Commuting in America 2021 - Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work
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Commuting in America 2021
The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work
About the AASHTO Census Transportation Planning Products Program
Established by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and
the U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT), the AASHTO Census Transportation Planning Products
Program (CTPP) compiles census data on demographic characteristics, home and work locations, and journey-
to-work travel flows to assist with a variety of state, regional, and local transportation policy and planning
efforts. CTPP also supports corridor and project studies, environmental analyses, and emergency operations
management, and many other efforts.
In 1990, 2000, 2006, 2013, and again in 2019, AASHTO partnered with all of the states on a project to sup-
port the development of special census products and data tabulations for transportation. These census transpor-
tation data packages have proved invaluable in understanding characteristics about where people live and work,
their journey-to-work commuting patterns, and the modes they use for getting to work. In 2012, the CTPP was
established as an ongoing technical service program of AASHTO.
CTPP provides a number of primary services:
• Special Data Tabulation from the U.S. Census Bureau—CTPP oversees the specification, purchase,
and delivery of this special tabulation designed by and for transportation planners.
• Outreach and Training—The CTPP team provides training on data and data issues in many formats,
from live briefings and presentations to hands-on, full-day courses. The team has also created a number
of electronic sources of training, from e-learning to recorded webinars to downloadable presentations.
• Technical Support—CTPP provides limited direct technical support for solving data issues; the pro-
gram also maintains a robust listserv where many issues are discussed, dissected, and resolved by the
CTPP community.
• Research—CTPP staff and board members routinely generate problem statements to solicit research on
data issues; additionally, CTPP has funded its own research efforts. Total research generated or funded
by the current CTPP since 2006 is in excess of $1 million.
Staff
• Penelope Weinberger, CTPP Program Manager
• Matt Hardy, Program Director, Policy and Planning
• Joung Lee, Director of Policy and Government Relations
Brief Team
• Nancy McGuckin, Author, Investigator
Panel
• Phil Mescher, IA DOT
• Guy Rousseau, ARC
• Jessie Jones, AR DOT
• Joe Hausman, FHWA
• Thomas Hill, FDOT
• Elizabeth Robbins, WSDOT
• Clara Reschovsky, BTS
• Krishnan Viswanathan, Cambridge Systematics
Contact
Penelope Weinberger, e-mail: pweinberger@aashto.org, phone: 202-624-3556; or CTPPinfo@aashto.org
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
Pub Code: CA01-5 ISBN: 978-1-56051-766-5
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Brief 21.1. Commuting in
The Changing Nature of Work America 2021
Purpose
The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has radically changed the nature of work in the United
States. Essential workers and many who could work from home retained employment,
while tens of millions whose work was in person or on-site were thrown into unemploy-
ment. Travel, of course, was radically curtailed because of stay-at-home orders, dropping as
much as 90 percent at times. The long-term effects of these sudden shifts are uncertain.
Even before the pandemic, major generational, demographic, economic, and cultural
shifts in the U.S. were already altering the nature of work and travel. As a result of these
long-term shifts, the number of workers who usually worked from home and those who
could sometimes work from home had already been rising, enabled by new technology,
the demands of digital workers, and the working retirement of many baby boomers. In
addition, new digital platforms enabled workers to directly contract with customers and
employers for short-term contract work (gigs).
The economy will recover and create a new normal, and the way that the work world
will adapt is unknown. Perhaps workers will demand more work-at-home and telecommut-
ing options, having been shown that possibility; perhaps more workers will enter the gig
economy as a supplement or a substitute for the job lost; perhaps there will long-standing
shifts in the major economic sectors. This brief is a snapshot of the time before, ready to be
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.revisited in some undetermined time after when we are ready to assess what changes have
remained.
The purpose of this brief is to provide a snapshot of the nature of work in 2019, with
focus on the single most important trend in work travel: the shift to nontraditional work.
The goal is to help researchers and policymakers interested in quantifying the amount and
type of changes in the U.S. workforce in 2020 and later. In addition, this brief explores how
workers involved in each of these sectors of nontraditional work commute and travel for
their daily life tasks. Statistics with margins of error are presented at the 90th confidence
limit (±10 percent).
