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Career-related learning in primary The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future Dr Elnaz Kashefpakdel, Jordan Rehill (Education and Employers) and Dr Deirdre Hughes OBE (DMH Associates) january 2019
2 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future Acknowledgements i Acknowledgements Education and Employers would like to thank the teachers, schools and career development experts involved in this research for their contributions and valuable insights. A full list of schools and participants is outlined in the appendix. We would also like to express our sincere gratitude to Professor Louise Archer and Dr Julie Moote (ASPIRES, UCL Institute of Education) for their insights and support in completing this research. We would like to thank Max Haskins (Project Assistant) for his dedication and hard work on this report. This report was generously sponsored by the AKO Foundation.
Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 3
1 Contents
Contents 3 4.3 What are the barriers and challenges in
implementing career-related learning in
i Acknowledgements 2
Primary Schools? 52
ii Executive Summary 4
4.4 What is the teacher and school leader
training need and demand for career-
1 Introduction 11 related learning support? 53
1.1 Rationale for career-related
learning in Primary Schools 11 5 What do expert witnesses tell us? 57
1.2 Policy context 12 5.1 Teachers roles and responsibilities 57
1.3 Structure of report 12 5.2 Characteristics of a good/interesting
provision 58
2 Methodology 15 5.3 Possible outcomes of career-related
2.1 Literature review 15 learning in Primary Schools 59
2.2 Qualitative online survey of 5.4 Expected positive impacts on children 60
Primary Schools 15 5.5 Evaluation to evidence impact 61
2.3 Case studies 17 5.6 Frameworks, standards and
2.4 Expert panel discussion 18 accreditation 62
2.5 Limitations 18 5.7 Teacher training and support need 64
3 Literature review 21 6 Conclusion 67
3.1 Defining career-related learning 21 6.1 Recommendations 68
3.2 Why is career-related learning
in Primary Schools important? 22
7 Bibliography 70
3.3 Types of career-related learning 24
3.4 What are the desired outcomes 8 Appendix 75
of career-related learning? 25
8.1 Keyword search terms used
3.5 Primary Schools’ approach to in literature search strategy 75
career-related learning 31
8.2 Case study interview questions 75
4 Unwrapping career-related learning 8.3 Expert panel discussion attendee list 76
in Primary Schools: Case studies of 8.4 Expert panel discussion questions 77
17 schools across England 43
4.1 What is the taxonomy of teacher roles
within a Primary School in the context of 9 Annex 78
career-related learning? 43 9.1 Annex 1: Theory of change model 78
4.2 What does good/interesting provision
look like? 46
4 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 5
ii E
xecutive
summary Introduction and rationale Research questions
In May 2018 Teach First commissioned Question 1 What is the taxonomy of
Education and Employers Research, teacher roles within a primary context
London to undertake research into with regards to career-related learning?
career-related learning in primary
schools. The main purpose was to scope Question 2 What does success look
Teach First’s future work on potential like for a programme of career-related
programmes in primary schools. This activities in the primary school setting?
would complement existing arrangements
already in place for the CELP in post- Question 3 What does good/
primary schools1. The findings within interesting careers provision look
this report demonstrate the important like in a primary school setting?
role that senior leaders and teachers
can play in embedding career-related Methodology
learning (CRL) in primary schools. This involved an international literature
The Government’s 2017 Careers review, including contributions from
Strategy in England (DfE,2017) indicated 12 OECD countries, a qualitative online
“Many primary schools are already survey of primary schools (n=51),
thinking about how best to introduce complemented by in-depth case studies
young children to ideas about the of good/interesting policies and practices
work they might do in future […]But (n= 17) and an expert panel discussion
there is no consistent approach across (n=26) held in London in August 2018.
primary schools and limited evidence
and best practice for schools to use Main findings
when planning their activities. We want Children growing up in the 21st century
to learn more about what works so that will be seeking careers in an environment
children can develop positive attitudes characterised by change, chance and
about work from an early age and make uncertainty (World Economic Forum, 2018).
sure that primary schools have access to Findings from the literature review indicate
the tools they need to understand how childhood experiences are foundational in
they can start to build activities with the construction of identity; observations
employers into their lessons” (p.15). of attitudes towards work within families,
Holding biased assumptions and cultural stereotypes, and influence of the
having narrow aspirations can, and does, media may influence children’s meaning of
go on to influence the academic effort work and in turn their occupational identities.
children exert in certain lessons (Flouri The term ‘career-related learning’
and Pangouria, 2012; Bandura et al., 2001; (CRL) comprises of early childhood
Gutman and Akerman. 2008), the subjects activities in primary schools designed to
they choose to study (Kelly, 1989; Archer give children from an early age a wide
and Dewitt, 2017), and the jobs they end up range of experiences of and exposure to
pursuing (Akerlof and Kranton, 2000; Breen education, transitions and the world of
and Garcia-Penalosa, 2002). Research has work. This is part of a lifelong learning
shown that early interventions can bring a and career development process.
lasting impact on children’s development
and perceptions of different occupations
and of the subjects thus enabling 1 https://www.teachfirst.org.uk/schools/secondary/access/
access to them (Howard et al. 2015). careers_and_employability_leadership_programme
6 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
Types of career-related learning in staff (classroom teacher) supplemented by
primary education are considered employers and external organisations. The
within three main areas identified as: report argues that all teachers at differing
levels can and do perform some of these
n Much of the work related to primary roles. It is therefore important that these
education is focused around roles are given attention within initial
educational outcomes for young teacher education and early professional
people—whether delivered through the development. In primary schools where the
provision of supplementary resource in concept of career-related learning can be
the classroom (literacy and numeracy fluid and open to interpretation, the ability
programmes) or as a complementary of a local senior leader(s) to prioritise and
mechanism to change pupil attitudes effectively communicate career-related
about the value of education. learning activity to others is crucial.
