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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
An Ghníomhaireacht um Chaomhnú Comhshaoil
Ireland’s
Environment
BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND
A Review of Habitats and Species
John Lucey and Yvonne Doris
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
PO Box 3000,
Johnstown Castle Estate,
Co. Wexford, Ireland.
Telephone: +353 53 60600 Fax: +353 53 60699
Email: info@epa.ie Website: www.epa.ie July 2001
B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D
CONTENTS
LIST OF BOXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
HABITATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Forests and Woodland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Hedgerows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fen and Bog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Turloughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Freshwater Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Coastal and Marine Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
SPECIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Flora (Plants) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fauna (Animals) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
POSTSCRIPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
APPENDIX 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
P A G E I I
A R E V I E W O F H A B I T A T S & S P E C I E S
LIST OF BOXES
1 IRISH GEOLOGICAL HERITAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL AND SEMI-NATURAL WOODLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 BOGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 TURLOUGHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5 COASTAL / MARINE HABITATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6 MAËRL COMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7 LOWER PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8 VASCULAR PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9 KERRY SLUG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
10 FRESHWATER INVERTEBRATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
11 MARSH FRITILLARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
12 LAND SNAILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
13 SOME RECENT INSECT AND MITE INTRODUCTIONS TO IRELAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
14 FISHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
15 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
16A GREENLAND WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
16B BIRDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
17 MAMMALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
18 CETACEANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
19 ANIMAL EXTINCTIONS AND INTRODUCTIONS DURING THE PAST MILLENNIUM . . . . . . . 23
20 OVERGRAZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
21 GENETIC RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
22 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
23 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
P A G E I I I
B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D
LIST OF FIGURES
1 FRAMEWORK FOR THE DESIGNATION OF NATURA 2000 SITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 A SELECTION OF MAJOR AREAS DESIGNATED FOR CONSERVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF PEATLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 DISTRIBUTION OF KILLARNEY FERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
BOX 7 DISTRIBUTION OF FOXTAIL STONEWORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5 DISTRIBUTION OF GIANT HOGWEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
BOX 10 DISTRIBUTION OF PEARL MUSSEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6 DISTRIBUTION OF LARGE HEATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
BOX 14 DISTRIBUTION OF ARCTIC CHARR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
BOX 16a GREENLAND WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE NUMBERS 1983-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7 DISTRIBUTION OF PINE MARTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8 DISTRIBUTION OF RED DEER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
9 SOME EXAMPLES OF INTRODUCTIONS AND EXTINCTIONS OF SPECIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
LIST OF TA B L E S
1 INTERNATIONAL ACTION ON BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 ESTIMATED OR KNOWN NUMBER OF SPECIES OF INSECTS, VERTEBRATES AND
VASCULAR PLANTS IN IRELAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4A VASCULAR PLANT SPECIES LISTED IN THE FLORA PROTECTION ORDER (1999) . . . . . . . . . . 11
4B NON-VASCULAR PLANT SPECIES LISTED IN THE FLORA PROTECTION ORDER (1999) . . . . . 12
5 CORNCRAKE NUMBERS IN CERTAIN AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6 DAMAGING ACTIVITIES IN COASTAL PROTECTED AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
P A G E I V
A R E V I E W O F H A B I T A T S & S P E C I E S
This report represents an
extended version of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Chapter 12 of Ireland’s
The Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, and
Environment. A Millennium its heritage service Dúchas, as well as the Heritage Council are the
Report (eds. L. Stapleton, lead authorities in the conservation of the natural environment in
Ireland and their assistance in compiling the report is gratefully
M. Lehane and P. Toner),
acknowledged.
Environmental Protection
Individuals who supplied specific information are acknowledged
Agency (Wexford, 2000).
by the citing of personal communication (pers. comm.) after their
names.
Photographs used in the report were supplied by John Early, Eddie
Dunne, John Lucey, Simon Berrow, Felix Zaska and Matthew
Parkes.
P A G E V
B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D
INTRODUCTION
Box 1 Irish Geological Heritage
This report sets out to give some Ireland has a rich earth heritage. For a
account of the state of Ireland’s small country it has a wide diversity of
biodiversity, or put more simply its rock successions covering large spans of
natural heritage, at the dawn of the earth history, e.g. fossil and mineral
new millennium. localities, volcanic and deep igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic evidence
of changing environments and especially
The natural heritage can be described the highly visible results of glaciations in
as the inheritance of the natural the Ice Ages or Quaternary Period.
environment in all its forms (Lucey These earth science sites, many of
and Nolan, 1996), including the international importance, had no legal
geological legacy (See Box 1). Ireland protection. This is now being redressed
through the Irish Geological Heritage (IGH) Programme.
owes its natural distinctiveness to its
unique geology more than anything The Programme is a partnership between the Geological Survey of Ireland
else (Feehan, 1997). Yet despite this (GSI) and Dúchas - the Heritage Service, which since 1998 is undertaking the
uniqueness the island can boast just appraisal of geological and geomorphological sites by theme, in order to
one natural World Heritage Site1: the select, on strict scientific criteria, those which should be designated as
Giant’s Causeway in Co. Antrim Natural Heritage Areas (NHAs). Sites will be evaluated on a nation-wide,
thematic network basis and a list of sites will be selected to represent the
which is an outstanding geological diversity and range of earth science features as currently understood. Apart
site and prime example of the earth’s from the NHA selection, the programme aims to establish County Geological
evolutionary history during Tertiary Sites, without statutory protection, which will be incorporated into County
times some 50-60 million years ago. Development Plans.
Ireland has many examples from the The IGH site selection process is based upon geological themes with the first
two completed being Karst and Precambrian to Devonian Palaeontology.
various epochs in its geological heritage The Karst theme will protect some key areas, of the Burren for example,
but the most recent, the Quaternary that fall outside existing designated areas or National Parks.
era - with its Pleistocene glaciations
and the post-glacial Holocene - is the One particular site from the Palaeontology theme stands out as a special
one that has shaped the present case: a fossil trackway on Valentia Island in Co. Kerry. In conjunction with
landscape and its flora and fauna.2 the Valentia Heritage Society, GSI drew up a plan, adopted by Dúchas, and
the site, which was discovered in 1993, was purchased by the State. The site
is of international importance and has been dated at older than 385 million
Biodiversity, which is the now
years; probably second oldest in the world. About 200 prints represent the
common abbreviation used for passage of a tetrapod, a primitive four-legged vertebrate, across the soft
biological diversity, may be defined sediment of a large river floodplain in Devonian times. It is a key record of
as: the variability among living the important evolutionary step of vertebrates leaving aquatic
organisms from all sources environments and breathing air on land.
including, inter alia, terrestrial,
(Sources: M. Parkes, Geological Survey of Ireland; Parkes and Morris, 1999)
marine and other aquatic ecosystems
and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity covers all plant and animal the ecosystems/habitats of which
diversity within species, between species, as well as micro-organisms, they are part.
species and of ecosystems.3 Biological genetic diversity within species and
Thus, Ireland’s natural heritage or
biodiversity may be conveniently
discussed under two main headings:
habitats and species. Having
described the legislative framework
the report will then give a brief
portrait of some of Ireland’s more
‘important’ habitats as well as
elements of her flora and fauna.
