopia had dis- curity, shall, first
banded its navy following of all, seek a
the secession of Eritrea in solution by ne-
War of aggression against the people of Tigray
1993 and the army was rela- gotiation, en-
tively a small one. quiry, media-
Before waging war against Tigray, Mr. tion, conciliation, arbitration, judicial set-
Ahmed had used army against Oromia, tlement, resort to regional agencies or
the conflict against the Sidama nation arrangements, or other peaceful means
ahead of the referendum for statehood in of their own choice.”
November 2019, and the suppression Mr. Ahmed deliberately ignored these na-
against the Wolaita and Konso involving tional and international provisions and
fighter planes, missile and rocket attacks, began his war propaganda against Tig-
artillery shelling, drones, and infantry rayan people, while there was no condi-
units.
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tion whatsoever to “endanger the consti- the involved parties to end the escalating
tutional order.” He declared war on the violence and to solve disagreements and
most stable and peaceful state govern- conflicts by peaceful means.” (16) Mr.
ment that had been legally elected by Ahmed ignored all these appeals and re-
98% of Tigrayans’ votes. There was no iterated his position that “Ethiopia is be-
emergency situation to compel him re- ing run by a strong functional govern-
spond by militarily power. ment. It doesn’t need a babysitter.” (17)
Mr. Ahmed rejected peaceful negotia- Mr. Ahmed followed the foot-prints of his
tions and refused all appeals for media- predecessors, more vehemently, in not
tion by independent people and agen- looking for a multi-lateral solution to the
cies. The African Union (AU) made an Ethiopian disputes. According to Human
abortive attempt for mediation and Tig- Rights Watch, in a report entitled
ray’s President Mr. Debretsion Gebremi- “Ethiopia Events of 2018”:
chael, wrote to the South African Presi- “Despite its role as a mem-
dent, Mr. Cyril Ramaphosa, requesting ber of both the UN Security
for an “all-inclusive and comprehensive Council and, until the end of
dialogue [to] avert an all-out civil war in 2018, the UN Human
the country”. An AU delegation was sent Rights Council, Ethiopia
to Addis Ababa, but Mr. Ahmed refused maintains its history of non-
any mediation or dialogue with the cooperation with UN mech-
“criminal” TPLF, as he had rejected ap- anisms. Other than the UN
peals by the European Union, the UN special rapporteur on Eri-
and the US. (15) trea, no special rapporteur
The Canadian Foreign Minister, Mr. has been permitted to visit
Champagne, called for a peaceful solu- since 2006. The rappor-
tion and protection of civilians. The Brit- teurs on torture, freedom of
ish Foreign Secretary, Dominic Raab, opinion and expression,
spoke with Mr. Ahmed called for “de- and peaceful assembly,
escalation of the Tigray conflict". The US among others, all have out-
government also called for immediate standing requests to visit
action to restore peace and protect civil- the country.” (18)
ian. Human rights and humanitarian Mr. Ahmed’s war against people of Tig-
agencies across the globe requested im- ray is devoid of any legal basis. It is an
mediate ceasefire and access to Tigray unjust war of fratricide with the sinister
for humanitarian assistance. Anti-war capacity of setting ethnic groups in Ethio-
Ethiopians in diaspora demonstrated in pia against one another. It is, therefore, a
many countries including USA, South war against all nations in the country, not
Africa, Belgium, Netherlands, and Nor- just Tigray. It is a war against democracy
way demanding immediate end to hostili- and fundamental rights of humankind. It
ties. The Noble Committee, which rarely can easily spread to the Horn of Africa
expresses views about the actions of and threaten peace and security of the
past Nobel laureates, issued the follow- world. It is also a crime against peace,
ing statement on November 17, 2020: “It that was defined by the principle of the
repeats today what it has stated before, Nuremberg Trial that was later (in 1950)
namely that it is the responsibility of all
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enshrined in international law: "planning, war after the carnage.
