ANNUAL REVIEW OF EDUCATION, COMMUNICATION, AND LANGUAGE SCIENCES - VOLUME 18(1) (2021)
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VOLUME 18(1) (2021)
ANNUAL REVIEW OF EDUCATION,
COMMUNICATION, AND
LANGUAGE SCIENCES
https://research.ncl.ac.uk/arecls/
Volume 18(1) Contents
Page
Editorial Welcome
2-3
Josie Tulip and Peter Sercombe
1. Bringing Europe to Students: sociolinguistic factors influencing 4-25
the development of European identity in Erasmus students
Julia Aniela Jaworska
2. To what extent had Trump used George Floyd as a campaigning tool? 26-47
A critical discourse analysis of Trump’s twitter in its political context
Thomas Lonsdale
3. Commodification of Slovak National Identity in Advertisement 48-64
Katarína Gocoliaková
1
Editorial Welcome
On behalf of the Annual Review of Education, Communication and Language
Sciences team, we would like to welcome you to volume 18. We were very fortunate
to receive three papers for this volume, and present them to you as follows:
Julia Jaworska graduated from Newcastle University with a master’s degree in
Cross-Cultural Communication and International Relations. Her interests focus on
intercultural contexts in higher education with an emphasis on student exchange
experiences and the development of transnational identities. She is currently a Study
Abroad and Exchanges Coordinator at the University of Glasgow where she
facilitates students’ intercultural experiences. Her paper is entitled ‘Bringing Europe
to students: Sociolinguistic factors influencing the development of European identity
in Erasmus students.’ It considers the nature of European identity construction
among an internationally diverse sample of seven students regarding their overseas
sojourn, with special reference to the role of multilingualism. It starts from the idea
that more contact among Europeans of different backgrounds increases a sense of
European identity, a purpose for which Erasmus was intended, given the overall
success of European integration. Semi-structured interviews were used, results from
which suggest Erasmus students tend to perform a sense of Europeanness in
parallel with their national identities, rather than as an alternative. Also stressed was
the significance of forming international friendships that help uphold a sense of
European identity, multilingualism being seen as central, and a means for navigating
the challenges of living abroad.
Thomas Lonsdale completed both his undergraduate and postgraduate degree at
Newcastle University, and carried many of the interests over from his studies of
politics and history into the field of cross-cultural communication. In particular, this
involved taking a discourse historical approach to understand contemporary issues
in the field, especially regarding political communication, populism and social
movements. His article, ‘To what extent has President Trump used George Floyd as
a campaigning tool: a critical discourse analysis of Trump’s Twitter in its political
context’, reflects on George Floyd’s death, and protest reactions towards this, as an
indication of the degree of police violence and normalised racism in the USA. The
growing effects of Twitter on political discourse are revealed as a stage on which
Trump, and similar political populists, can connect with followers and foment their
anxieties. President Trump appears to have capitalised on George Floyd’s as a way
to energise voters. Findings indicate the kinds of arguments to be adopted for the
2020 election, to try and ensure re-election.
Katarína Gocoliaková is an Account Executive for a PR company in London. As a
result of studying and living in European cities such as Prague, Limerick and
Brussels, she’s always been interested in languages and their nuances. Katarína
finished her Master’s degree in Cross-Cultural Communication and International
Management last year, most of her work focusing on the use of language within
2
advertisement and the cosmetic industry. Her article ‘Commodification of Slovak
national identity in advertisement’ examines an example of media advertising which,
it is argued, provides some of the most noticeable fora for reconstructing national
identity, especially among newly independent nations. Under communist rule,
‘national identity’ was a taboo topic. Taking Slovakia as an example, the article uses
multimodal critical discourse analysis (MCDA), to examine imagery and language in
a supermarket chain’s advertisement, to reveal new forms of official national self-
representation, based on pride in the idea of material consumption as being of
national benefit.
Thank you to the editorial team and to the contributing authors of this volume. We
hope that you enjoy this volume, and please let us know if you have any feedback for
the journal. Our call for the next volume will be July 2021 and we encourage staff
and students to submit if their areas of interest include Education, Communication or
Language Sciences.
Josie Tulip (Senior Student Editor) and Peter Sercombe (Editor in Chief)
3
Bringing Europe to Students: sociolinguistic factors
influencing the development of European identity in Erasmus
students
Julia Aniela Jaworska
ABSTRACT: The EU has been a largely successful political integration project, but it
has been faced with the challenge of creating a European demos to legitimise it.
There is a strong theoretically derived assumption that increased international
contact enhances the European identity and Erasmus programme was designed with
this goal in mind. However, the nature of this transnational identity and its sources
are only beginning to be researched. This qualitative study investigates how a group
of seven Erasmus students construct their European identity in relation to their
experience of life abroad with particular attention on the role of multilingualism in the
process. Data was drawn from semi-structured interviews with a nationally diverse
group of participants. Findings from thematic content analysis of the transcripts
revealed that Erasmus students 'do' European identity alongside their national
identities rather than in opposition to them and develop towards a global and
inclusive understanding of their identities. They also emphasised the importance of
building transnational friendship networks that supports the cognitive and affective
aspect of that identity and of multilingualism, a vital element of this process. Erasmus
students see multilingualism as an element of European identity and use it skilfully in
coping with the complex challenges of studying and living abroad.