n Provision is designed to enhance Recommendation No 1 The taxonomy
children’s understanding of jobs and of career-related learning roles should
careers—for example, by challenging be tried and tested in practice by an
gender stereotyping or illustrating organisation such as Teach First, as part
the uses of science in different jobs. of an evolving CELP for primary schools in
England and Wales. This can also be used
n In considering enterprise education, by primary schools as a major catalyst for
engagement can be seen to offer means change linked to the ‘Theory of Change’
to secure additional learning outcomes model outlined in Annex 1 alongside more
to the usual diet of provision—providing detailed evidence-based findings.
pupils with the opportunity to explore
and practice knowledge and skills What does success look like
(such as problem-solving and team for a programme of career-
working) demanded by the modern related activities in the
labour market.’ (Mann et al. 2018. p.26) primary school setting?
Primary schools were asked in both the
What is the taxonomy of online survey and case studies about the
teacher roles within a primary barriers or challenges they have experienced
school in the context of preventing them from offering more
career-related learning? career-related learning activities in their
While it is useful to divide career-related school. These include: (i) the lack of support
learning roles within primary schools, it is and time available to develop formal links
worth noting that the distribution of these with businesses and employers; (ii) not
roles is dependent on the size of the school having a co-ordinator or someone to drive
and the capacity of senior leadership team. CRL activities; (iii) the cost implications of
A proposed taxonomy of career-related organising events; (iv) finding flexibility
learning roles2 in primary includes: the senior in an already crowded curriculum; (v)
leader team (a senior leader and/or career keeping up to date with latest and future
related learning co-ordinator) and curriculum developments in the wider world of work;
and (vi) limited professional development
opportunities to gain more in-depth
2 The application of the taxonomy depends on the size of the
school and resources available, particularly in smaller schools understanding of career-related learning
where staff capacity is reduced roles often merge. (CRL) theories, research and practice.
Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 7
Different countries and even different Recommendation No 2 Strong leadership
states within countries resource and is necessary to support teachers
organise CRL in various ways. One issue integrating CRL within and outside of the
is clearly how easily or otherwise CRL can classroom. The senior leadership team
be accommodated within the education should make the relationship between
system. A wide range of CRL programmes, CRL and the aims and ethos of the school
activities, quality assurance, evaluation of explicit, thereby ensuring buy-in from
impact and approaches to accreditation staff and other key stakeholders.
are outlined in sections 3 and 4 of this
report. Successful career-related learning Recommendation No 3 In order to
is not possible without some input from achieve a stronger role for teachers in this
employers, employees and businesses regard, there is a need to professionalise
outside of school (QCDA, 2010; CBI, 2014). It the area. This should include stronger
makes a very significant difference that the acknowledgement of CRL in initial teacher
human resource in question is someone education (ITE), the development of a
bringing real life, authentic experience range of levels of CPD, and a rise in the
of the workplace (Stanley et al., 2014). status of CRL and associated leadership
Location matters, for example, more within primary schools. An organisation
rural or isolated schools noted that finding such as Teach First has the opportunity
employers and volunteers from the local to lead by example. The organisation’s
community was problematic. Technology- focus offers it a number of opportunities
based learning activities can also support the to lead new CRL activity (complementary
child as a unique individual and encourage to the existing post-primary careers and
exploration, experimentation, risk taking, employability leadership programme)
critical thinking, decision making, and problem through its CPD offer and with its alumni
solving (Crause et al, 2017). There is a need to who have left the education system but
balance employer and volunteer engagement who are keen to remain connected with it.
alongside demand for teacher training and/or
continuous professional development (CPD) Recommendation No 4 Primary schools
opportunities. Career guidance professionals should aim to develop an approach to
have an important role to play and effective CRL that articulates how all year groups
inter-professional working is essential. progressively engage in a wide range
The desired outcomes of career- of experiences of and exposure to
related learning are linked to at least education, transitions and the world of
seven outcomes, including (i) improved work including links with employers. Teach
educational outcomes; (ii) a broadening First is potentially well placed to further
and raising of pupil career aspirations; develop current practice and diagnosis
(iii) greater awareness of enterprise of need linked to shared and improved
and entrepreneurship; (iv) increased understanding of CRL inputs, processes,
confidence and self-efficacy; (v) improved outcomes and impact measures.
understanding of the link between
education, qualifications and careers
and decreased gender stereotyping;
(vi) improved social emotional skills and
behaviours; and (vii) improved attendance
and attainment. However, the evidence-base
for the latter is largely underdeveloped.
8 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
What does good/interesting centred on finding ways of embedding
careers provision look like career-related learning into an already
in a primary school setting? crowded curriculum. 57% of teachers
Many primary teachers engage their students responding to the online qualitative survey
in everyday learning that could be described identified ‘how to integrate career-related
as career-related learning (Education and learning in to the curriculum (including
Employers, 2018). At a local level, the most teaching materials)’ as a priority training
significant drivers of career-related learning need. This was followed by ‘understanding
in primary schools have been school and monitoring the impact of career-
leadership teams and teachers. Primary related learning’ (50%), and assistance
schools’ approach to career-related learning with ‘planning and/or organising careers
varies significantly. The findings show that events’ (50%). Interviewees also noted
a set of processes and methods that can that schools could be supported by being
be effective in achieving career-related provided with better signposting to key
learning (CRL) outcomes in the primary organisations that can broker connections
phase. These include: (i) portfolio learning; to employers. This could help teachers to
(ii) tests and questionnaires; (iii) enquiry better deliver a wide range of activities
learning (dialogic, project-based, problem- and to set up and maintain more regular
based); (iv) active learning; and (v) experiential formal links with such organisations.