After a discussion of, inter alia, the
main threats to biodiversity, the
report will conclude by attempting
to assess the state of the natural
environment in Ireland and how
efforts to safeguard the natural
heritage are progressing.
P A G E 1
A R E V I E W O F H A B I T A T S & S P E C I E S
Table 1 International Action on Biodiversity*
Title Signed Ratified
Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats 1979 1982
Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979 1983
Agreement on Conservation of Bats in Europe (Bonn Convention) 1993 1995
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance 1971 1984
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1946 1985
Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 1996
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 1974 Awaits commencement orders
under Wildlife Amendment
Act, 2000
Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory 1996 Awaits commencement orders
Waterbirds (AEWA) (Bonn Convention) under Wildlife Amendment
Act, 2000
International Tropical Timber Agreement 1994 1996 Ratification expected shortly
Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy - Endorsed 1995
*Biodiversity-related Conventions, Agreements or Processes that Ireland has ratified, signed or is a party to (from Buckley, 1998).
LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK • to give specific recognition to the 1997). The Directive was transposed
responsibilities of the Minister in into Irish law on 26 February 1997,
Policy regarding conservation of regard to promoting the by the European Communities
Ireland’s habitats and species is conservation of biological diversity. (Natural Habitats) Regulations (S.I.
formulated by the Department of No. 94 of 1997).
Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Ireland has ratified or signed a number
Islands and implemented by Dúchas - of regional or international legal The Habitats Directive provides for
The Heritage Service; through the instruments (e.g. CITES and AEWA) the establishment of a coherent
Wildlife Act of 1976, Flora directly concerned with biodiversity ecological network of protected areas
Protection Orders, the Whale and these are listed in Table 1. across the 15 member states, to be
Fisheries Act of 1937 and European known as NATURA 2000. This is
Union Directives. The long awaited The most important piece of the EU’s contribution to the
Act to amend many of the provisions legislation regarding nature Convention on Biodiversity which
of the Wildlife Act, 1976 was signed conservation within the European was ratified by Ireland in 1996 (See
into law in December 2000. The Union4 is the ‘Council Directive on Table 1). The Directive makes
main objectives of the Wildlife Act, the conservation of natural habitats provision for a three stage procedure
2000, are: and of wild fauna and flora’ (CEC, leading to the creation of the
1992), more commonly known as NATURA 2000 network of sites,
• to provide a mechanism to give the ‘Habitats Directive’. Because it which are known as Special Areas of
statutory protection to Natural requires areas to be designated, as Conservation (SACs).5 Special
Heritage Areas (NHAs); indeed does the Birds Directive Protection Areas (SPAs), designated
• to provide statutory protection for (CEC, 1979), it has been described under the Birds Directive, also form
important geological and as representing the first intrusion by an integral part of NATURA 2000
geomorphological sites, including Brussels into the control of land use (See Fig. 1 for schematic
fossil sites; within EU member states (Grist, representation of the process).
• to enhance the conservation of
wildlife species and their habitats;
• to enhance a number of controls
Habitats Directive Birds Directive
on hunting and to regulate
commercial shoot operators; ▲
• to ensure or strengthen compliance Special Protection
with international agreements and, Areas
in particular;
• to increase substantially the level of
fines for contravention of the ▲ ▲
Wildlife Act and to allow for the
Annex I Special
imposition of prison sentences; List of
Habitat types Areas
National list Sites of NATURA
• to allow the Minister to act
▲
▲
▲
▲
of sites Community of 2000
independently of forestry Annex II Conservation
Importance
Species
legislation;
• to strengthen the protective regime June 1995 June 1998 June 2004
for Special Areas of Conservation Fig 1 Framework for the designation of NATURA 2000 sites with dates by which
(SACs); each stage was to be completed (from Grist, 1997)
P A G E 2
B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D
Table 2 Categories of Protected Areas
Category Objectives Area covered Number Protective
(ha) of sites measures
Nature Reserves Conservation of flora, fauna 18,095 78 Statutory protection;
and habitats generally State ownership
Special Protection Conservation of bird species and 230,000 109 Statutory protection;
Areas (SPAs) habitats of European importance to prevent habitat damage
Special Areas of Conservation of flora, fauna and ~650,000 400 Statutory protection;
Conservation (SACs) habitats of European importance to prevent habitat damage
Natural Heritage Protection of flora, fauna, habitats ~750,000 1,100+ At present: grant assessment,
Areas (NHAs) and geological sites of financial incentive;
national importance planning laws
National Parks Nature conservation and public 56,987 6 Non-statutory protection;
use and appreciation State-owned
Wildfowl Sanctuaries Hunting of wild birds prohibited N/A 68 Statutory enforcement of
hunting controls
Refuges for Fauna Conservation of the habitat of N/A 7 Statutory protection for
named species of animals named species
Sources: Buckley, 1998; Dúchas
Stage One - the selection of national
lists of sites - was due for
completion by June 1995 but no
member states had finalised the
process some two years after that
date (Grist, 1997).
Stage Two - the establishment of a
list of Sites of Community
Importance (SCIs) - was to have
been completed between June 1995
and June 1998 but had not.
Stage Three - the formal designation
by member states of the adopted list
of SCIs as SACs - was originally
scheduled for the period June 1998
to June 2004 (Grist, 1997).