Introduction
In the before time, many (especially younger) workers pushed for greater flexibility to bal-
ance work and family life, including telecommuting options, nontraditional hours, and the
ability to work from anywhere. In a tight employment market, employers responded with
more of these types of benefits.
Employers had also been shifting more workers to contract jobs without the traditional
benefits of pension, health insurance, and paid time off. This shift to defining more jobs as
contractor, 1099, or gig work was just starting to see policy interventions by state and local
authorities to protect workers in 2019.
In combination with that, a plethora of new online platforms were launched to directly
connect workers and work opportunities without formal employment. What started with
Uber ballooned into thousands of sites offering one-time or short-term gigs to work in
food delivery; pet, child, and elder care; handyman services; and multitudes more. There
was such growth in the amount of “electronically enabled work” (a definition used by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics) and the shift to contract employees that some projections (such
as McKinsey Global Institute) were that fully half of the U.S. workforce would be involved
in some sort of gig work in the next decade or so.
But in the spring of 2020, the world changed, and the nature of work changed with it.
The stay-at-home advisories meant most workers had to find ways to work from home,
including teachers (as schools and universities shuttered), doctors (as office visits moved
online), and entertainers and musicians. Some jobs, by their very nature, were neither
deemed essential or not able to be done off site, for example workers in food and beverage
sales; retail and shop workers; personal service providers; airline and transportation work-
ers; and hospitality, travel, and tourism workers.
4 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Figure 1. Online Platforms that Enable Gig Work
It is important to keep in mind that while the supply of hotels, restaurants, and service
jobs disappeared as establishments were shuttered, demand for many goods and services
disappeared as well. One of the many unknowns is how the demand and supply balance
might look going forward.
Trends toward Nontraditional Work
The number of people engaged in nontraditional work grew over the last few decades. For
instance, between 1990 and 2018 the number of workers who worked at home increased
substantially, and faster than the overall growth in the workforce, especially since 2010
(U.S. Census, 1990, 2000, and 2010; American Community Survey (ACS), 2018). Overall,
the trend data shows that in 1995 few workers (just over 2 percent of all) worked only at
home (not including occasional telecommuting) and not much variation was seen between
people of different ages. In addition, the number of workers that sometimes or occasionally
telecommuted (but usually went into a regular workplace) nearly doubled since 2001.
There has been an increase in the percentage of workers who hold multiple/part-time
jobs—while the percent employed at single full-time work had been decreasing (in workers
over the age of 21). Related to that, the Bureau of Labor Statistics data indicates growth in
the percentage of workers in jobs with no benefits.1
Importantly, workers in nontradtional work have different travel behavior and commute
characteristics and substantial growth in these nontraditional arrangements could change
1 Current Population Survey March Supplement (1995–2017) and Katz and Krueger (2019). Data from the
Center for Retirement Research, Boston College. Published at: https://crr.bc.edu/working-papers/how-do-older-
workers-use-nontraditional-jobs/
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 5
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.choices for residential location, affect work tenure, and alter the proportion of work travel
during peak periods and on weekends.
Who Are the Nontraditional Workers?
Nontraditional workers in 2019 included workers who had flexible work schedules, had the
option of telecommuting, or usually worked at home, and workers who worked multiple
and/or part-time jobs; together these represent a plurality of workers in the U.S.
In all, about 42 percent of workers could set or change their work times, i.e. flextime
(see Figure 2), and this category overlaps workers who have the option to telecommute
(14 percent of all workers) and workers who usually work at home (12 percent of all work-
ers). In addition, trends show a growing portion of workers who worked multiple and/or
part-time jobs and some portion of these are (also or only) gig workers.
Workers Who
Have the Option
to Telecommute
14%
Workers
Who Only
Work Gig Jobs
??%
Workers with Workers with
Part-Time or Flexible Schedules
Multiple Jobs
26%
42%
Workers
Who Usually
Work at Home
12%
Figure 2. Proportion of Workers in Nontraditional Work Arrangements, 2017
6 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.There were important demographic differences between the workers involved in non-
traditional work and those in more traditional arrangements.