preparation, initiation, or waging of wars War is the epitome of
of aggression, or a war in violation of in- hell for all involved. I
ternational treaties, agreements or as- know because I have
surances, or participation in a common been there and back. I
plan or conspiracy for the accomplish- have seen brothers
ment of any of the foregoing". (19) In the slaughtering brothers on
course of the Nuremberg Trial the war of the battlefield. I have
aggression was considered as a su- seen older men, women,
preme crime: and children trembling in
terror under the deadly
“The charges in the indict- shower of bullets and
ment that the defendants artillery shells. You see,
planned and waged an ag- I was not only a combat-
gressive war are charges ant in war. I was also a
of utmost gravity. War is witness to its cruelty and
essentially an evil thing. Its what it can do to people.
consequences are not con- War makes for bitter
fined to the belligerent men. Heartless and sav-
states alone but affects the age men.” (21)
whole world. To initiate a
war of aggression, there- Hypocrisy, double-standard and greed
fore, is not only an interna- for staying in power without electoral
tional crime; it is the su- mandate prompted Mr. Ahmed to un-
preme international crime leash the beasts of hatred and hubris
differing only from other and wage a devastative war of ag-
war crimes in that it con- gression without cause against the
tains within itself the accu- most vulnerable people of his country.
mulated evil of the The aggressive war in Tigray has all
whole.” (20) the characteristics of the “war of ag-
gression” specified in the article 8bis
As an ex-soldier, Mr. Ahmed was well of Rome Statute of ICC, except the
aware of the impacts of war on the most fact that the parties to the aggression
vulnerable people. While receiving Nobel are not two sovereign states. This is
Peace Prize in Oslo, he made the follow- the flaw in the Kampala amendment
ing remarks: of June 11, 2020 to the Rome Statute
“There are those who have that has not included aggression of
never seen war but glorify non-state parties on the one hand and
and romanticize it. They that of a federal government against
have not seen the fear, an autonomous regional state on the
They have not seen the fa- other. These loopholes may be recti-
tigue, They have not seen fied during the future people’s tribu-
the destruction and heart- nals against war-mongering elements
break, Nor they have felt like Mr. Ahmed.
the mournful emptiness of
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Murder and Extermination according to Amnesty International, at-
tackers, affiliated with TPLF, armed with
Murder, according to the international machetes and knives, stabbed resi-
law, involves “a deliberate taking of a dents to death. The bloodshed contin-
person’s life” and represents “the core ued persistently for almost 24 hours.
crimes against humanity.” (Endnote 22, Some 600 civilians, mainly from Amha-
p. 71) According to an ICC document, ra group, are thought to be exterminat-
for the crime of murder to exist, “the per- ed. An eye-witness has told the Amnes-
petrator must kill one or more persons. ty International: “Police and TPLF youth
His conduct must be committed as part militias went all over town searching for
of a widespread or systematic attack di- non-Tigrayans to kill. Men turned into
rected against a civilian population”. bloodthirsty beasts that day.” (23)
(Endnote 22, p. 72) Extermination refers While Mr. Abiy Ahmed blamed the mas-
to the mass murder of a demographic sacre on forces loyal to the Tigray re-
group. According to Article 7-2-b of the gional government, the TPLF denied
Rome Statute for ICC, "Extermination" the accusation. Due to the complete
includes the intentional infliction of con- shutdown of Tigray’s communication
ditions of life, inter alia the deprivation of and strict prohibition of the journalists’
access to food and medicine, calculated freedom, it is difficult to verify each
to bring about the destruction of part of a side’s claims. The United Nations High
population.” There is no demarcation Commissioner for Human Rights, Ms.