The European Commission’s
evaluation of Ireland’s classification
of sites (as of 31 January 2001)
under the Birds Directive and
Habitats Directive, for NATURA
2000, was assessed as ‘Incomplete’
for SPA classification and
‘Notably insufficient’ for list of
SCIs.6
Designated Refuge for Fauna
The different categories of protected Ramsar Sites
areas in Ireland are given in Table 2 Nature Reserves
together with details of the objective Wildfowl Sanctuaries
National Parks
for their designation, area covered,
Special Protection Areas
number of sites and protection Special Areas of Conservation
afforded. A selection of the areas Proposed Natural Heritage Areas
proposed as NHAs, SPAs and SACs
are shown in Fig. 2. Fig 2 A Selection of Major Areas Designated for Conservation (Source: Dúchas)
P A G E 3
A R E V I E W O F H A B I T A T S & S P E C I E S
HABITATS Woodland habitats can be divided
into several categories ranging from Box 2 Conservation of Natural
Of the priority habitats listed in the dry woods to swamp woodland. and Semi-Natural Woodlands
Habitats Directive, 16 are found in Amongst these, three divisions are Only very small areas of the
Ireland (See Appendix 1). Obviously recognised: woods mostly on acid woodlands, which represent the
not all can be treated in a short soils of which oak is the principal tree mixed deciduous forest which
discourse such as this and examples of in deciduous woods; woods on dominated the earlier post-
general habitats as well as some limestone of which ash-elm-hazel are glacial landscape, remain today
priority types will be given below. the principal native components; and in Ireland. It is not surprising
therefore that the largest Irish
the third category is scrub comprising herbivore, the red deer (Cervus
Forests and Woodland
open, fragmented woods and elaphus), has been reduced to a
Forests would naturally cover the hedgerow. Although there have been single native herd in Kerry and
no extinctions, nine of the 16 species the largest carnivore, the wolf
greater part of the island but the long
in the third category are thought to (Canis lupus), has long been
history of forest decline over the last eliminated. The conservation of
6,000 years, due mainly to clearance be vulnerable, i.e. will become
these relict woodlands, with their
by man, has led to the present endangered in the near future if the complex ecological systems, is of
situation where native forest cover is causal factors continue operating primary concern. Ideally,
less than one per cent of the land area (Curtis and McGough, 1988). conservation begins with a survey
of the woodlands and only when
(Cross, 1998). Of the estimated
The woodland flora would appear, management control has been
100,000 hectares of Ireland’s obtained by purchase or
broadleaved woodland, not more prima facie, to be the least threatened
agreement, is management
than 6,000 are protected for group but extensive scrub clearance is based on scientific research
conservation through ownership a feature of large parts of the west cautiously introduced to secure
and/or legislation in National Parks and it is expected that several species the long-term survival of the
will move into the threatened system and to permit use of the
and Nature Reserves
category, as a result, in the near forest for education, amenity and
(O’Sullivan, 1999). sport. Anticipating the Wildlife
future (Curtis and McGough, 1988).
Act of 1976 by several years the
The number of native and naturalised then Forest and Wildlife Service
tree species in Ireland has been given Road schemes have threatened parts [now Dúchas] undertook a survey
as around 30 (e.g. Nelson and Walsh, of some native woodlands. A and scientific investigation of the
celebrated long-standing protest to semi-natural woodlands and
1993) of which there are three
the cutting of trees in the Glen of the other vegetative types in State
cherries (including blackthorn), three forests. Conservation
conifers (juniper, yew and Scots Downs Nature Reserve, in Co.
management, based on that
pine), two birches, alder, hazel, the Wicklow, was ended by a Supreme work, has since that time been
two oaks, as well as six species of Court decision in December 1999. applied in woodland sites where
whitebeam (including the rowan or the priority has been to secure
A distinction must be made between the effective regeneration of
mountain ash), hawthorn or
native and modern forests and the woodland threatened by invasive
whitethorn, ash, the Wych elm, holly, non-native woody species and
spindle, buckthorn and alder latter cannot be regarded as part of
the depredations of sika deer
buckthorn, elder, arbutus, crab apple, the natural heritage. The area under (Cervus nippon).
aspen and willow. forest plantations is currently
increasing by about 20,000 hectares (Source: O'Carroll, 1984)
per year, one of the highest rates of
afforestation in Europe. Most of
Ireland’s 570,000 hectares of forest is
plantation. Although plantations are
poor substitutes for native woodland,
they provide niches for a number of
the more common mammal and bird
species, some invertebrates and fungi.
The decline in the natural forest
cover of Ireland was a slow process
starting in Neolithic times, with
cutting, burning and grazing and was increase the area of afforestation.
almost complete, due to the heavy There has been a nine-fold increase in
export of timber, by Tudor times the forest cover of the Republic of
(Freeman, 1950). It has been Ireland, 72 per cent of which is
successive government policy to owned and managed by Coillte,7 this
P A G E 4
B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D
century. Not everyone, however,
would agree with all aspects of the
claim, by Coillte (Carey, 1999), that
‘the use of exotic tree species in the
restoration of Ireland’s forest cover
has been a remarkable success story
this century’. At present 63 per cent
of Coillte’s forests comprise sitka
spruce. The continued planting of
this exotic species (Picea sitchensis),
from the Pacific coast of North
America, interspersed with a
moderate and balanced use of other
minor coniferous and broadleaf
species, subject to site suitability, is
seen by Coillte as the way forward. In The Heritage Council8 commissioned possible and consideration should
Northern Ireland the tree cover has an independent report into the be given to protecting other areas
increased from just one per cent to impact of current forestry policy on of conservation value.
six per cent since the beginning of aspects of Ireland’s heritage. As well • Better baseline information is
the century due mainly to the as making recommendations to the needed on land use and soils,
planting of sitka spruce on marginal Council, including ways of increasing native species and the biodiversity
agricultural land (Beatty, 1999). In biodiversity in plantations, the report of habitats, and hydrology and the
May 1999 Coillte published a identified the following areas of aquatic environment. Without
strategy document, Coillte’s Forests: concern (Heritage Council, 1998): this information, a consistent
A Vital Resource, wherein it strategic approach to managing
undertakes to maintain biodiversity; • The Forest Strategy [i.e. the plan the environmental implications of
this will include, it says, some forests for development of the forestry afforestation on different types of
not being developed for timber sector in Ireland published by the land is impossible.
production. The initiative also Department of Agriculture, Food
promises more extensive water and and Forestry (1996)] is likely to Hedgerows
soil impact assessment in the future. lead to increased planting on
Following consultations with a wide marginal agricultural land and is Field boundaries, mainly hedgerows,
range of relevant parties, the Forest unlikely to involve significant are a particularly prominent feature
Service (2000) has produced forest diversity of species, age or type of of the Irish countryside. Ireland’s
biodiversity guidelines in an effort to planting. This means that much abundant hedgerows, which have
get forest owners to undertake all of the new planting will be of become ‘naturalised’ over the last few
work in a way which is compatible little biodiversity or landscape centuries, act as linear strips of native
with the protection of the value and, in some cases, of less woodland, providing niches for a
environment. The guidelines describe value than current land use. number of common woodland plant
a range of measures intended to cover • Areas proposed for European or and animal species. Hedgerows are
all situations relating to forestry and national designation must be especially important, given the small
biodiversity. given formal protection as soon as amount of remaining woodland in
the country, and they act as linking
corridors between habitat patches.