Contact: julka.jaworska5@gmail.com
Introduction Europeans (Ambrosi, 2013). While
European identity was seen by the
From 2014 to 2020 over four million
architects of the European integration
students completed a mobility abroad
as a means to legitimise the EU as a
with the aid of the Erasmus+ grant
supranational polity, the exact nature
(European Commission, 2020a). The
of it is hard to define. The Erasmus
European Community Action Scheme
programme aims to “raise participants'
for the Mobility of University Students1
awareness and understanding of other
(ERASMUS), launched in 1987, allows
cultures and countries, offering them
students and staff to complete a
the opportunity to build networks of
sojourn abroad and has been said to
international contacts, to actively
be creating a new generation of
participate in society and develop a
1The Erasmus scheme took place between 1987 and 2014, with the Erasmus+ scheme subsequently
replacing it. As the two schemes are based on the same premise and the differentiation does not bear
any effect on this research project, for the purposes of this work I will refer to it as the Erasmus
programme understood as both the Erasmus and the Erasmus+ schemes.
4
sense of European citizenship and
identity” (European Commission,
2020b, p. 31). Whether and how these
desired outcomes are produced and Theoretical background
how this is perceived by the students
themselves, is still only beginning to be The assumed causal link between
researched. student mobility and enhancement of
transnational identity is drawn from
This paper aims to fill the gap in the multiple interdisciplinary theories. They
research into the nature of European are grounded in social constructivist
identity as perceived by Erasmus paradigm in which identities are
students. It also explores the students' envisioned as fluid, contextual and
perceptions of how their experience of constructed in interaction (Hall, 1996),
mobility influences that identification something that people 'do' rather than
and the role of multilingualism in the what they 'have' (Jamieson, 2001,
process. The research is focused on p.1). Additionally, collective identities
the views of students who have are multidimensional, consisting of the
completed one or more Erasmus cognitive and affective aspect (Tajfel,
exchanges, which means they spent 1981, cited by Kuhn, 2012). For
from four to ten months in a different European identity, this translates to
country and were supported by the identifying as European, the cognitive
Erasmus grant issued by the European aspect of knowing what bonds one to
Commission. It is worth mentioning the community and identifying with
that some countries which are not Europe, the affective aspect of positive
members of the EU can also feelings towards the community
participate in the Erasmus programme (Mitchell, 2015).
(e.g. UK and Turkey) which is part of
consistent efforts to widen participation According to Tajfel's social identity
in it2. Firstly, this paper will offer a theory (1969, cited by Gaertner and
review of theoretical background and Dovidio, 2000, p. 35) “when people[...]
existing research on the topic, followed are categorised into groups, actual
by an explanation of the conceptual differences between the members of
framework and methodology used. I the same category tend to be
will then present and discuss the perceptually minimised”, a process
results of the thematic content analysis deemed the 'pro-ingroup bias' (ibid.).
of data obtained through semi- Social identity, thus, comes from a
structured interviews with seven process of categorisation, identifying
students who went on Erasmus, before oneself with one group (in-group), both
closing with a conclusion and some cognitively and affectively, and outside
directions for further research. of other groups (out-groups).
Stemming from this, the Common
Identity lngroup Model (Gaertner and
2 Another example of this is the campaign Erasmus500 led by the European University Foundation,
the European Students' Union and the Erasmus Student Network which aims to raise the grant to 500
euros a month from 2021 onwards, combat structural exclusion and make the programme more
inclusive.
5
Dovidio, 2000) assumes that when an derived assumption that not only
'in-group' and 'out -group' come into student mobility would “strengthen the
meaningful contact, members change interaction between citizens in different
their perception about the group Member States [... ] consolidating the
boundaries. A recategorisation takes concept of a People's Europe” (Council
place, in which the pro-ingroup bias of Ministers, 1987) but also that
causes members of both groups to see Erasmus students are the “ideal group
themselves as one superordinate with which to study European identity
group. The conditions of meaningful formation through the lens of
contact supporting recategorisation interaction between individuals of
stem from the Contact Hypothesis different origins” (Van Mol, 2013b, p.
(Allport, 1954). Allport proposes that 211).
meaningful contacts meet the
The EU, nevertheless, is an extremely
prerequisites of equal group status,
diverse community and polity. The
cooperative interaction, opportunities
meaningful contact on Erasmus often
for self-revealing personal
requires the ability to speak a foreign
acquaintance and supportive norms
language, i.e. multilingualism. The
from authorities (Gaertner and Dovidio,
European authorities foster
2000). Furthermore, Pettigrew (1998)
plurilingualism as a European value,
added 'meaningful friendship' as a
which is seen as possessing a
pivotal factor in a successful intergroup
heterogenous language repertoire of
contact engendering recategorisation.
which one freely takes advantage as
Deutsch et al.'s (1968) transactionalist the communicative need arises
theory assumes that sustained social, (Council of Europe, 2007; Cenoz,
political and economic 'transactions' 2013). In this work, I do not
among the citizens, i.e. intergroup differentiate between the two terms. In
contact, would enhance the collective the context of student mobility,
'we-feeling' (Deutsch et al.,1968, p. 36) multilingualism is hypothesised to be a
leading to a legitimisation of a facilitator of meaningful contact
supranational polity, such as the EU. (Mitchell, 2015) with limited studies
Erasmus mobility theoretically allows tying it to the formation of European
for all the conditions outlined by Allport identity (Llurda et al., 2016).