learning. Other key factors include parental A number of interviewees highlighted
involvement, the connection with the world the importance of sharing best practice
of work, and principles of good practice, between schools locally or within clusters.
quality assurance and accreditation. The
Complete Careers’ Primary programme (UK- Recommendation No 5 New and differing
wide) accredits Primary Schools delivering forms of in-service training and CPD
outstanding career-related learning activities are necessary that can support senior
within a ‘Career Mark Primary Award’. leaders and teachers to develop their
Interviews with school staff also explored knowledge and skills in the provision
what would help them overcome some of the of CRL and the fast-changing world
challenges they faced, or continue to face, of work. Table 6 in the main report
when attempting to establish and/or deliver provides some concrete examples.
career-related activities in their school. A
number of senior leaders highlighted either Findings from this research can be used in
themselves or their curriculum teachers the first instance to support Teach First’s
needed some form of CPD which related initial teacher education and continuous
to current and future trends in the labour professional development programme.
market. Interviewees noted that they often Much of the report advocates greater
do not have the information or confidence support for teachers in the leadership,
to speak about vocational pathways, such planning, delivery and monitoring of CRL.
as apprenticeships, so they often avoided The content also has relevance to other
speaking about it. Given that the majority providers of initial teacher education and
of interviewees highlighted that any form of continuing professional development,
CRL had to be embedded in the curriculum, as well as to schools and educational
it is unsurprising that a number of teachers policy-makers. It may also be of interest
also expected some form of support with to researchers, academics and students in
teaching and learning resources, topic ideas the fields of career development, career
and lesson plans. There are challenges guidance, education and child development.
Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 9
10 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 11
1 Introduction
1.1 Rationale for career-related age and make sure that primary schools have
learning in primary schools access to the tools they need to understand
Career development is a maturation process how they can start to build activities with
that begins very early in life (McMahon employers into their lessons” (p.15).
& Watson, 2018). It refers to the ongoing In the primary phase there is a need
process of a person managing their life, to be cautious about the use of ‘career’ or
learning and work over their lifespan. It ‘careers’. This is a period largely of exploration
involves developing the skills and knowledge and children’s aspirations should, rightly,
that not only equip children for the next be tentative and imaginative. Yet there are
stage of their lives but also enable them to a range of attributes, skills and behaviours
plan and make informed decisions about that can be instilled in this stage of child’s
education, training and career choices. life that will leave them in the best possible
(McMahon, Patton & Tatham, 2002). position as they begin their transitions to
Children growing up in the 21st century secondary education and to future life. The
will be seeking careers in an environment focus should be on broadening horizons and
characterised by change, chance and giving children a wide range of experience of
uncertainty (World Economic Forum, 2018). the world – which includes the world of work.
In May 2018 Teach First commissioned In this report we use the term ‘career-
Education and Employers Research to related learning’ to encompass early
undertake research into career-related childhood activities in primary schools
learning in primary schools. The main designed to give children from an early
purpose was to inform Teach First’s future age a wide range of experiences of and
work on the design and development of a exposure to education, transitions and
new Careers and Employability Leadership the world of work. This is part of a lifelong
Programme (CELP) in primary schools. This learning and career development process.
would complement existing arrangements This term combines two desired outcomes:
already in place for CELP in post-primary
schools3. The charity is focused on ending n Developing knowledge about work.
educational inequality and has a strong interest Learn and explore a number of careers,
in reducing the numbers of unemployed learning pathways and sectors.
young people and increasing participation in n Developing skills for work and life.
higher education by young people from lower Specifically developing non-academic
socio-economic groups. The organisation skills such as enterprise skills and
is a provider of initial teacher education social-emotional skills and behaviours
and is also influential with the ambassadors that will benefit their own wellbeing
who have graduated from its programme. and the wellbeing of others.
The Government’s 2017 Careers Strategy in
England (DfE, 2017) indicated “Many primary It builds upon an earlier career-related
schools are already thinking about how best learning pilot initiative in England’s primary
to introduce young children to ideas about schools, commissioned by the Department
the work they might do in future…But there for Education (Barnes & McGowan, 2010)
is no consistent approach across primary and careers and work-related education
schools and limited evidence and best (CWRE) developed by the UK Career
practice for schools to use when planning Development Institute (CDI, 2012).