Hedgerows forming townland
boundaries (and roadside hedgerows)
are likely to be particularly important
from an ecological and cultural
viewpoint. Hedgerows have suffered
significant losses, largely due to
removal for agricultural purposes.
The removal of hedgerows has
impacted negatively on biodiversity
in the wider countryside and it has
also affected the cultural heritage and
altered the visual landscape. The
habitat quality of many remaining
hedgerows may be adversely affected
by ‘maintenance’ operations
P A G E 5A R E V I E W O F H A B I T A T S & S P E C I E S
Box 3 Bogs
Active raised bogs, once common
in the Irish midlands, are now
relatively rare habitats.
Vegetation is dominated by
Sphagnum mosses with some
vascular plants such as heathers,
sedges and grasses. Red Data
Book species include the bog
orchid (Hammarbya paludosa).
This small orchid grows in wet,
acid, spongy bogs and is difficult
to detect. It has an erratic
flowering habit and can be
abundant in some years. It has
been recorded from more than 50
sites in the past but recently
confirmed at single sites in just six
counties. The apparent decline
may be associated with the loss of
its peatland habitat. An update
undertaken by local authorities and The Irish Peatland Conservation on its current status will appear in
other bodies, as well as by private Council (IPCC) has identified the the new flora atlas from the
landowners. Hedgerows are most following important protected bog Botanical Society of the British
often removed in arable areas, and are and fen sites that are already damaged Isles (BSBI) later in the year.
regularly cleared in small amounts or threatened by development (IPCC,
Blanket bogs are situated in
from farms throughout the country. 1998):
upland areas such as the Wicklow
Currently there is a number of
and Slieve Bloom Mountains as
controls in place which contribute to • All Saints Bog, Co. Offaly - Moss
well as in the lowlands of the
mitigating negative impacts on peat extraction
western counties of Donegal,
hedgerows. For example, the Wildlife • Clara Bog, Co. Offaly - Turbary
Sligo, Mayo, Galway and Kerry.
Act prevents the cutting or rights and private peat extraction
Among the Red Data Book
destruction of hedgerows or other • Clonfinane, Co. Tipperary - Moss species are slender cottongrass
vegetation between the 1st March peat extraction (Eriophorum gracile) and
and 31st August, and there is also • Ballykenny, Co. Longford - Mackay’s heath (Erica
guidance to ensure that the Drainage and moss peat mackaiana). Blanket bogs
importance of roadside hedgerows for extraction undergo a range of deleterious
wildlife is taken into account. • Barnesmore, Co. Donegal - effects from grazing and
Wind turbines and road trampling by excessive sheep
development stocking, peat extraction,
Fen and Bog
• Scragh, Co. Donegal - Dam and afforestation and agricultural
road development reclamation. More recently the
While the commercial forests, with
• Pollardstown Fen, Co. Kildare - possibility of localised erosion
their plantations of exotics, are
Road development. associated with the
expanding the bogs are diminishing.
infrastructural elements of wind
As well as creating distinctive upland
energy and telecommunication
and lowland landscapes, bogs All 32 raised, 47 blanket bog and 39
installations has been of
contribute to the stability and general fen sites considered to be of prime increasing concern.
well-being of the environment, ecological importance have been
conserving biodiversity, providing proposed as candidate SACs. The Both of these habitat types, active
clean water and preventing flooding IPCC had recommended that all raised and blanket bogs, are
(Aalen et al., 1997). Fens are alkaline 2,000 hectares of the surviving fen priority habitats under the Habitats
with a pH of 7-8 while bogs are acid area considered to have conservation Directive (See Appendix 1).
with a pH of 3.2-4.2 owing to the value should be conserved. Of
fact that the water supply for the particular concern, to conservationists (Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988;
former is from mineral-rich and others, had been the increase of Douglas, 1998; Foss and O’Connell, 1998;
Department of Arts, Gaeltacht, Heritage
groundwater and the latter from rain- turf cutting on bogs of ecological and Islands, 1999)
water (Foss and O’Connell, 1998). importance despite some having
P A G E 6B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D
NHA status but not legal protection
due to the delay in enacting the
relevant legislation (Wildlife
Amendment Act, 2000). Because of
the impact on these ecosystems it has
been recommended that all peatland
development, as well as being
preceded by an environmental impact
assessment (EIA), should be required
to submit a specific professional plan
for rehabilitation (Feehan and
O’Donovan, 1996). Killaun is an
example of a regenerating cutaway
bog; it is managed by St. Brendan’s
Community School Birr in Co.
Offaly and is used as an educational
resource as well as a popular spot for
local walkers and wildlife enthusiasts.
It is also one of the known sites of
the tiny land snail Vertigo geyeri, an
Annex II species under the Habitats
Directive (See Box 12), the main
threat to which is loss of habitat. A
classic habitat in Ireland, favoured by
V. geyeri, were the lagg zones of raised
bogs which have all but vanished
because of drainage and turf cutting
Blanket Bog
at the margins (Anon., 1999a).
Raised Bog
Fen
Calcareous fens occur in limestone
areas subject to a permanently high
water table where the vegetation Fig 3 Present Distribution of Peatlands (Source: IPCC)
typically consists of a complex of Two turloughs are designated as Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands,
sedge communities (Ó Críodáin and Special Protection Areas, one is 1999) and all the more important
Doyle, 1997) dominated by the protected in a Nature Reserve in Co. ones are listed as candidate Special
black bog rush (Schoenus nigricans) Galway (Department of Arts, Areas of Conservation.
and purple moor grass (Molina
caerulea).
Box 4 Turloughs
The distribution of the remaining
peatlands in Ireland is delineated in The name turlough is derived from the Irish word tuarloch meaning dry
Fig. 3. lake. Turloughs are temporary water bodies on Carboniferous limestone in
the western third of Ireland. Although analogous in some ways to vernal
pools found elsewhere they are peculiar to Ireland and have been recorded
Turloughs
from 11 counties but are most continuously developed in the part of the
lowland stretching from central Clare into central Galway. They are typically
Turloughs have been identified as
associated with swallow-holes or slugaire through which they fill and empty
priority habitats under the Habitats
via the local groundwater system. They are not ecosystems except in a
Directive and 43 of these have been
temporary sense and are transition zones between aquatic and terrestrial
proposed as Special Areas of systems. One of the best known is Rahasane turlough (275 ha) in east
Conservation (SACs). The chief Galway which is unusual in that it has a river flowing through it; the area is
threats to turloughs are land drainage one of the most important wildfowl wetlands in Ireland and was the site of
and pollution. Drainage in the 19th first discovery of the shrimp Tanymastix stagnalis in the British Isles. Among
century eliminated many of the great the characteristic flora of turloughs the black moss Cinclidotus fontinaloides
turloughs of east Galway and more may be seen on rocks or boulders. Because of their features turloughs lead
recent schemes have also had effects, to a characteristic vegetation but sparse and unpredictable aquatic faunal
e.g. seven sites of importance for communities. Their conservation requires sensitive management of the
Greenland white-fronted geese and regional catchment both surface and underground.