line between murder and extermination: Michelle Bachelet, has called for further
“The require- investigation: “It
ments of murder is essential that
are also applica- there are investi-
ble to extermi- gations into alle-
nation”. gations of human
(Endnote 22, p. rights violations
72) there against
The military ag-
gression against
Tigray resulted
in the murder
and extermina-
tion of thou-
sands of people,
including civilian
population. Hate
propaganda and incitement to violence, both Amharans and Tig-
fueled the fire of ethnic conflicts. A horri- rayans.” Criminals always hide their
ble massacre happened in Mai Kadra, a shocking crime through the use of the
town in the north western part of Tigray darkness. (24)
with the population of 45000 people in- It is beyond any doubt that federal gov-
cluding Tigrayans, Amhara and other ernment forces or their allied ethnic mili-
ethnic groups. On November 9, 2020,
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tias have also committed murder and to unverified allegations that Eritrean
extermination in Tigray. Tigrayan refu- troops were present in Tigray and had
gees in the Sudanese refugee camps, been involved in the hostilities and seri-
have recounted about the massacre of ous violations of international law. She
Tigrayan civilians in Mai Kadra by Ethio- has raised concerns about violation of
pian federal forces and members of an international law in Tigray:
Amhara militia: “Some said they had “We have received
seen hundreds of bodies and described allegations con-
scenes of ethnically motivated attacks, cerning violations of
including killings with knives and beat- international hu-
ings.” (25) According to the Al Jazeera’s manitarian law and
correspondence, Mohamed Vall, report- human rights law,
ing from Um Rakuba refugee camp near including artillery
the Sudanese border, refugees coming strikes on populat-
from Ethiopia were recounting instances ed areas, the delib-
of looting, as well as witnessing “two erate targeting of
rounds of violence: the first being the civilians, extrajudi-
military coming in to chase the rebels cial killings and
[away], and the second [being] members widespread loot-
of local militia, particularly Amhara militia ing” (29)
called Fano, who come after the defeat Ethiopia’s government has always re-
of the rebels to loot inside the homes jected calls for independent investiga-
and expel civilians from their places”. tions into the possibility of the perpetra-
(26) tion of international crimes in Tigray. An-
The Guardian has reported that a other instance of Mr. Ahmed’s policy of
“refugee, who gave his name only as extermination is his deliberate attempt
Abraham, saw corpses in civilian clothes of not to grant access to war-torn areas
as he fled the Tigrayan town of Humera to provide people with much-needed
towards the border with Sudan. ‘Nobody humanitarian aid food and medicine.
can bury them, they were outside on the This a blatant violation of the aforemen-
road,’ he recounted from Hamdayet, a tioned Article 7-2-b of the Rome Statute
Sudanese border transit point.” (27) And of the ICC.
this is the testimony of a doctor in a Tig-
ray hospital who has recently moved to Crimes against Civilians
Addis Ababa: “Along the way, I saw nine
burned tanks, ruined houses and dam- Parties to the war in Tigray are the Ethi-
aged power grids. I also saw at least 15 opian federal government, Amhara re-
makeshift graves in the town of gional forces and militia, plus the Eritre-
Mehoni.” (28) an government on the one side, and
The UN High Commissioner for Human TPLF special forces and regional mili-
Rights, Ms. Michelle Bachelet, has point- tias on the other. It is a type of non-
ed to “multiple reports that the Amhara international armed conflict governed by
“Fano” militia had committed human the common Article 3 the Geneva Con-
rights abuses, including killing civilians ventions (International Humanitarian
and looting, in addition
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Law) of 12 August 1949, when one or of airstrikes around Mekelle. On Novem-
more non-state armed groups are in- ber 7, shelling along the border of the
volved. The Convention governs con- Amhara and Tigray region killed 6 and
flicts between non-state groups as well. reportedly wounded over 60 combatants.