their activities. We want to learn more about
what works so that children can develop
3 https://www.teachfirst.org.uk/schools/secondary/access/
positive attitudes about work from an early careers_and_employability_leadership_programme12 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
1.2 Policy context 1.3 Structure of Report
Recent reports and speeches on social The report begins with a review of the
mobility have, until very recently, seldom international literature relating to career
mentioned primary schools. For example, development and career-related learning,
the UK Coalition Government’s Opening examining why this is important in primary
doors, breaking barriers: a strategy for schools, what good/interesting policies
social mobility (2011) and then more recent and practices look like and the role of
reports including those by the House of teachers and leaders in this context. The
Lords Select Committee (2016) and the review outlines what schools should aspire
Social Mobility Commission (2017) make to when providing career-related learning
little reference to the vital role that and sets out the existing, albeit limited,
primary schools play in raising aspiration, evidence on how developing staff roles
broadening horizons and connecting and responsibilities can help to improve
children’s learning to their future lives4. student outcomes. Submissions were
Career-related learning in primary has received from the following 12 countries: n Austria
often been recognised in government n Australia
recommendations and policies, but rarely Chapter two of the report presents data n Canada
formalised in the curriculum and often collected from 17 primary schools around n Denmark
focussed on Key Stage 2. For example, the UK. In carrying out interviews with n Finland
since the dissolving of the Department Headteachers, Middle leaders and Classroom n Germany
for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) teachers the report outlines teacher n Ireland
in 2010 there has been nearly a decade of attitudes towards career-related learning n Northern
policies and guidelines that have largely (including desired outcomes), the structure Ireland
neglected primary as a key phase in career of career-related learning (including the n The
and skill development, instead focussing taxonomy of roles as well as the activities and Netherlands
energies in secondary schools. The Careers programmes provided), and the challenges n South Africa
Strategy (2017) seeks to address this deficit and solutions associated with providing n Wales
with government making a commitment career-related learning in their schools. n USA
“to test what careers activities are Chapter three of the report summarises
appropriate and work well in primary the main contributions and discussion points
schools, providing £2 million to test new gathered from a panel of 25 key experts
programmes, or expand ones that work, and thought leaders interested in career-
including in challenging areas”5 (p.15). In related learning in primary. The findings not
2018, the OECD also recognised the need only echo and corroborate what was found
for schools to begin such work early on and in the literature and case studies, but they
the essential role of increased exposure also provide new insights and further details
to the world of work (OECD, 2018). as to the roles that should be recognised
This paper demonstrates the important in primary, as well as the frameworks and
role that teachers, senior leaders and benchmarks used to measure success.
other key actors play in designing, It is hoped that the conclusions and
delivering and evaluating career- recommendations from this paper will
related learning in primary schools. provide and encourage schools to further
engage in career-related learning, help define
4 https://www.tes.com/news/school-news/breaking-views/if- good policies and practices for schools,
were-serious-about-improving-social-mobility-issue-must-be and provide ideas for providers of initial
5 Department for Education. (2017). Careers strategy: Making the most teacher education (ITE) and continuous
of everyone’s skills and talents. London: Department for Education. professional development (CPD).Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 13
14 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 15
2 Methodology
This section outlines how the study of 2.2 Qualitative online survey
career-related learning in primary was of primary schools
designed and conducted to address key The survey aimed to explore the
research questions proposed by Teach First: barriers that primary schools have faced
when designing and implementing
Q1 What is the taxonomy of teacher career-related learning programmes
roles within a primary context with and activities, along with identifying
regards to career-related learning? interesting school policies and practices
from the sample. The online qualitative
Q2 What does success look like for survey was designed in collaboration
a programme of careers activities with the Teach First Team to define a
in the primary school setting? range of key measurements in order to
identify case studies of good/interesting
Q3 What does good/interesting policies and practices. Due to the
career-related provision look like research question(s) and purpose of the
in a primary school setting? report, as well as the time frame of the
study, this report adopts a qualitative
approach throughout. While the goal of
2.1 Literature Review quantitative approaches can be stated
The literature review search was as “empirical generalisation to many”,
conducted using Google Scholar and qualitative studies are designed for “in-
personal libraries to include both depth understanding.” Qualitative studies
academic and so-called ‘grey’ literature6 . of this type do not rely on large number
The team then assessed the relative of case studies they rather situate what
value of available literature to assess they find in robust academic literature.
whether individual pieces warranted From 5th June 2018 to 31st July
inclusion. Literature was also drawn 2018 the survey was distributed using
from extensive personal and university SurveyMonkey through the Education and
libraries within the research team, as well Employers’ network of primary schools
as a desktop review of literature from a in England, as well as Teach First partner
network of academic partnerships and organisations working in Primary Schools
key advisers. A modified search strategy (WEnetworks, Enabling Enterprise, Centre
was adopted based on methodology for Industry Education and Collaboration,
applied within an earlier International Into University). The survey was also
Review of Careers Education, conducted promoted on Education and Employers
by Hughes et al (2016)7 and more recently and Teach First twitter feeds.
Mann et al (2018)8 . Refer to Appendix 8.1
for key word search terms used in
the literature search strategy.
2.1.2 Exclusion criteria
Studies and other research papers were 6 T he term grey literature refers to research that is either
unpublished or has been published in non-commercial form.
excluded if they related to examples of
employability and/ or career-related 7 https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/
learning in secondary, further and/or public/files/Publications/Careers_review.pdf
higher education. Studies from outside of 8 https://www.educationandemployers.org/research/
OECD countries were also not included. employerengagementineducation/16 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
This provided 51 in-depth responses, As shown in chart 1 (below left), from 51
all of which were used to further respondents, the survey received a wide
inform more in-depth case studies geographic distribution of schools across
(see below). Survey questions were England, with the largest number of schools
themed around the taxonomy of teacher 15 (29%) from the North East region. 36 (71%)
roles, the successes of career-related of respondents reported that they belonged
learning and some theory-informed to a school having more than 200 pupils,
measurements of what provision looks with 20 (39%) of schools being an Academy
like in the primary setting. Seven of the and 26 (51%) being a Maintained school.
18 survey questions asked respondents Only 12 (26%) of the total schools surveyed
demographic questions regarding were part of or linked to a secondary
their school’s geographical location. school. The survey also revealed a wide
range of schools with varying percentages
Chart 1: of students receiving free school meals,
Regional distribution: online qualitative survey respondents with 15 (29%) having between 25-50% of
their students receiving free school meals
Yorks + Humber and 14 (27%) reporting that between 21-
West Midlands 35% of children were in receipt of free
South West school meals. This question was asked to
South East
give the research team a measurement of
Other (specified)
social deprivation within schools that were
North West
implementing career learning activities.