Bewick and whooper swans were
(Sources: Freeman, 1950; An Foras Forbartha, 1981; Reynolds, 1996)
drastically affected (Reynolds, 1996).
P A G E 7A R E V I E W O F H A B I T A T S & S P E C I E S
Freshwater Habitats
Ireland has over 4,000 lakes and
ponds, which account for about two
per cent of the area of the country.
Many Irish lakes are still capable of
supporting salmonids (Salmo salar
and Salmo trutta). The salmon (‘only
in freshwater’) is listed in the
Habitats Directive and therefore
Ireland was required to propose sites
for its protection. Ireland is, de facto,
one of the two most important
member states in the EU for salmon
rivers and for this reason there has
been pressure to increase the number absence of fish (Kelly-Quinn et al., Data Book species such as garganey,
of proposed sites. 1997). While the overall evidence gadwall, pintail, shoveler and
from the study carried out in the pochard. Organic pollution,
Some smaller lakes and ponds have Munster region was that no broad- especially from diffuse agricultural
disappeared due to drainage. Certain scale detrimental effects on stream sources, is the main threat.
salmonid lakes in poorly-buffered, water quality were apparent, adverse
upland areas in west Galway and effects on a local scale were recorded Twenty eight lakes, covering roughly
Mayo have been affected by at catchment afforestation levels 75,000 hectares, almost half the total
acidification from commercial conifer above 50 per cent (Giller et al., area of Irish lakes, are waterfowl sites
plantations. Artificial acidification, 1997). In the Galway-Mayo region designated as SPAs. A number of
attributed to afforestation, has been the study concluded that forestry other lakes are listed as candidate
measured, by the EPA, in a feeder does increase the acid status of SACs. Two lakes in Kerry, the habitat
stream to Glendalough Lake Upper streams in poorly buffered of the endangered natterjack toad, are
in Co. Wicklow (Bowman and catchments (Allott et al., 1997). Nature Reserves and some additional
Bracken, 1993; Lucey et al., 1999). lakes are conserved in National Parks
In part of a study of forested Red Data Book plants of freshwater (Department of Arts, Heritage,
catchments in Ireland it was found habitats include Irish hydrilla Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).
that 24 of the 46 sites sampled in the (Hydrilla verticillata), found in only
Wicklow region had mean labile one lake in Connemara, slender naiad The canal system, built in the 18th
monomeric aluminium (Najas flexilis) and pillwort (Pilularia and 19th centuries, provides
concentrations in excess of the level globulifera). The survival of sea trout important habitats for some plants,
recommended for salmonid waters; is of particular concern in nutrient- coarse fishes and birds and has aided
all of these sites were afforested to poor, peaty, western lakes. Lakes are the dispersal of many species of
varying degrees and associated with vitally important for breeding and invertebrates. The two main canals,
low pH/buffering capacity and wintering wildfowl, including Red Grand and Royal, have been
delineated as proposed NHAs.
Coastal and Marine Habitats
Irish sand dunes are species-rich
habitats for plants and invertebrates
and 168 sand systems have been
catalogued (Department of Arts,
Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands,
1999). In south Kerry, dune pools and
margins are important spawning and
feeding areas for the natterjack toad.
Vulnerable Red Data Book plants
include seaside centaury (Centaurium
littorale) and lesser centaury (C.
pulchellum). Machair (sandy calcareous
plain inland of dunes) is a rare habitat
restricted to the north and west coasts.
It is a mosaic of dunes, grassland and
P A G E 8B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D
Box 5 Coastal/Marine Habitats
The number and variety of
designated habitats clearly
Coastal ecosystems may be divided into five major habitats: estuaries, sand- demonstrates the high ecological
dunes, salt-marsh, sea-cliffs and shingle beaches. With a coastline of some value of Ireland’s coastal zone.
7,100 km, including estuaries and offshore islands, Ireland is well endowed
with such habitats. With regard to vascular plants the sand-dunes are, due to
human pressure, considered the most threatened with as many as 26 in that The BioMar project (Coastal zone
category with three probably extinct, one endangered and six vulnerable. management: identification,
description and mapping of biotypes)
Habitats of international importance include the west coast maërl beds (see
was carried out in the 1992-1996
Box 6) and limestone pavements with the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus.
Only one marine locality, Lough Hyne, has been designated as a National period, by the then National Parks
Nature Reserve. and Wildlife Service (now Dúchas)
and Trinity College Dublin with
Surveys carried out in the littoral and sublittoral of Northern Ireland have
three European partners, as part of an
provided a useful database for establishing the range and importance of
the various habitats. With regard to the data available for the island as a EU Life Programme. Included in the
whole, however, it is difficult to establish the importance of the habitats. project work was an extensive survey
of benthic marine habitats and their
(Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988; Wilson and Lawler, 1996)
communities (biotypes) in the
intertidal and shallow subtidal areas
wetland, grazed by sheep and cattle and • To comment on current of the Irish coast (Marine Institute,
is an important habitat for three Red management practices at each site 1999). The development of an
Data Book bird species: corncrake, and prescribe future management. inshore marine biotype classification
dunlin and red-necked phalarope. system led to the criteria for selection
Sand dunes and machair are highly of marine SACs.
Machair is a priority habitat under vulnerable to development for golf
the Habitats Directive and is found courses, caravan parks, football Box 6 Maërl Communities
only on the west coast between pitches, beach houses, agricultural
Galway Bay and Malin Head. In intensification, and sand quarrying. These deposits of calcareous red
1996 a survey was undertaken of Few pristine examples of sand dunes algae (maërl) form a rare habitat
machair sites with the following and machair currently exist, because with a rich associated fauna.
Seven free-living maërl species
objectives (Crawford et al., 1998a; so many have been degraded. A
(Phymatolithon calcareum,
Crawford et al., 1998b): number of important sites is currently Lithothamnion coralliodes,
under threat. Since 1997, the best Lithothamnion glaciale,
• To assess these sites according to examples have been listed as Lithophyllum hibernicum,
their potential suitability for candidate SACs. Four sand dune Mesophyllum lichenoides,
selection as SACs; systems are protected in Nature Lithophyllum dentatum and
• To make an inventory of Annex I Reserves, covering 1,352 hectares Lithophyllum fasciculatum) are
habitats and Annex II plant (Department of Arts, Heritage known to occur in Irish marine
waters with some species
species recorded at each site; Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).
forming deep deposits (maërl
• To make an inventory of the beds) that are harvested for
vegetation types occurring at each site; A brief account of Ireland’s coastal agricultural and horticultural use.