Ethiopia ratified all 4 Geneva Conven- The warning of the Ethiopian army to res-
tions in 1969 and is also a party to Pro- idents was ineffective, as airstrikes and
tocol II to the Conventions that guaran- heavy bombardments in populated urban
tees further protections for combatants areas did not allow them to escape to
and civilians during non-international more secure zones. (30)
armed conflicts. The IHL has prohibited On December 3, 2020, the New York
attacks against civilian objects (by artil- Times reached out doctors in Tigray re-
Fighter jets, tanks and heavy artillery were used against civilians
in Tigray regions
lery or other means), indiscriminate or porting “iindiscriminate artillery barrages
disproportionate civilian harm, the use of on civilian areas, looting by armed men
heavy artillery (weapons with a wide and the deaths of at least 27 civilians and
blast range) and incidental harm to civil- injuries of more than 100.” A physician
ians. who moved to Addis Ababa from Tigray,
At the beginning of the war, the Ethiopi- has shared his observations about re-
an Air Force (EAF) started its attacks by ported civilian casualties in Mekelle on
bombing Mekelle, partially destroying a November 28, 2020: “I witnessed 16 civil-
hotel in the inner city. Eritrean forces, ian deaths. Comparing it to other towns,
reportedly, supported the operation by people were relieved about the figure. On
drones provided to them by the United that day, there were artilleries on the out-
Arab Emirates (UAE). The TPLF forces skirts of the city, their sound so heavy
have also used missiles against Amhara that it shook windows… there was still
and other locations in Eritrea. According widespread fear, uncertainty and confu-
to Human Rights Watch, on November sion among many.” (31)
6, the Ethiopian army conducted a round
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Since the beginning of the conflict, the ment of living conditions.”
Tigray regions have remained largely cut Ethiopia is a party to core human rights
off from the rest of the world with food, treaties, including the International Cove-
medicine, clean water, fuel and other nant on Civil and Political Rights
basic necessities desperately needed for (ICCPR), the International Covenant on
war-affected and displaced population. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
The aid trucks remained waiting at the (ICESCR), and the Convention
border of Tigray for weeks, but the Ethio- against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhu-
pian government repeatedly objected to man or Degrading Treatment or Punish-
allowing a humanitarian corridor in what it ment. Ethiopia is also party to regional
called external “interference”. This hap- human rights treaties, including the Afri-
pened despite repeated warning from hu- can Charter on Human and Peoples’
manitarian agencies about the com- Rights and the African Union Convention
pounding risk of life and suffering to the Governing Specific Aspects of Refugee
most vulnerable population. It was not Problems in Africa.
until December 12, 2020 that that the first The complete shutdown of internet and
international aid convoy carrying medi- phone communications to around six mil-
cines and relief supplies arrived in lion people in Tigray have acted as col-
Mekelle. This deliberate delay caused lective punishment to the civilian people.
sufferings and casualties for civilians and It violates multiple rights guaranteed un-
death for patients who were in desperate der the international and regional human
need of life-saving medications. rights instruments Ethiopia has acceded
The article 23 of the 4th Geneva Conven- to, including the rights to freedom of opin-
tions Relative to the Protection of Civilian ion, expression, information and the right
Person provides that state parties “shall to free assembly. According to the Hu-
allow the free passage of all consign- man Rights Watch:
ments of medical and hospital stores” Internet and phone shut-
and it should be done “as rapidly as pos- downs can cause consider-
sible”. This is reiterated in the Rule 55 of able harm to the civilian
the International Committee of the Red population, including lead-
Cross: “parties to a conflict must allow ing to possible injury and
and facilitate the rapid and unimpeded death by preventing civil-
passage of impartially distributed human- ians from communicating
itarian relief for civilians in need.” (32) with each other about safe-
This necessitates the freedom of move- ty considerations, access to
ment of humanitarian workers to perform medical facilities, and
their duties effectively. Similarly, article sources of food and shelter.
11 of the International Covenant on Eco- They also hinder the work
nomic, Social and Cultural Rights (ratified of journalists and human
by Ethiopia on 11th of June 1993) pro- rights monitors who can
vides that the states parties “recognize provide information on the
the right of everyone to an adequate situation on the ground, in-
standard of living for himself and his fam- cluding the reporting of pos-
ily, including adequate food, clothing and sible laws-of-war violations.