North East
Table 2 below summarises some background
London
information on the respondents.
East of England
East Midlands
The survey then asked ten closed-
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 ended and multiple-choice questions.
Table 2:
Background information: online qualitative survey respondents
ow many children attend
H What percentage of students What is your school type?
your primary school? at your school receive FSM?
(Free School Meals)
0-50 1 0-10% 12 Academy 20
51-100 2 11-20% 3 Independent 3
101-150 5 21-35% 14 Maintained 26
151-200 7 36-50% 15 Other 2
200+ 36 Don’t know 7Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 17
2.3 Case Studies A total of 17 case studies were
Between May 2018 and July 2018, the identified, including 1 example outside
research team invited teachers from around of England. The schools within the
the country to share their own experiences of selected case studies represent a
organising career-related learning activities Free School Meals (FSM) eligibility
in their primary school. Initially, the findings ranging from 2% - 50%. Only a third
from the qualitative online survey allowed of the total schools interviewed
us to collect data from schools who agreed were located within a major city.
to be contacted for follow-up telephone Most of the sampled schools were
interviews. We also worked closely with awarded ‘Good’ in their most recent Ofsted
Teach First, the ‘Primary Futures’ programme inspections and 83.3% of interviewees held
and other key partners such as the National a position of ‘Senior Leadership’. Five of the
Association of Head Teachers (NAHT) and schools surveyed were part of, or linked
Enabling Enterprise to identify case studies to, a secondary. Table 3 below represents
of good/interesting policies and practices. background information of the schools.
Table 3:
Background information: case study primary schools
Which region is Pupil No. School type Most recent Teacher role
your school in? FSM (%) pupils Ofsted rating
Bedfordshire 37% 487 Maintained, Good Assistant Head
Foundation Status
Lincolnshire 16% 153 Junior School, Good Headteacher
Standalone Academy
Greater London 25% 550 Maintained Good Middle Leader
Greater London 11% 282 Voluntary Aided Good Headteacher
Merseyside 27% 274 Maintained Good Assistant Head
Middlesbrough 24% 400 Maintained Good Key Stage Leader
Northamptonshire 50% 210 Multi Academy Trust Good Headteacher
Northamptonshire 21% 200 Multi Academy Trust Good Assistant Head
Nottinghamshire Pupil 1000 Multi Academy Trust Good Assistant Head
Premium
29%
Nottinghamshire (also n/a n/a Multi Academy Trust n/a Careers Lead
Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire,
Peterborough)
Suffolk 15% 350 Multi Academy Trust Good Subject Lead
Tyne and Wear 13% 424 Trust School Good Headteacher
West Midlands unknown 710 Academy Trust Outstanding Assistant Head
Yorkshire and Humber 48% 732 Academy Outstanding Assistant Head
Yorkshire and Humber 24% 467 Maintained Good Acting Headteacher
Yorkshire and Humber 47% 280 Maintained Requires Headteacher
Foundation Status Improvement
Yorkshire and Humber 43% 271 Maintained, SEN School Outstanding Middle Leader18 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
13 of the case studies were conducted They participated in an expert panel,
through telephone interviews and four facilitated by Dr Deirdre Hughes OBE,
were carried out face-to-face as agreed and included representatives from
with Teach First. The latter interviews policy formation, teaching unions,
took place at schools in Lincolnshire, employers and professional bodies, as
Suffolk and Nottinghamshire, as well as an well as academics and practitioners.
additional interview with a careers lead Nine open-ended questions for
for a multi academy trust in Nottingham. consideration were sent prior to the
Each of the interviewees was required expert panel discussion. Experts spent
to review and complete a consent form two hours discussing key set questions
prior to the visit. Audio recordings were and made invaluable contributions to the
made of the interviews with the consent research. The participants were asked
of the interviewees and in line with for their consent to agree to be quoted
research ethical codes of practice. in the final report, where appropriate.
The case study interviews lasted Appendices 8.3 and 8.4 respectively
between 30 to 50 minutes and began list the participants and questions.
with an initial seven questions regarding
the respective school’s demography. 2.5 Limitations
This was then followed by open-ended As mentioned previously, there
questions, which included many of the are limitations to the research
same questions and themes found design that must be acknowledged.
within the survey. This allowed teachers With the limited number of the
to expand upon their answers to the responses to the online qualitative
survey, provide any additional comments survey due mainly to the timing
or reflections on careers provision and as the end of the academic year
provided the research team with the approached, it was not possible to
opportunity to ask any relevant follow up get a significant representation of
questions. In addition to the online survey schools on career-related learning
questions, the schools were asked about provision in primary schools.
their views on the role of the respective However, the content-rich
local authorities in supporting careers qualitative data has helped to overcome
provision, targeting specific learner groups, this challenge. While the sample from
and using benchmarks and frameworks the survey is not fully representative,
in the primary context. The interview it does provide a useful insight into
questions can be found in Appendix 8.2. existing career-related learning in
primary schools and a step forward
2.4 Expert Panel Discussion in understanding what is being
Upon the completion of the case studies, implemented in differing regions.
the research team gathered 26 key As this research was undertaken
thought leaders from across England towards the end of the academic
i.e. those with a specific interest and year, identifying teachers available
field of expertise in career-related to be interviewed was somewhat of
learning in a primary school context. a challenge. Despite this, the overall
The rationale for this was to draw findings provide an interesting insight
upon their knowledge and expertise into a detailed and diverse range of
in order to validate interim findings activities and methods used in career
and to identify any obvious gaps. learning in the primary context.Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 19
20 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future ‘Career-related learning is not about asking eight-year olds what they want to do in the future - children must be allowed their childhood…It is work that builds on children’s growing awareness of themselves and the world of work, and weaves what they know into useful learning for now and later’ (Watts, 2002).
Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 21
3 Literature review
Career development and its impact on 3.1 Defining career-related learning
young people’s transitions to adulthood Many teachers in primary schools are well
has been well researched in post- aware of the importance of expanding
primary schooling at an international each child’s awareness of the work
level (Hughes et al, 2016). In comparison, that adults do and of challenging their
research that examines early childhood attitudes about gendered work roles.
career-related learning is relatively As a consequence, many primary school
under-researched (McMahon & Watson, teachers engage their young students
2017). Therefore, this literature review is in learning that could be described as
a timely study, particularly given some career-related learning. The term ‘career-
key recommendations in England’s related learning’ (CRL) is used as this
Careers Strategy which acknowledges the encompasses early childhood activities
importance of early years’ experiences in primary schools designed to give
(DfE, 2017). By collating and analysing children from an early age a wide range of
evidence from contemporary literature, experiences of and exposure to education,
an overview is presented of why primary transitions and the world of work. It
school experiences are so important in also builds upon earlier robust research
a child’s career development journey. findings (Wade et al, 2011). This is part of
Good and interesting practices are a lifelong career development process.
outlined identifying what career-related There are other words that feature in
learning activities’ primary schools are the academic literature such as: career
providing. There has also been interest at adaptability; career awareness; career
the policy level on the possible extrinsic construction; career dialogue; careers
benefits of planned career-related learning education; career exploration; career
activities on children’s attendance, learning, employability; entrepreneurship;
attainment and engagement in their occupational interests; work-related
own schooling, particularly for children learning, career development and so on. It
living in socially-disadvantaged areas. is recognised that there is no consistency
Finally, possible frameworks that in terminology as this is a multi-disciplinary
can be applied in practice are explored. subject spanning education, development
There are a small number of robust psychology, human resources,
quasi-experimental or experimental sociology and life-course approaches.
studies that use some kind of control Complimentary to this, the seminal work of
to measure the association between major child development theorists (Erikson,
primary schooling activities and certain 1985; Piaget, 1977), childhood career
outcomes; however, most evidence in this development theorists (Gottfredson, 2005;
sphere is based on qualitative evidence Savickas, 2013; Super, 1980, 1990), and
or small-scale evaluations. It should learning theorists (e.g., Kolb, 1984; Vygotsky,
be noted that the existing literature is 1978) undoubtedly make a significant
particularly weak on the comparative contribution to pedagogical approaches.
value of different career-related learning Childhood experiences are foundational
activities for different key stages. in the construction of identity;
More large-scale evaluations are observations of attitudes towards work
needed to draw out career-related within families, cultural stereotypes, and
learning activities and programmes influence of the media may influence
that have an observable, consistent children’s meaning of work and in turn
and replicable impact on children. their occupational identities (Skorikov22 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
& Vondracek, 2011). Although it may be background and the role models in their
tempting to think that children of this surroundings (Archer et al. 2014; Chambers
age are too young for career-related et al, 2018). Many children often do not
learning, Australian researchers, Patton know enough about the world of work to
& McMahon (1997) found that career have realistic ideas of what jobs exist, but
development is a concept understood they have absorbed enough to believe
by children from preschool. Given that there is ‘men’s work’ and ‘women’s work’.
children as young as five years can This has been evidenced in numerous
express occupational dreams (Phipps, recent studies, for example Chambers
1995), and that career preferences are et al (2018) asked children aged 7 to 11
formed early (Poole & Low, 1985), it seems years old to draw and describe what they
that valuable opportunities to influence wanted to be when they grew up. Their
the socialisation and career readiness free text descriptions were coded into one
of many children are being missed. of 69 possible occupations. The results
are illuminating, if slightly depressing.
‘By the age of seven it was clear that the
‘By making meaning of jobs chosen reflected standard gendered
ideas. In the UK, in Science, Technology,
their explorations and Engineering and Mathematics (STEM), four
times as many boys wanted to become
experiences of the world engineers as did girls. Twice as many boys
as girls saw science as their chosen future,
through self-reflection while girls were four times more likely than
boys to want to be vets, and more than
and social interaction, twice as likely to want to be doctors’ (p. 21).
Holding biased assumptions and
children construct having narrow aspirations can, and does,
foundational stories go on to influence the academic effort
children exert in certain lessons (Flouri
about who they are and and Pangouria, 2012; Bandura et al., 2001;
Gutman and Akerman. 2008), the subjects
who they are becoming’ they choose to study (Kelly, 1989; Archer
and Dewitt, 2017), and the jobs they end up
(Ahn, 2011). pursuing (Akerlof and Kranton, 2000; Breen
and Garcia-Penalosa, 2002). Research has
shown that early interventions can bring a
3.2 Why is career-related learning lasting impact on children’s development
in primary schools important? and perceptions of different occupations
Children actively explore their worlds and of the subjects thus enabling
and begin to construct possibilities for access to them (Howard et al. 2015).
present and future selves (Cahill, 2017). The prevailing historical view
These life stories include a sense of maintained that children’s ideas about
self (self-identity), life roles, skills, and careers are unrealistic and likely to
knowledge, and are shaped by everyday change and, therefore, not worth paying
events and experiences. They are also attention to (Gore et al. 2016). And yet, a
often shaped, moulded and restricted body of literature continues to grow which
by gender stereotyping, socio-economic demonstrates that children’s ideas aboutCareer-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 23
‘This is not just about jobs,
work, and careers, rather
careers are not only less ‘magical’ than
it is about life stories’
once thought, but also that the aspirations (Cahill, 2017).
young people hold are often quite similar
to those held in their teenage decision-
making years (Auger et al., 2005; Care et as intrinsically gendered. Stage three
al., 2007). Recent analysis and publications (age 9-13), she argues, is where children
also reiterate these notions. Research begin to see their social value based on
by Chambers et al (2018) and KidZania perceptions of social class and intelligence.