(1954) and Pettigrew (1998) to be met,
fostering especially the social
transactions as envisioned by Deutsch Previous research
et al. (1968). The students meet on
equal grounds, studying or working The causal relationship between
together, which creates an atmosphere Erasmus experience and the
of cooperation and an opportunity for enhancement of European identity has
'self -revealing' (Gaertner and Dovidio, been investigated largely
2000, p. 42), meaningful friendships to quantitatively. These studies often do
form, and it is supported financially not unpack the concept and use the
and organisationally by an outside so-called 'Moreno question' (European
authority, the European Commission. Union, 2018), which largely
There is, therefore, a theoretically conceptually equates European
6
identity with national identity and only abroad (p. 317) were the most
allows for measuring the cognitive appreciated aspects of exchange, but
aspect of identification (Mitchell, 2015). the study design did now allow for
Most studies comparing mobile and drawing a direct causal relationship
non-mobile student groups show a between socialisation and the change
positive Europeanising effect of the in identification patterns. Longitudinal
Erasmus sojourn (De Federico de la studies (Sigalas, 2010; Wilson, 2011;
Rua, 2002; King & Ruiz-Gelices, 2003; Jacobone and Moro, 2015; Llurda et
Mitchell, 2012, 2015; Oborune, 2013; al., 2016) yielded conflicting results.
Jacobone & Moro, 2015; Fernandez Sigalas (2010) attempted to also track
Rovira, 2019). De Federico de la Rua students' socialisation patterns,
(2002) further concluded that showing that Erasmus leads to
transnational friendships cause a increased interaction with other
redrawing of perceived boundaries Europeans. That intergroup contact
between people, supporting the with other Europeans, however, had a
Common lngroup Identity Model very modest effect on European
assumptions. Two studies by Mitchell identity in that study.
(2012, 2015) surveyed large and
Qualitative studies allow for a deeper
diverse groups of students showing an
understanding of European identity
overwhelmingly positive effect of
and whether the theoretical
Erasmus on both cognitive and
assumptions are reflected in students'
affective aspect of European identity
perceptions of the experience. In
(Mitchell, 2015). Furthermore, the
interview and focus-group based
2012 study demonstrated that large
research, students point to
majority of students socialised in
international friendships, cross-cultural
international and multilingual groups
contact and learning about other
leading to a hypothesis that
cultures through intergroup contact as
multilingualism is a facilitator of
adding to 'feeling European' (Ambrosi,
meaningful contact (2012). Mitchell's
2013; Van Mol 2013a, 2013b;
study showed that socialisation with
Żyłkiewicz-Płońska, 2014). Studies
other internationals may be
comparing mobile and non-mobile
constitutive of changes in both
students (Van Mal 2013a; 2013b)
cognitive and affective components of
show not only that in the mobile group
European identity, while socialisation
a positive attitude towards European
with co-nationals may not lead to the
identity is more prevalent, but also that
same changes (2015). However, only
the majority of mobile respondents tie
'oblique insight' (Mitchell, 2012, p. 503)
it to political unity, freedom of travel
as to the connections between
and common European values.
plurilingualism, socialisation patterns
Żyłkiewicz-Płońska's (2014) study
and identity can be drawn from these
showed students largely tie their
studies.
European identity to geographical
Similarly, Jacobone and Moro's (2015) factors of being born on the continent
research showed that improving or currently living in a European
language skills, 'the European country but also, to a lesser extent, to
experience' and making new friends the political unity of EU, opportunities
7
of freedom of travel, common values national differences (Ambrosi, 2013;
and culture and a 'familiarity feeling' (p. Van Mol, 2013a, 2013b; Żyłkiewicz-
83), feeling at home in other European Płońska, 2014; Fernandez Rovira,
countries. This is also consistent with 2019). This study aims to fill the gap
the findings of Ambrosi's (2013) study, that has been identified in qualitative
in which meanings ascribed to the research (Mitchell, 2012; Jacobone
European identity largely revolved and Moro, 2015) into the nature of the
around the “feeling like they belonged” European 'we-feeling' (Deutsch et al.,
in their destination country (p. 152), 1968, p. 36) by exploring the social
absence of boundaries, free situations that engender it and the role
movement and easy access to other of multilingualism in this process. The
cultures. Interviewees in Ambrosi's study was guided by these research
study put down their enhanced questions:
European identity to “meaningful
1. How do Erasmus students
relationships with people and places”
understand their European identity?
(2013, p. 153), which supports the
theories of social communication 2. What elements of the Erasmus
detailed above. experience engender that feeling
according to Erasmus students?