• To describe the main habitats and the measures for
geomorphological characteristics protecting them has been outlined The faunal richness of maërl beds
of each site; recently (Marine Institute, 1999). has recently been assessed, by
Aquatic Services Unit from NUI
Galway, as part of a wider
project studying their
distribution and extraction
potential. More than 70 per cent
of the species recorded were
crustaceans; of which over 85
species have been identified,
illustrating the taxonomic
richness of this biotype. Some
rarely recorded isopods, such as
Munna cf petiti which is only
known with certainty from three
locations in the Mediterranean
and Cymodoce spp., were
identified among the Crustacea.
(Source: Marine Institute, 1999)
P A G E 9A R E V I E W O F H A B I T A T S & S P E C I E S
others, according to Coastwatch
Europe (Dubsky et al., 1998). These
and other impacts will be discussed
later.
Recently a report outlining a
framework for an action plan, on
marine biodiversity in Ireland, has
been published (Costello, 2000). The
report found that despite the
economic benefits arising from and
legal obligations to protect marine
biodiversity, its management is still
compromised by insufficient
information on what is there, how it
changes in time, and why it changes
in space and time. It concludes that
there is an urgent need to improve
understanding and develop theory on
marine biodiversity to support
management and conservation of
marine biological resources and makes
Shingle beaches (including the strand study. It appears, from the study, that recommendations on issues of policy,
line) are rare, and are significant aquatic flora and fauna is rich management, monitoring and research.
invertebrate habitats. Characteristic compared with other regions of
plant species of vegetated sites include western Europe (Healy and Oliver, SPECIES
couch (Elymus spp.), spear-leaved 1998). Among the biota, charophytes
orache (Atriplex prostrata), sea (Stoneworts) and insects in particular A prerequisite to any conservation
Mayweed (Tripleurospermum were well represented. Overall 53 policy or strategy is to establish the
maritimum), curled dock (Rumex species of plants, 220 species of number of species occurring and
crispus), sea milkwort (Glaux aquatic fauna (invertebrates and fish) thence find out their status. While
maritima) and sea beet (Beta and 209 Carabidae and Staphylinidae the number of species for all groups
vulgaris). Red Data Book plant (Coleoptera) were recorded from in Ireland has not been established
species include the sea pea (Lathyrus lagoon shores. Charophytes were the known figures or estimates have
japonicus) and oysterplant (Mertensia present at 11 of the sites intensively been computed for some and these
maritma); another species, the purple sampled for aquatic vegetation and are listed in Table 3. Unlike habitats
spurge (Euphorbia peplis) is now Chara baltica (Baltic stonewort) a new no Irish species have been given
extinct in Ireland. Sandy beaches can Irish record, was found to be common priority designation under the
be important feeding areas for waders at one of these, Lough Aconeera in Habitats Directive (See Appendix 1).
because of the productive invertebrate Co. Galway while two other Red Data Flora (Plants)
populations. Tern species nest and Book species Lamprothamnium
roost on shingle beaches (e.g. little papulosum (Foxtail stonewort) and The flora of Europe contains some
tern) while common seals and grey Chara canescens (Bearded stonewort) 11,000 species of vascular plants of
seals haul up on remote sandy beaches were found at new locations (Hatch which 1,500 are deemed threatened
in southern and western areas. The and Healy, 1998). throughout their range across the
main threat to this habitat is the continent (Curtis and McGough,
widespread and often illegal removal As well as erosion, threats to the 1988). The isolation of Ireland from
of shingle and sand for building quality of Ireland’s coastal zone Britain and mainland Europe,
(Department of the Arts, Heritage, include litter, sewage, builder’s rubble following the retreat of the ice after
Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). and plastic fishing gear, among the last glaciation, has resulted in a
Coastal lagoons are also identified as Table 3 Estimated or known number of species of insects, vertebrates and vascular plants
in Ireland (from Webb et al., 1996; Ashe et al., 1998; Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).
priority habitats in the Habitats
Directive and a survey was carried out Insects Amphibians Reptiles Freshwater Birds Mammals Vascular
in 1996 of the 56 sites in the national fish plants
inventory. The sites are mainly ~16,000 3 2* 27 140-168** 31(42)*** 1341
situated on the south and west coasts,
*Including slow-worm
from Wexford to Donegal, and 20 of **Represents resident, passage migrant, summer visitor and winter visitor species which occur regularly
these were selected for more intensive ***Including regularly occurring marine species (See text for other groups)
P A G E 1 0B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D
reduced flora: some 1,000 species of Administration and Ministerial are deemed worthy of legal protection
flowering plants and ferns are native Functions) Order, 1994 (S.I. No. within the Republic of Ireland:
to Ireland compared with about 443 of 1994), particular plants can
1,500 species in Britain (Scannell be protected under a Flora Alchemilla alpina L. (Alpine Lady’s-mantle)
and Synnott, 1987). The total Protection Order the most recent Asplenium onopteris L. (Irish spleenwort)
vascular flora, including well being the Flora (Protection) Order, Crambe maritima L. (Sea-kale)
established introductions, according 1999 (S.I. No. 94 of 1999) which Lepidium latifolium L. (Dittander)
Rumex pulcher L. (Fiddle Dock)
to a count made by Curtis and revoked the Flora (Protection)
Salvia verbenaca L. (Wild Clary)
McGough (1988) is 1,309. In the Order, 1987 (S.I. No. 274 of 1987). Euphorbia amygdaloides L. (Wood Spurge)
latest edition of An Irish Flora there Under such an Order it becomes an Geranium purpureum Villars (Little Robin)
are 1,341 vascular plant species and offence to cut, uproot or damage Sedum dasyphyllum L. (Thick-leaved
hybrids covered (Webb et al., 1996). these plants unless licensed to do so Stonecrop)
In reviewing the species diversity in by the Minister for Arts, Heritage, Orobanche rapum-genistae Thuill. (Greater
the Irish flora, Neff (1996) Gaeltacht and the Islands. The same Broomrape)
concluded that one overriding fact Order protects the habitats of these Ranunculus parviflorus L. (Small-flowered
was apparent: plants, 68 of which are vascular (See Buttercup)
Alchemilla glaucescens Wallr. (Glaucous
That the number of taxa in Ireland Table 4a).