(2017) both reveal that the difference By those ages, it is believed, they will
between children’s career aspirations have abandoned the ‘fantasy’ careers
from early childhood to early adulthood associated with the very young and have
are marginal. Assumptions that children’s started to become more aware of potential
career ambitions may be transitory constraints on their occupational choice
may have dissuaded researchers from (Gottfredson, 2002). In a more recent study,
focusing on them in the past. Early career Care (2007) investigated young children’s
ideas of primary-age children can, and career development in the context of
should naturally be tentative and may be Gottfredson’s stage theory. In a small-
slightly imaginative. However, while these scale experiment, 84 children attending a
aspirations may not be entirely realistic, kindergarten/early learning centre for four-
they can be used to fruitfully investigate to five-year-old children exhibited gender
children’s perceptions of and ideas about stereotyping in their aspirations, with the
the world of work (Hutchings, 1993). clear majority nominating real occupational
As briefly discussed above, a number roles as opposed to fantasy ones. The
of developmental researchers (ibid) have pattern of boys’ and girls’ aspirations
identified childhood as important in a support Gottfredson’s proposals.
child’s career development, including These career development theorists
awareness and understanding of self, suggest that children should be encouraged
development of self-efficacy, knowledge to sense and sift occupational information
of world of work, and engagement in with a view of understanding it, which
both present and future problem-solving can provide a valuable foundation for a
and choice-making. By early childhood more extensive careers education later at
children have been shown to demonstrate secondary school. Nonetheless, in practice,
concern about the future, control over career-related learning as part of a career
their lives, curiosity about occupations and development journey in early childhood is
work as well as confidence to construct a often downplayed and under-researched,
future (Savickas 1991: 2002). Super (1996) even neglected. The value of providing
describes this period of a child’s life as the children with an opportunity to consider
‘growth stage’ with children moving from their futures and offer pedagogical support
what he terms ‘fantasy’ ideas about their to realise their ambitions is also well
future to genuine ‘interests’. According recognised by teachers. Recent surveys of
to Gottfredson (2002), of the four stages teachers have repeatedly demonstrated
of development she describes, stage two the demand, and the perceived benefit of,
‘orientation of sex roles’ occurs at the age career-related learning in primary schools.
of 6-8. At this age, she argues, children A 2017 survey in England of nearly 500
grasp the concept of a set of behaviours primary school teachers, carried out by
belonging to each sex and therefore YouGov on behalf of the charity Education
begin seeing jobs and future pathways and Employers, found that 90% of teachers24 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
in the sample thought that career-related 3.3 Types of career-related learning
learning, with the support of employers, It is by no means a straightforward process
can help challenge the stereotypes that to disentangle the unique contributions that
children have around the jobs that people different forms of career-related learning
do and the subjects they study by gender. can be expected to have on children in
In the same survey, researchers showed primary schools. It is therefore important
that teachers believe engagement with the to make sense of different activities
world of work can help children’s academic from the perspective of practitioners.
achievement and support them with the The aim of this section is to provide a
learning of non-academic skills. This is practical, comprehensive and evidence-
believed to occur through increased value based approach to career-related learning
of education and the relationship children activities and to move towards a typology
can draw between what they learn in that offers school staff a clear sense of
classroom and the future (Education and the purposes behind the different uses of
Employers, 2017). In 2018, similar findings career-related learning activities. The goal
were shown in an English survey published is to enable staff to identify rationales for
by Education and Employers with TES and selecting a range of activities to achieve
the National Association of Head Teachers learning outcomes. However, the gap in
(NAHT). From 250 primary schools who recent primary schools’ literature limits
responded to a set questionnaire, almost the extent to which practical advice
50% believed that learning about the world could be given. More empirical research
of work should start from age 5 and under is required, particularly in the form of
as they believe ideas and attitudes are action-research projects, longitudinal and
shaped very early and children perceive quasi-experimental/experimental studies.
the world through their family and friends In this research, in-depth interviews with
before they even enter school. The survey primary schools were implemented to
asked primary schools why they believe add context to what can be realistically
learning about jobs and careers is crucial learnt from the existing literature.
at this stage. The majority of respondents In a recent review of primary schools
acknowledged the role this can play on literature, Mann, Rehill and Kashefpakdel
broadening aspirations, bringing learning (2018) form a typological approach to
to life and increase motivation, enhancing understand and categorise career-
self-belief and self-efficacy and changing related learning in primary education.
attitudes about certain jobs or subjects Three areas are identified as:
(Education and Employers 2018).
Education systems that ‘require primary n Much of the work related to primary
schools to teach career education – such education is focused around
as British Columbia and Ontario (Canada), educational outcomes for young
the Czech Republic, Denmark, and, more people—whether delivered through the
recently, Croatia, Estonia, and Hungary provision of supplementary resource
– will probably recognise that legislation in the classroom (reading and number
by itself is not enough. Countries such partners) or as a complementary
as New Zealand, some American states mechanism to change pupil attitudes
(e.g., Missouri and Georgia), England and about the value of education.