Llurda et al.'s study (2016) allows for
insight into students' perceptions of the 3. What is the perceived role of
role of languages and multilingualism multilingual skills in facilitating these
in Europe, which “emerges as a processes?
linguistically and culturally diverse
space” (p. 330). English is identified as
a useful lingua franca, which can act Methodology
as a facilitator of meaningful contact
(Mitchell, 2012) to a limited extent. This study was guided by open,
Students highly value learning the inductive research questions for which
local language and demonstrate that a qualitative methodological approach
the linguistic repertoire did influence was most suitable. It was conducted
their socialisation patterns and using semi-structured interviews to
remaining or venturing out of their generate data and inductive thematic
“linguistic and cultural comfort zone” content analysis (TCA) as the
(Llurda et al., 2016, p. 337) was a overarching methodological approach.
factor in their mobility decisions. I conducted interviews with seven
Generally, qualitative studies provide participants who completed an
empirical support for the Contact Erasmus exchange in the last four
Hypothesis and Common Identity years. The sample was convenience
lngroup Model, with patterns of based. Table 1 outlines participant
details.
8
Data Collection conducted in Polish, the native
language of the participant and the
The corpus of data was generated by
researcher. The recordings were
conducting semi-structured interviews,
subsequently transcribed verbatim in
a well-suited data collection method for
the original language using
this exploratory, data-driven study
orthographic transcription which
(Gibson & Hua, 2016). Semi-structured
provides all the verbal utterances and
interviews “can provide insight into
sufficient level of detail to conduct a
people's experiences, beliefs,
successful TCA (Braun and Clarke,
perceptions and motivations”
2006). The primary data corpus was,
(Richards, 2009, p. 187) which was the
therefore, formed by the transcripts of
goal of this study. The interviews
the interviews and supplemented by
lasted between 20 and 27 minutes and
my field-notes made during the
were conducted via
interviews (Gibson & Hua, 2016).
video-conferencing software as in
person interviews were not possible
due to travel constraints. I used an
Data Analysis
interview guide (Appendix 1) to steer
the interview in the direction necessary The data was coded manually
for eliciting information relevant to the following Braun and Clarke's (2006)
research questions, but giving the model for TCA. Latent themes relating
interviewees the freedom to lead so as to the meanings ascribed to European
to make it a “conversation with a identity, its relation to the students'
purpose” (Richards, 2009, p. 186). Six patterns of socialisation and the
interviews were conducted in English, importance of multilingual skills were
the researcher's second language, and identified producing a thematic map
the remaining one (Roma) was presented in figure 1.
9Figure 1. Thematic map
Criteria for judging this study language choice was dictated by the
effort to limit miscommunication and
The qualitative nature of this research
with participant comfort in mind
necessarily implies small sample size
(Holmes et al., 2006). Furthermore,
and limited generalisability (Holliday,
being recorded may have influenced
2013) but its strength lies in the deep
the participants' responses (Gibson
exploration of meaning and complexity
and Hua, 2016). However, the
of socialisation patterns and collective
Erasmus experience is shared
identity. I aimed to enhance the validity
between the researcher and the
and credibility of this study by
researched making it easier to discuss
recruiting a diverse set of participants
topics related to the experience, but
in terms of gender, nationality,
contributing to a bias in conducting the
Erasmus host country and multilingual
interviews and the data analysis.
skills. Following Dervin's (2006) call on
Furthermore, Braun and Clarke (2006)
intercultural researchers to employ
point out that in TCA themes do not
more reflexivity in their research, it
'emerge' but are actively searched for
needs to be acknowledged that my
by the researcher, adding to the
bias as a researcher constitutes a
possible limitation of researcher's bias.
limitation to the credibility of this
I aimed to counteract that by drawing
qualitative study in that my national
precise and direct connections
identity and the language choice
between data items (quotes) and
impacted the relationships with
themes in the discussion of data.
participants. Nevertheless, the
10Ethical considerations Unity in diversity
All participants took part voluntarily The theme of unity in diversity as the
and signed a consent form. The nature cornerstone of European identity runs
of this research did not require the through the majority of part icipant s'
discussion of sensitive topics. responses . I identified three ways in
Nevertheless, the participants were which this is manifested: the cognitive
informed that they could refuse to aspect of identity, (Mitchell, 2015); the
answer questions and withdraw at any affective aspect (ibid.); and the
point. The nature of the interview positive attitude towards multiplicity of
prevents the primary data from being identities.
anonymised, but once transcribed, the
a) Cognitive aspect
names of the participants were
changed. All data is kept adhering to Almost all students mentioned the
the EU and UK GDPR. learning process in which theoretical
“book-based, paper” (Roma)
knowledge is enhanced by personal
Analysis and discussion experience in which they “learn ed a
lot more” (Jana) about other cultures.
The participants present a largely
As Hannah, who travelled from
positive attitude to being Eu r opean. I
Germany to the UK, pointed out:
identified four main interconnected
“theoretically I knew a bit but going
themes, painting a picture of the
there definitely opened my eyes”. The
students' understanding of European
differences observed first-hand are
identity and the social and linguistic
seen as 'enriching' and 'mind-opening'
aspects of it. Those are: unity in
(Roma) because they are restricted to
diversity; facilitated contact;
the trivial, everyday practices such as:
opportunity; vital role of multilingualism
having a siesta (Cat, Jamie), beer
. The thematic map is presented in
drinking (Jana, Hannah), queuing
figure 1.