Lady’s-mantle)
for any given group of plants is low in
comparison to our neighbours, but in The omission of certain species from The Atlas of the British Flora, has, since
some groups it is clearly rich, e.g. the list of plants in the Order has led its publication in the early 1960s
bryophytes and stoneworts. to criticism from some quarters. For (Perring and Walters, 1962) remained
Under the Wildlife Act, 1976 example, O’Mahony (2000) has the general standard work on the
(Section 21) and, more recently, the listed, with reasons, the following distribution of vascular plants in Britain
Heritage (Transfer of Departmental dozen species which, in his opinion, and Ireland. Since that time the
Table 4a Vascular plant species, including ferns, listed in the Flora Protection Order (1999)
Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Common Name
Acinos arvensis Basil Thyme Logfia minima (Filago minima) Slender Cudweed
Allium schoenoprasum Chives Lotus subbiflorus (L. hispidus) Hairy Birdsfoot Trefoil
Alopecurus aequalis Orange Foxtail Lycopodiella inundata
Arenaria ciliata Fringed Sandwort (Lycopodium inundatum) Marsh Clubmoss
Arthrocnemum perenne Mentha pulegium Penny Royal
(Salicornia perennis) Perennial Glasswort Mertensia maritima Oyster Plant
Asparagus officinalis Wild Asparagus Minuartia recurva Recurved Sandwort
Asplenium obovatum subsp. Misopates orontium Lesser Snapdragon
lanceolatum (A. billotii) Lanceolate Spleenwort Najas flexilis Slender Naiad
Asplenium septentrionale Forked Spleenwort Omalotheca sylvatica
Astragalus danicus Purple Milk Vetch (Gnaphalium sylvaticum) Wood Cudweed
Calamagrostis epigejos Wood Small-reed Otanthus maritimus
Callitriche truncata Short-leaved Water-Starwort (Diotis maritima) Cottonweed
Cardamine impatiens Narrow-leaved Bitter Cress Papaver hybridum Round Prickly-headed Poppy
Cardaminopsis petraea Northern Rockcress Pilularia globulifera Pillwort
Carex depauperata Starved Wood Sedge Polygonum viviparum Alpine Bistort
Carex divisa Divided Sedge Pseudorchis albida
Centaurium pulchellum Lesser Centaury (Leucorchis albida) Small-white Orchid
Cephalanthera longifolia Narrow-leaved Helleborine Puccinellia fasciculata Tufted Salt-marsh Grass
Colchicum autumnale Autumn Crocus Pyrola rotundifolia ssp. maritima Round-leaved Wintergreen
Cryptogramma crispa Parsley Fern Sanguisorba officinalis Great Burnet
Deschampsia setacea Bog Hair Grass Saxifraga granulata Meadow Saxifrage
Epilobium alsinifolium Chickweed Willow Herb Saxifraga hartii Hart’s Saxifrage
Equisetum X moorei Moore’s Horsetail Saxifraga hirculus Yellow Marsh Saxifrage
Eriophorum gracile Slender Cotton Grass Saxifraga nivalis Alpine Saxifrage
Galeopsis angustifolia Red Hemp Nettle Scirpus triqueter
Groenlandia densa (Schoenoplectus triqueter) Triangular Club Rush
(Potamogeton densus) Opposite-leaved Pondweed Scleranthus annuus Annual Knawel
Gymnocarpium robertianum Simethis planifolia Kerry Lily
(Thelypteris robertiana) Limestone Fern Spiranthes romanzoffiana Drooping Lady’s Tresses*
Hammarbya paludosa Stachys officinalis
(Maxalis paludosa) Bog Orchid (Betonica officinalis) Betony
Helianthemum nummularium Common Rockrose Trichomanes speciosum Killarney Fern
Hordeum secalinum Meadow Barley Trifolium glomeratum Clustered Clover
Hydrilla verticillata Irish Hydrilla Trifolium subterraneum Subterranean Clover
Hypericum canadense Canadian St. John’s Wort Trollius europaeus Globe Flower
Hypericum hirsutum Hairy St. John’s Wort Vicia orobus Bitter Vetch
Inula salicina Irish Fleabane Viola hirta Hairy Violet
Lathyrus japonicus Sea Pea Viola lactea Pale Heath Violet
Limosella aquatica Mudwort
*This orchid, also known as Irish Lady’s Tresses, is said to have been first introduced into the British Isles, from the eastern seaboard of
Northern America, by the Greenland White-fronted goose (Heslop-Harrison, 1953).
P A G E 1 1A R E V I E W O F H A B I T A T S & S P E C I E S
Table 4b Non-Vascular plant species listed in the Flora Protection Order (1999)
Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Common Name
Mosses Pottia wilsonii - Petalophyllum ralfsii -
Bryum calophyllum - Tetraplodon angustatus - Plagiochila atlantica -
Bryum marratii - Tortella inclinata -
Catoscopium nigritum - Weissia longifolia - Lichens
Drepanocladus vernicosus - Weissia rostellata - Fulgensia fulgens -
Leptobarbula berica -
Liverworts -
Orthrotrichum pallens - Stoneworts
Leiocolea gillmanii -
Orthrotrichum sprucei - Lamprothamnium papulosum
(Lophozia gillmanii) -
Orthrotrichum stramineum - Foxtail Stonewort
Leiocolea rutheana Fen Flapwort
Paludella squarrosa - Nitella gracilis Slender Stonewort
(Lophozia rutheana) -
distribution of many species has plants. The only bryophytes listed in understood.9 Dr Neil Lockhart of
altered as a result of changes in the Irish Habitats Regulations are Dúchas discovered a relict moss
agricultural practice (particularly Leucobryum glaucum and Sphagnum species (Paludella squarrasa), new to
intensification of farming) and species (peat mosses). Although some Ireland in 1998 (Anon., 1999b). Two
land-use (e.g. afforestation and building parts of the country have been well days of fieldwork in Fermanagh,
development) while many alien species, studied, such as Killarney and Ben after a meeting of the European
previously unknown, have become Bulben, the full Irish bryological flora Committee for the Conservation of
widespread in the countryside. distribution is imperfectly Bryophytes (ECCB) in Belfast,
yielded a long list of species for the
A new initiative, to update that county, three of which, all mosses,
work, the Atlas 2000 project, was were new to Ireland (Hodgetts and
launched in April 1996. The Hallingbäck, 1994). In a study of the
objective of the exercise, which is bryophytes of Foynes Island and the
organised by the Botanical Society of adjacent Co. Limerick mainland, 76
the British Isles (BSBI) with Irish moss and 18 liverwort species were
funding coming from Dúchas recorded (Wiltshire, 1995). The
(Republic of Ireland) and the number of species recorded for
Environment and Heritage Service Ireland is 533 mosses and 226
(Northern Ireland), is to map the liverworts which represents
known distribution of all vascular respectively six per cent and three per
plants in the British Isles for the cent of the known bryophytes world-
millennium. The scheme ran for the wide (Department of Arts, Heritage,
four-year period to autumn 1999 Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).
during which the fieldwork for the
project was undertaken. Data on all Under the Flora (Protection) Order,
4129 taxa, included in the scheme, 1999, 14 mosses, four liverworts,
have been used to produce including Petalophyllum ralfsii, two
biodiversity maps. The Atlas is due to stoneworts and one lichen are
be published later in 2001 and protected (Table 4b).
should serve as an accurate update on
the status of the Irish vascular flora.