housing, and to the continuous improve- (33)
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There are between 1 to 2 million Internally Displaced People in
Ethiopia. The invasion against Tigray didplaced 100,000 people
The invasion of Tigray has delivered its come as supplies of food, in-
most destructive blow on children. The cluding ready-to-use therapeu-
United Nations International Children’s tic food for the treatment of
Emergency Fund (UNICEF) estimates child malnutrition, medicines,
that despite an agreement on access, water, fuel and other essen-
some 2.3 million children in the region tials run low”. (34)
are cut off from humanitarian assistance This deprivation is against customary inter-
amid the violence. The agency’s Execu- national law including the UN Convention of
tive Director, Ms. Henrietta Fore, has the Right of the Child (CRC), Ethiopia is a
raised her serious concern in this re- party to. Article 24 of the CRC obligate the
spect: state parties to guarantee “right of the child
“We are extremely con- to the enjoyment of the highest attainable
cerned that the longer ac- standard of health” and the article 27 stipu-
cess to them is delayed, the lates that “States Parties recognize the right
worse their situation will be- of every child to a standard of living ade-
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quate for the child's physical, mental, [pro-government] militia said they would
spiritual, moral and social development.” kill us because we are from Tigray. They
told us, ‘You have 24 hours to leave’,
Forcible Transfer of Population and they began to loot our animals and
property.” (35)
According to Article 7 (d) of the Rome Before crossing the border, refugees
Statute for ICC, "Deportation or forcible spent days on the run, facing starvation,
transfer of population means forced dis- being stopped by armed groups who
placement of the persons concerned by robbed their belongings. Many hid for
expulsion or other coercive acts from the long hours in bushes to avoid being spot-
area in which they are lawfully present”. ted. They entered Sudan with nothing
Heavy casualties and destruction, mass but clothes in their back. 50% of refu-
More than 65,000 Tigrayan refugees live under
awkward conditions in Sudan
displacement of 100,000 people from gees in Sudan are children with inade-
Tigray, 55,000 refugees in Sudan: this is quate means to survive. Tigrayan refu-
the sheer balance sheet of the war of gees in Sudan are unable to restock
aggression against Tigray. What will fol- food, medical and other emergency sup-
low is the testimony of Shimei Abra Adi- plies. Local communities, with their little
ko, an Ethiopian refugee in Sudan: “The
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resources, cannot be of much help to “alarming” and mentioned that “any re-
them. A great number of refugees have foulement would be absolutely unac-
starved for days. They suffer from physi- ceptable.” (37) The International Organi-
cal and mental health complications. zation for Migration said it was
Children suffer from flashbacks and fre- “extremely concerned” about the refu-
quent nightmares about dead bodies. gees’ “forced” return and denied its col-
Families have been torn apart by the laboration with the government of Ethio-
conflict. Hundreds of refugees have lost pia in this respect. (38)
contact with their loved ones. The forcible relocation of Eritrean refu-
The condition of around 100,000 Eritrean gees, masterminded by Mr. Ahmed, is a
refugees in four refugee camps in Tigray blatant violation of the principle of non-
is not better. They had escaped Eritrea refoulement enshrined in the article 33 of
due the gross human rights violations of the Geneva Convention relating to the
Mr. Afwerki’s tyrannical regime including Status of Refugees as well as the non-
compulsory and indefinite military service degrogable right of every human person
and daily surveillance. With the outbreak not to be return to torture (article 3 of the
of war, they caught in a conflict that put UN Convention against Torture)
their safety and survival at great risk. Ac-
cording to the reports received by the Massive Discriminations
United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), a great number of Since taking office in 2018, the Prime
them have been killed, recruited, kid- Minister Abiy Ahmed has pursued a poli-
napped and forcibly returned to Eritrea by cy of massive discriminations against
the Eritrean forces in Tigray with the con- oppositional ethnic groups including and
sent or acquiesce of the Ethiopian army. specifically Tigrayans and their leader-