(Hannah). The participants do not
perceive the differences as divisive,
but constructive. Roma, for example,
notes:
11According to the Common lngroup education institutions which host the
Identity Model, “the context of exchange and the students
cooperative interdependence” themselves whose main goal is to
(Gaertner and Dovidio, 2000, p. 40) is experience other cultures (Van Mol,
likely to engender positive feelings 2013a; Żyłkiewicz-Płońska, 2019). The
towards each other in members of boundaries between national groups
outgroups as they are likely to are, therefore, not erased (Fligstein,
recognise and appreciate the 2008), but they come be appreciated
distinctiveness of the groups as a as a valuable source of learning and
value. Erasmus exchange is framed as personal development, as suggested
cooperation and interdependence by by Fiona, a student from Scotland:
the European Commission, the higher
There is “something that bonds” (Jana) (Hannah) and cultural similarities.
them with other Europeans and they Hannah explains that:
often refer to “common values”
While some quantitative studies respect for different cultures” (Fiona),
(Mitchell, 2015) showed that enhanced which resonates with the theme of
knowledge of other European cultures unity in diversity. Openness to Europe'
and the EU does not seem to enhance s diversity is something that students
the European identity, this study see as a value in itself and an element
shows that the knowledge can be an of “being European”. (Roma), who has
important element of identification as been on Erasmus in Spain twice, links
European. Participant s' understanding it to the positive attitude towards
of the common values include European diversity:
“tolerance” (Roma) and “having
12In addition, these values are seen as a and Europe which stems directly from
strength in the context of a political the personal experience and enhanced
alliance. Fiona, who expressed their knowledge. Cat said she “understands
sadness about the UK's decision to a European country a bit more” and
leave the EU, stated that being feels she “had closer ties to the
European meant “wanting to have that country” and an “emotional tie” as a
connection with other countries” which result of Erasmus.
in turn means they are “stronger
George, who went to Turkey, is the
together”.
only participant who does not “feel that
b) Cognitive aspect European”, saying that as a British
person he sees the EU only as “a
The majority of participants relate the
political body that we were associated
cognitive aspect of identity to the
with but not something we were”. He
affective aspect. Cat, Roma, Jana and
also concretely refers to this as a lack
Jamie all express emotional “sense of
of an emotional bond:
belonging” (Jamie) to the host country
A large proportion of participants “comfort” and “knowing Europe like the
described their emotional attachment back of her hand” and a similar
as “feeling like home” (Roma) in other sentiment ran through Cat's and Jana'
European countries. Roma repeatedly s interviews. Jana, the Czech student,
referred to a feeling of “homeliness”, said:
13This echoes the findings of Ambrosi's entity such as Europe, but the
(2013) study in which students also emotional ties to the place, the people,
concluded that they felt like they the language and the culture play an
belonged to their host country after equally important part.
Erasmus and responses in Żyłkiewicz-
c) Multiplicity of identities
Płońska's (2019) study where the
participants quoted feeling at home in All participants are comfortable with
other European countries ad one of the idea of multiple layers of identity
the key aspects of “feeling European”. and they point to varied sources of
This theme suggests that the those identifications. Many of the
perception of this supranational participants instantly draw
identity is based on different factors comparisons with their national identity
than national identity, which tends to when asked about European identity,
stem from a perception of shared but do not put those in opposition.
characteristics and similarity within the Jamie, Fiona, Hannah and Jana put
'imagined community ' of a nation their regional identity first, albeit
(Anderson, 1991). According to Weiler 'regional' here is defined in various
(1999), supranational identity can ways. Jamie admits he would say he is
“appeal to different aspects of the from “Newcastle or the northeast,
human psyche” (cited by Llurda et al., Northumberland” first and foremost,
2016, p. 325) than national identity and while Fiona primarily identifies as
is based on a rational rather than Scottish. Both of them are reluctant to
irrational sense of belonging. Both identify as British and tie it to feelings
cognitive and affective aspects of of disillusionment with the country,
identification with Europe play into that especially in the light of Brexit. Jana
identification pattern. The learning and identifies as 'northern' within her
knowledge of differences and Slovak national identity, although she
similarities gained through personal holds a Czech passport, and Hannah
experience are key to the development says:
of conscious awareness of cultural
14This is consistent with the research by open outgoing always up to do things”
Jacobone and Moro, which “confirms (Hannah), there is “openness on both
the possibility that national and sides”, (Roma) making it “quite
European identity can coexist, and that different to when you meet people
European identity is not a threat to the outside of Erasmus” (Jana). This
national identity” (2015, p. 323). partially echoes findings by Papatsiba
Similarly, in Ambrosi's (2013) where students “reported having
research, the majority of participants remained within the network of
were comfortable with the idea of Erasmus students where there were
multiple identities. Papatsiba (2006) possibilities of encounters,
also observed that Erasmus students, acquaintances and friendship” (2006,
independently of their socialisation p. 121). The emotional tie to the host
patterns, developed an increased country and largely to Euro pe as a
perception of variability and whole is clearly connected to personal
complexity. This suggests that relationships that students developed
students with the experience of thanks to the Erasmus experience
European mobility develop towards a facilitating contact with people from
more global (Ambrosi, 2013), complex other nationalities. All participants
and inclusive understanding of identity. made friends and stay in touch with
them, often visiting each other and
staying in touch online. Roma, who