Ferns and their allies, the
Pteridophytes, are the most primitive
of the higher plants. Although they
possess vascular systems and produce
roots they do not produce flowers Pre 1970
Post 1970
and fruit: they are spore-producing
Based on presence
vascular plants. The clubmosses in 10 km squares
(Lycopodium spp.) are listed in the
Killarney fern (Trichomanes speciosum)
Irish Habitats Regulations. This beautiful small fern occurs in dark, sheltered
Fungi (e.g. mushrooms, moulds, rusts
places with a humid atmosphere such as near and yeasts) are simply-organized plants
waterfalls. In Britain it is extremely rare and just
Ireland, because of its moist climate, one site in England remains. Collecting, chiefly in
lacking green colouring matter
has a flora rich in mosses and the 19th century, has been responsible for its (chlorophyll) and thence unable to
decline in some areas such as in south-west Ireland.
liverworts. These bryophytes do not Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988;
photosynthesise. They, as
possess vascular systems nor roots and Merryweather and Hill, 1992 heterotrophs, need organic material to
are classed among the so-called lower Fig 4 Distribution of Killarney Fern grow and are normally found on
P A G E 1 2B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D
Arran Islands, for more than a quarter
Box 7 Lower Plants of a century, has yielded 424 species
Petalwort (Petalophyllum ralfsii) is a small thallose (i.e. leafless plant) 17 of which have their only Irish
liverwort found in coastal dune slacks and machairs. It is listed in Appendix I stations within that region (McCarthy,
of the Bern Convention and in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It occurs 1987). A total of 1,050 taxa has been
in scattered localities along the western seaboard, from Kerry to Donegal, as
recorded of which 34 are believed to
well as some dune sites in Dublin. Its sites were re-surveyed in 1997-98 when
at least four of its 13 former stations have been lost: two to agricultural be threatened European species
intensification, one to golf course development and the only known inland (Seaward, 1994; Department of Arts,
site to competition from vascular plants in a disused quarry. Many of the Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands,
older records, including a small population in Kerry not seen since 1890, 1999). Ireland has 30 per cent of the
were re-found during the survey. Nine new localities were also discovered total number of European taxa which,
and it now appears that its most important sites in Ireland are the machairs
of Galway and Mayo; these machairs support what are believed to be the
compared with other flora groups, is a
largest populations of this species in the world. All 18 populations in the relatively high proportion and is
Republic are within proposed NHAs. probably attributable to the reasonably
(Source: Neil Lockhart, pers. comm.) good air quality. The only lichen listed
in the Irish Habitats Regulations is the
Stoneworts: The stoneworts are a separate class, Characeae, of the green
algae (Chlorophyta) of which a total of 33 species have been recorded for ‘reindeer moss’ (Cladonia subgenus
Britain and Ireland. Many stonewort species prefer calcium-rich but nutrient- Cladina) while Fulgensia fulgens is the
poor situations and parts of the Grand and Royal canals provide such only one on the Flora (Protection)
conditions; the Curragh Aquifer provides highly calcareous water for the Order (Table 4b).
former while Lough Owel does the same for the latter. Canal maintenance
and heavy boat traffic in the canals can be threats to these plants. Stoneworts
are deemed to be so important and vulnerable that they are the subject of a
Although not all algae are aquatic,
Red Data Book for Britain and Ireland. Ten species are listed as being they are a diverse group found
endangered in Ireland and one, Tolypella prolifera, has already become extinct largely in freshwater and marine
during this century. The contraction of the Characeae flora was a feature of habitats. Some are unicellular but
the eutrophication effects of Lough Sheelin. Recent surveys of lagoons and many, such as seaweeds and pond
coastal lakes have identified one species new to Ireland and rediscovered
weeds, are multicellular plants. To
another, Chara muscosa, which was
believed to have become extinct. date a total of 524 species of macro-
Foxtail stonewort (Lamprothamnium papulosum) algae and 181 species of
(Sources: Stewart and Church, 1992; Champ,
1998; Roden, 2000) phytoplankton has been recorded
from the Irish marine environment
Foxtail stonewort (Lamprothamnium
papulosum): This stonewort grows in (Department of Arts, Heritage,
brackish lagoons with salinities in the Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).
range 1-3 per cent. It is protected Algae can cause problems in both
under the Flora Order (1999). Having freshwater and seawater. The group
recently been recorded from two new formerly known as blue-green algae
sites, both high salinity lagoons, it is
now known from five locations. Its
are now classed among the bacteria
saline lagoon habitat is threatened, (Cyanobacteria). Seaweeds have long
inter alia, by land reclamation, water been used to aid soil fertility,
pollution and changes in salinity; the particularly along the western
latter occurs at one of its sites, Lady's seaboard, and are collected also for
Island Lake in Co. Wexford, from the
use as food and medicine. A mapping
regular cutting of the sand bar which
separates the lake from the sea. Based on presence
and assessment survey of the
in 10 km squares exploited seaweed resources
(Sources: Stewart and Church, 1992; Hatch and
Healy, 1998) (Ascophyllum nodosum and Laminaria
spp.) along the west coast has been
decaying matter. As a group the fungi 1985; Ing and McHugh, 1988). undertaken and their sustainable
are apparently a neglected area for Because of their simple structure and
study in Ireland and while some 3,500 their importance in brewing, baking,
species have been recorded it is as antibiotics as well as plant and
believed that the true figure is closer to animal diseases some fungi have
7,800; the latter estimate would give become ‘honorary microbes’ to the
Ireland about 0.5 per cent of the microbiologist (Postgate, 1992).
world’s fungal flora (Department of Others live in association with special
Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the algae forming lichens.
Islands, 1999). What is known of Irish
fungal diversity is largely due to work Several rare European lichens are
undertaken, in the 1980s, to catalogue found in Ireland. Research carried out
the species (e.g. Muskett and Malone, on the lichen flora of the Burren and
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