Scotland that have voluntary guidelines and n Provision is designed to enhance
resources recognise that take-up is often children’s understanding of jobs and
patchy’ (Barnes & McGowan, 2017, p.173). careers—for example, by challengingCareer-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future 25
gender stereotyping or illustrating A review by Torgerson et al. (2002)
the uses of science in employment. looked at the results of seven U.S. and U.K.
n In considering enterprise education, experimental studies using such reading
engagement can be seen to offer means partners, including seven randomised
to secure additional learning outcomes controlled trials (RCTs). This provides an
to the usual diet of provision—providing overview of the types of programme
pupils with the opportunity to explore historically delivered and the challenges
and practice knowledge and skills of assessing impact. The review did not
(such as problem-solving and team specify whether reading partners were
working) demanded by the modern with workplace volunteers. It found results
labour market.’ (Mann et al., 2018, p.26) to be, when considered as a collective,
inconclusive, with all studies suffering
3.4 What are the desired outcomes from a low number of participants. Studies
of career-related learning? showed that in some circumstances reading
The positive outcomes of career-related partner schemes were positively associated
learning can be distinguished, as Mann with improved learning outcomes, others
et al. (2018) contend, between activities suggested that this was not the case. It is
aimed at improving the knowledge possible that the studies reflected variation
and skills of children taking part and in programme design and pupil selection
those designed to influence children’s as well as low participation numbers,
attitudes and aspirations. In this report, undermining statistical confidence.
it is suggested that certain activities More recent work by the Centre for
can also be categorised as developing Evidence and Social Innovation team
children’s social and emotional skills and at Queen’s University, Belfast has used
behaviours. These are vital in a child’s randomised control trials (RCTs) to assess
development and progression especially the value of similar programmes. Miller
as they face an often-daunting transition and Connolly (2013) assessed a large trial of
from primary to secondary schooling. some 512 children aged eight to nine-years-
old—identified as being below average
3.4.1 Improved education outcomes in reading ability and lacking confidence
Primary schools often provide career- in reading—263 of which were randomly
related learning opportunities by inviting assigned to participate in weekly one-
employer representatives into school. hour sessions with employee volunteers
Reading partner schemes have been over a school year. When compared to
familiar in the U.S., mainland Europe, and a control group using statistical testing,
the U.K. for many years. These schemes the researchers found the programme
are characterised by the use of largely to be ‘effective in improving a number
untrained volunteers brought into primary of reading outcomes for pupils’ with
schools to hear children read on a regular impact strongest in relation to decoding,
basis (Torgerson et al, 2002, pp. 434–436). reading rate, and reading fluency.
While, of course, programmes could be In a report by Morris (2014) results from
undertaken using parents or university a small survey of 28 schools who took part
students, employee volunteer schemes are in Number Partners shows 86% of teachers
very common and have been popular with reporting positive improved chances
schools for reasons of logistical simplicity of reaching their individual numeracy
with the ambition to influencing the career targets. Number Partners is a national
awareness and aspirations of children. employer volunteering scheme whereby26 Career-related learning in primary: The role of primary teachers and schools in preparing children for the future
volunteers go into primary schools to 2014). Some believe, enterprise education
help children with their maths. Following refers to formal teaching and learning
some initial training, Number Partner of specific content or outcomes, while
volunteers are assigned to a particular for others it is more informal and open-
school which they visit approximately once ended (Edwards and Muir, 2012; Hytti and
a week. When there, they play number O’Gorman, 2004). Young (2014) provides
games and undertake number-based a broad definition, suggesting enterprise
activities with pupils who are selected education is about children developing
to participate by their teachers, with the “a positive outlook, an ability to see the
aim of making maths fun, increasing the glass as half full rather than half empty.”
confidence of participating students and As discussed in Millard’s paper
improving their attainment in maths. on enterprise education in 2012,
Respondents identified positive effects enterprise education can develop:
associated with Number Partners on
the concentration, listening skills, verbal n Knowledge and understanding
expression, confidence, motivation and of key concepts about
aspirations of participating children, as well organisations, risk, and change;
as improvements in their understanding n Skills such as the ability to make
of the world of work and participation in informed decisions, manage risk,
the classroom. Comments from teachers and make presentations;
highlight the nature and significance of n Attitudes, including self-reliance, open-
the additional benefits that accrue from mindedness, and pragmatism, and;
pairing Number Partner volunteers with n Qualities, such as adaptability,
pupils, particularly in terms of children perseverance, determination, creativeness
developing confidence and self-esteem and flexibility. (Millard, 2017, p.22)
through interactions with a non-parental
and non-staff adult (Morris 2014). Millard (2017) argues that enterprise
Combining maths with career-related education can be approached in three ways
learning opens up a world of possibilities including: (i) teaching about enterprise
for children to grow and develop. which helps developing pupils’ knowledge
and understanding of issues such as how
3.4.2 Greater awareness of businesses work; (ii) teaching for enterprise
Enterprise and Entrepreneurship which increases engagement with and
The more familiar form of skills interest in enterprise; and (iii) teaching
development in British primary schools through enterprise which is a more active
relates to enterprise education. learning process that helps young people
Enterprise education is at one level about develop an enterprise skill set by giving
developing aspirations and creating them experience of the wider world.
ambition. At a second level, it is about Despite their popularity, robust quasi-
attitudinal change – developing a ‘can experimental or experimental studies
do’ attitude, being proactive and being looking at the impact of such provision
adaptable and flexible (Specialist Schools on children are sparse. One important
and Academies Trust, 2010). Enterprise exception is a 2012 Dutch study (Huber
education aims to provide the skills and et al., 2012) on the effect of taking part
tools that will help children succeed in a programme wherein 11-year-old
post-school, whatever they do (Lackéus, pupils ran their own enterprise over
2015; Enabling Enterprise, 2015; Young, five non-consecutive full days. Using anYou can also read