Facilitated contact has many friends who studied abroad,
extends the European identity to the
Erasmus exchange emerges as a fact that she knows people who live in
special environment for making other places and that makes her
international friends as “when it comes comfortable with crossing borders:
to Erasmus everybody was sort of
15This is echoed by Jana, who says that grant from the European Commission
“when you talk to European people and secondly by a network of support
especially on Erasmus or people that at the host institution or city which is
travel and they all like Europe, it largely focused on fostering
makes you like it more”. The socialisation through “Erasmus events”
assumption that the Erasmus (Jana). This is explicitly mentioned by
exchange environment meets Allport's five participants as an initiative that
(1954) criteria for meaningful contact is facilitated making meaningful
useful in interpreting those remarks. friendships. Both Hannah and Cat
The students share a temporary status observe that those “international
of being “an Erasmus” (Papatsiba, Erasmus meetings” (Hannah) shaped
2006) which puts them at an equal their groups of friends for the time they
footing and the atmosphere of the spent in the host city. This theme is
exchange settings is very much that of interrelated with the subtheme of
cooperation (Gaertner and Dovidio, affective aspect of identity. Jamie, who
2000). Furthermore, the criterion of went to Spain and worked as an
“supportive norms from authorities” English teaching assistant, tied these
(ibid.) is created firstly through the relationship s to European identity:
Similar themes were observed by Erasmus experience provided
Papatsiba (2006). For her participants, “opportunities to capture European
16diversity through acquaintance, qualitative studies (Ambrosi, 2013;
relationships and affinities” (p.121). Van Mol, 2013a; Żyłkiewicz-Płońska;
Three participants in my study 2019) as creating a feeling of freedom
mentioned making conscious efforts to and “being wanted” abroad
make friends and the personal (Żyłkiewicz-Płońska, 2019, p.81 [my
development that stemmed from this. translation]). The Erasmus programme
Fiona became “independent and is appreciated as “a huge opportunity”
confident and just a bit more outgoing”, (Jana) that embodies that freedom of
Jamie and Jana mentioned becoming movement and “facilitates” (Roma)
less introverted. Papatsiba (2006) also transnational contact, which is
observed that students, deprived of consistent with previous studies
their familiar support networks, (Ambrosi, 2013). Students know that
became more open and eager to the support they receive is a feature of
create acquaintances. the political unity of the continent and
that supports t heir positive feelings
about being a European citizen. The
Opportunity financial and organisational support is
appreciated as Jamie points out that
Another salient theme regarding “it's a European programme and it
European identity were the gives you funding” and Hannah
opportunities that come with EU appreciates that “they basically guide
citizenship, especially free movement. you through every step, all the
Five of the participants mention no paperwork”. The country's belonging to
border checks and easy travel “without the EU and European citizenship
trying to get visa or have the whole emerges as a significantly more
bureaucratic process” (Jana) as one of important aspect of European identity
the most appreciated aspects of than the geographical location of the
holding a European passport and a country (Roma) or even cultural
“liberty” (Hannah) that is highly valued. proximity. Cat, from Northern Ireland,
Free movement featured heavily in comments:
students' responses in previous
Numerous participants mention that away the opportunities and
Brexit led them to reflect more on their threatening the idea of unity in
European identity and all of them diversity. For example, Fiona, a
have negative feelings about it taking supporter of Scottish independence
17and the UK remaining in the EU,
notes:
Cat tied her vote in the Brexit it becomes apparent that the
referendum to her personal multilingual repertoire influenced the
experiences of the opportunity the EU shape of the participants' socialisation
provides, saying that she “felt really patterns, which echoes the findings by
strongly that it wasn't fair to take that Mitchell (2012). Firstly, English
away from potentially other people in emerges as a tool of transnational
the future” referring to the opportunity communication being used “just for
to study or work abroad. ease” (George), a necessary skill, and
a factor in the choice of destination for
those who lack skills in other foreign
Vital role of multilingualism languages. Fiona, who went from
Scotland to the Netherlands, explains:
Regarding language skills,
Depending on students' motivations, English] prevents you from meeting
knowing the host country language new people, getting to know them”.
was not always important, but knowing Multilingualism, thus, emerges as a
English is seen as “essential” (Jana). means to an important goal of
Jana, who went to Ireland, pointed out Erasmus, which is socialising, and
that English was used as an English fulfils this role most readily.
international language within her group This is also consistent with the
of friends, rather than the host country observations by Liurda et al. (2016) in
language. This is confirmed in which students expressed a sense of
George's, Fiona's and Hannah's talk, security attached to knowing English in
too. Jana says that “[not knowing a country where they do not speak the
18local language. As a native English These factors shape their choices
speaker Fiona acknowledged a certain when it comes to socialisation. Jamie,
privilege in that “you do definitely get a having gone on exchange to improve
bit lazy when it's your native language his Spanish, said that “it was more
cause, you know, you can pretty much about making friends with people who
get by anywhere just speaking were willing to speak Spanish rather
English”. than Spanish native speakers”. Roma
also observes that her multilingual
Simultaneously, for those who speak
skills were a major factor behind her
the host country language (Jana,
choice of friends and that knowing
Roma, Cat, Jamie, Hannah), it is both
Spanish allowed her to expand beyond
important as a skill they want to
the strict Erasmus circle and into the
develop through interacting with native
local community, where she made the
speakers and as a tool allowing for
majority of her long-lasting friendships:
more meaningful communication.