The UNHCR and other aid agencies ship. He removed many Tigrayans from
have not had access to the four main government and security posts and ar-
camps hosting Eritrean refugees - rested many in the pretext of rights
Shimelba, Hitsats, Mai-Ayni and Adi Ha- abuse and corruption. In a further move,
rush. Food has run out for Eritrean refu- Ethiopia’s parliament stripped 39 mem-
gees in Tigray camps. (36) bers of TPLF, including regional presi-
Following the intensification of conflict in dent Gebremichael, of immunity from
Tigray, a number of Eritrean refugees prosecution. Police arrested 242 Tig-
managed to escape Tigray to Addis Aba- rayans charging them of conspiracy
ba and other parts of Ethiopia. Following against the government. (39)
the occupation of Mekelle on November Elsewhere in the country, ethnic profiling
28, 2020, Ethiopian government spared of Tigrayans has reached an alarming
no time to forcibly return them to the Tig- point. The Ethiopian police is seeking the
ray camps, deliberately neglecting the list of ethic Tigrayans all over the country
risk to their life and security. The govern- in an attempt to arrest and persecute
ment did not inform the UNHCR of its re- them as “traitors”. The government’s
location plan and put refugees on buses newly formed State of Emergency Task
back to the risky border area with Eritrea. Force for Tigray has systematically at-
Mr. Babar Baloch, the UNHCR spokes- tempted to hunt people, Tigrayans and
man, called the reports about relocation
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others, suspicious of working for the not free from blemish. The occupation of
TPLF in the capital Addis Ababa and Mekelle by the federal government does
elsewhere. There are fears of reprisals not mean the end of the armed conflict.
against Tigrayans living around Ethio- The TPLF has an effective force of
pia. According to Ezekiel Gebissa trained, dedicated and experienced
President of the Ethio Multinational guerrilla combatants and the support of
Federalist Support Force: Tigrayan people who had sacrifice their
“They are illegally dis- lives for 16 years to save Ethiopia from
missed from jobs, their the nightmare of the Derg.
properties destroyed, With the suppression of the Tigrayan’s
their assets frozen and people movement for autonomy, Tigray
travels restricted. Mass may choose to secede from Ethiopia and
arrest, arbitrary detention, pave the way for balkanization of the
and enforced disappear- country. There is also a possibility that
ance of Tigrayans in Ad- the TPLF makes a unity with the Eritrean
dis Ababa and in other rebels who are struggling against the ty-
towns have intensified, rannical regime of Afwerki with the pro-
aggravating the precari- spect of the unification of Tigrigna
ousness of their life in speaking people in both sides of the bor-
Ethiopia.” (40) der. In the meantime, the possibility of a
Article 7 (h) of the Rome Statute for military coup should not be ruled out.
ICC has classified “persecution against There is hardly any doubt that there is
any identifiable group or collectivity on no military solution to the ethnic prob-
political, racial, national, ethnic, cultur- lems in Ethiopia and elsewhere. War is
al, religious, gender” as a crime against the cruelest absurdity of the entire hu-
humanity. According to article 4 (a) of man existence. The only ray of hope is
the International Convention on the the triumph of federalism in Ethiopia and
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Deci- recognition the human rights of all ethnic
mation (ratified by Ethiopia on 23 June and religious communities to participate
1976), it is “an offence punishable by voluntarily, meaningfully and effectively
law… all acts of violence or incitement in all aspects of the Ethiopian life.
to such acts against any race or group
of persons of another colour or ethnic Endnotes
origin”.
Clausewitz, K.V. (1985). Paret, P. &
Conclusion Moran, D. (trans.). Two Letters on
Strategy. Kansas: Army College
The invasion of Tigray by Mr. Abily Ah- Foundation, Inc. P. 21.
med and his allies is a war crime and Reisen, M.V., Mirjam, Mawere, M.,
crime against humanity and peace with Munyaradzi, Stokmans, M., Ge-
the sinister potential of disintegration bre-Egziabher, K.A. (Eds.).
the multi-ethnic country of Ethiopia. Roaming Africa: Migration, Resili-
Multiple crimes of international nature ence and Social Protection.
have been committed by the Ethiopian Mankon: Langaa Research and
government, although the TPLF is also Publishing CIG, p. 483.
24
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