The linguistic repertoire, therefore, is a speaking Spanish would have
key factor in the decisions that “massively” limited his social circle
students make about going on “because of where we were and the
exchange and their socialisation lack of English skills”. Additionally,
patterns. This is also in response to multilingualism emerges as an element
the local society's linguistic abilities, so of European identity is some of the
students adapt and show resilience in students' talk. Roma explicitly
how they choose to communicate. mentions that when talking about what
Jamie reflects on his host community, European identity means to her:
the city of Huelva, saying that not
19This is consistent with the findings by identity. As direct beneficiaries of the
Llurda et al. (2016). An awareness of freedom of movement and financial
linguistic diversity in Europe and a support for study abroad, Erasmus
respect for preserving that also students exercise that freedom of
featured in their study. Local movement and take advantage of the
languages were perceived as opportunities, which is seen as 'doing'
indicators of identity and a value that European identity, using the resources
should be respected by a student who available (Jamieson, 2002). EU
is a guest in the country. Similarly, citizenship is, thus, an important
Hannah said that English is the most element of European identity for the
useful tool of communication, but “you participants.
should be able to sort of like
Multilingual skills do facilitate contact
understand a little bit of the [local]
with others on Erasmus and students
language and communicate”.
are highly adaptable to the linguistic
environment. They make decisions
based on their language skills and
Summary
goals, so that their socialisation
In general, students reflect on their patterns reflect the compatibility of
mobility experience as having their abilities with the linguistic
“definitely strengthened” (Roma) and repertoire of the host society. While
“expanded” (Cat) their identification speaking English is seen as an
with Europe, having been a essential skill to get by on Erasmus
“springboard” (Jamie) to feeling more independently of the host country, if
like a part of that community. Only the local language is not English,
George, a British student who so speaking it to some extent is perceived
journed in Turkey, said he did not feel as allowing for a deeper interaction
“imbued” with European identity at all, with the host society. Importantly, all
neither prior nor after the exchange. participants agree that had they not
The themes analysed above show that spoken English, they would have not
Erasmus students understand their made the decision to go abroad,
European identity as a feeling of making multilingualism essential to
belonging based largely on a positive non-English speakers, but not
emotional bond . An important element necessarily for native English
of this identification is the awareness speakers.
of European diversity, which is seen as
a value and as an exciting learning
opportunity, rather than a hurdle on the Conclusion
path to supranational identity. The data
This study aimed to explore the nature
suggests that the European identity
of European identity in Erasmus
does not make people 'see each other
students, its sources related to the
less as Italians and French, and thus
experience of exchange and the role of
foreign' (Fligstein, 2008, p. 139), but
multilingualism in these processes.
that it adds another, but separate,
With regards to the first research
layer of identity for Erasmus students,
question, the theme of unity in diversity
which exists alongside their national
20reveals that mobile students perceive (Deutsch et al., 1957) helps in
European identity as largely based interpreting these findings in that the
within the cultural, political and mobility does enhance the likelihood of
linguistic diversity of Europe. They social transactions and, in turn,
confirm the constructivist assumptions students who have participated in it
by having a multi-layered view of attribute their European identity largely
identity both in self-reflection and when to those transactions in form of
talking about others. This suggests international friendships. Every
that there is a move towards multi- research design includes 'trade-offs'
layered and inclusive view of regional, (Mitchell, 2012, p. 506) and this
national, transnational identities which qualitative research has its
welcomes a complex and methodological limitations. While
interconnected view of oneself. In previous quantitative studies showed
connection to the second research national differences and provided
question, the students identify the substantial statistical significance, this
sources of their European identity in study does not allow for drawing
creating connect ions with other conclusions on differences across
people and gaining awareness of other nationality or gender. Following
European cultures. Additionally, they Mitchell's (2012) suggestion, a mixed-
appreciate the opportunities for methods approach of a survey with
personal and social growth which follow-up questions could provide
come with the political unity of the more statistically significant data on
continent and value the facilitated the perception of European identity
transnational contact that these and the sociolinguistic factors in its
opportunities create. With regards to formation.
final research question, multilingualism
Furthermore, more in-depth qualitative
played a vital role in these processes
studies could be conducted that focus
of transnational contact and identity
on the role of multilingualism in
formation. Students' multilingual
socialisation on Erasmus. However,
repertoire shapes their socialisation
this study provides a deep
patterns and is used as a resource in
understanding, showing how Erasmus
strategically navigating the
students develop a non-essentialist,
transnational experience, with students
complex, multi-layered view of their
showing resilience and adaptability in
identities, seeing their regional,
multilingual environments. English is
national and transnational identities
revealed as a necessary skill when
alongside each other without difficulty.
crossing borders in Europe, but
It suggests that students value the
multilingualism is perceived as an
transnational connections they build
element of European identity within the
and see those as a vital part of the
unity in diversity theme.
mobility experience and themselves as
The Erasmus experience appears to individuals. Finally, it shows that
create good conditions for meaningful mobility is an important aspect of
transnational contact to be achieved students' experience of being
with all students making lasting European, pointing to the importance
friendships. Transactionalist theory
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24Appendix 1: Interview guide
25To what extent had Trump used George Floyd as a
campaigning tool? A critical discourse analysis of Trump’s
twitter in its political context
Thomas Lonsdale
ABSTRACT: The Death George Floyd represents among the latest example of the
sheer scale of police brutality and systematic racism in the United States. The
protests that followed represent one of the most large-scale backlashes against
these atrocities in recent years. Despite the scale of the problem, using the
Discourse-Historical approach to perform a Critical Discourse Analysis on President
Trump’s response to the tragedy suggest that he has merely used the racial tensions
as a way to gain votes in the upcoming election and spread his populist rhetoric to
further the divisions that have become ever more entrenched during his presidency.
To gain an understanding of this fact, a corpus of Trump’s tweets and retweets will
be analysed. Twitter has fundamentally changed the way that political discourse
works and has created a platform on which Trump and other populist leaders can
communicate directly with their people to stir up anxieties about the loss of identity at
the hand of a globalised elite. Analysis of Trump’s discourse on twitter allows for an
understanding of how he has effectively mobilised this platform and provides insight
into the main themes that will be used in the 2020 election, in which he will seek to
remobilise the portion of the electorate who voted for him in 2016. The discourse that
he uses to mobilise his voters could well decide the upcoming election, and so its
analysis is hugely timely and important. Editors note: This analysis was
completed before the election.
Contact: T.Lonsdale@newcastle.ac.uk
Introduction (Olson, 2008), a fact made abundantly
clear by discourse surrounding recent
The election of Donald Trump to the
George Floyd riots (Financial Times
US presidency in 2016 was the result
Editorial, 2020), a response to the
of a number of long-term trends in
latest in a long line of racially
American, and indeed global politics,
motivated murders at the hands of
one of the most striking of which being
police (Edwards, Lee & Esposito,
the ever-increasing ideological
2019). These polarised perspectives
polarisation of the American electorate
largely fall along party political lines;
(Campbell, 2018; Pew Research
89% of white Democrats believe that
Center, June 2020; Pew Research
the criminal justice system does not
Center, July 2020). One of the most
treat minorities fairly compared to 36%
fertile sources of conflict along these
of white Republicans (Guskin, Clement
partisan lines are in terms of race
& Balz, 2020). Lack of consensus in
26this area has manifested in a divide Floyd and the subsequent riots were
between supporters of Black Lives marked by their apparent sensitivity to
Matter and those of the ‘Blue (police) the problems of Black Americans. One
Lives Matter’ movement which exists example of this is the fact that some of
in opposition to what BLM represents Trump’s tweets in response to the riots
(Cooper, 2020; Solomon & Martin, appeared concerned with the legacy of
2019). George Floyd (Trump, 29th May), the
memory of whom the ‘violent’ and
To understand this central societal
‘thuggish’ protesters were said to be
conflict, it is worthwhile to attempt to
violating (The White House, May 30th;
break down and understand some of
Trump, 29th May). This speaks to the
this discourse surrounding the riots.
fact that racial politics in the public
Especially fruitful would be an attempt
domain has had to adapt to be more
to analyse President Trump’s
linguistically subtle; even Trump
response to the killing and subsequent
appears to recognise that outright
riots to understand one of the key
racism would be electorally
representative voices in this debate,
catastrophic, so tweets instead using
particularly in light of controversy
more of a ‘dog-whistle’ approach
surrounding a tweet made by the
(Drakulich, 2020). Just as a dog
President that was hidden from view
whistle is inaudible to humans, users
by Twitter for ‘violating their policy on
of this dog-whistle politics target their
glorifying violence’ (Trump, 29th May;
message at a specific section of the
BBC News, 2020). For many, this
electorate, hiding messages and
tweet characterised this return within
references that only this audience will
American society of outright racial
understand within otherwise
hatred (Abramowitz & McCoy 2018),
apparently innocuous discourse
promoted by an increasingly vocal far
(Albertson, 2015; Haney-López, 2014).
right (Jones, 2018), a group that
Trump has previously been said to This technique makes it electorally
appease (Butt & Khalid, 2018) (notably viable to appeal to racist and
in his response to the killing of a xenophobic sentiments in society, as it
counter-protestor at a march for white can often escape the most direct
nationalists, in which he said that there criticism and frees those who respond
were ‘fine people on both sides’ to it from the burden from feeling as
(Kessler, 2020)). though they themselves are racist
(Drakulich, 2020). To decode this
Counter to what many commenters
hidden intent behind these messages,
suggest, it might appear that many
Critical Discourse Analysis is uniquely
politicians are reluctant to engage with
capable tool (Schoor, n.d.). It allows us
these racist and xenophobic elements
to consider discourse in the context of
of society directly (Bennett & Walker,
the social themes that inform it (Dijk,
2018; Sugino, 2020). Indeed, to an
2009), allowing for a deconstruction of
observer unaware of any of the context
a text with a full understanding of its
of US race relations and the Trump
background and intended purpose
presidency, it might appear that
(Fairclough & Wodak, 1997; Wodak,
Trump’s response to the killing of
2013). Twitter represents a particularly
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