• Younger workers (between 21 and the median age of 40 years) were less likely
to have flextime in their jobs; 36 percent of younger workers could set their
own schedules compared to 43 percent of older workers. Younger workers were
much less likely to usually work at home compared to older workers; 9 percent of
younger workers compared to 14 percent of older workers.
• Non-white workers were less likely to have flextime or the option to telecommute
compared to their white counterparts; only 34 percent of non-white workers
could set their own schedules compared to 43 percent of white workers.
• Lower-income workers (who have incomes under the median of $47,0002) had
even more differences compared to their counterparts: only 27 percent of work-
ers with lower than median incomes had the ability to set or change their work
start times (flextime) compared to 45 percent of higher-income workers. Over a
third of lower-income workers worked multiple/part-time jobs compared to less
than one out of five of higher-income workers. Lower-income workers were less
than half as likely to have the option to telecommute but nearly the same propor-
tion of higher- and lower-income workers usually worked at home.
• Traditionally, women have been more likely to work part-time; 31 percent of
women worked multiple/part-time jobs in 2017 compared to 19 percent of men.
Women were also much less likely than men to have had the option of telecom-
muting (only 12 percent of women workers had the option of telecommuting) or
to set their own work schedules.
Figure 3 shows the participation rate by demographic group in these nontraditional
work categories; the outlines indicate statistically different participation rates.
2 State of Working America Wages 2019, February 2020. Elise Gould, Economic Policy Institute.
https://www.epi.org/publication/swa-wages-2019/
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 7
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Percentage of Workers
Workers with Flextime
41.8% of all
36% 43% 43% 34% 27% 45% 48% 42%
Younger Older White Non-White Lower Inc. Higher Inc. Men Women
Multiple/Part-Time Jobs
26.4% of all
25% 23% 23% 25% 34% 19% 19% 31%
Younger Older White Non-White Lower Inc. Higher Inc. Men Women
Option of Telecommuting
13.9% of all 15% 15% 18% 15% 8% 21% 17% 12%
Younger Older White Non-White Lower Inc. Higher Inc. Men Women
Usually Works at Home
11.5% of all 9% 14% 13% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12%
Younger Older White Non-White Lower Inc. Higher Inc. Men Women
Figure 3. Percentage of Workers Who Have Nontraditional Work Arrangements by
Age, Race, Income, and Gender, 2017
Figure 4 shows the distribution of workers in each of the nontraditional arrangements,
highlighting the demographic differences even more:
• More than half of workers with the option to telecommute and two thirds of
those who usually worked from home were older than the median age of 40.
• Non-whites are over-represented across all the nontraditional work arrange-
ments but especially in the category of workers with multiple/part-time jobs.
Among these workers, 38 percent were non-white compared to 22 percent in the
total workforce.
• Three quarters or more of workers who had flextime, the option to telecommute,
or usually worked at home were higher-income (i.e. above the median).
• About three out of five (around 60 percent) of the workers who had flextime, the
option to telecommute, or usually worked from home were men (the workforce
is about 47 percent women and 53 percent men).
8 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Older Younger Non-White White Higher Inc. Lower Inc. Women Men
31% 21%
Workers with Flextime 43%
50% 50% 57%
41.8% of all 69% 76%
Multiple/Part-Time Jobs 38% 45% 41%
51% 49% 54% 59%
26.4% of all 62%
15%
Option of Telecommuting 32% 39%
54% 46%
13.9% of all 68% 61%
83%
Usually Works at Home 34% 32% 29%
48% 52%
11.5% of all 66% 68% 68%
Figure 4. Distribution of Workers Who Have Nontraditional Work Arrangements by
Age, Race, Income, and Gender, 2017
How Do Nontraditional Workers Travel?
Nontraditional workers traveled differently than their counterparts. Figure 5 summarizes
the average passenger miles traveled (PMT) by all means of travel and for all purposes. The
differences in travel were co-related to the demographics of workers in each group, such as
income and occupation, and include:
Workers who usually worked at home.
Home workers traveled nearly the same as workers who usually worked at a regular work-
place. While home workers spent 40 percent fewer miles commuting, they spent more miles
for shopping, family, and personal errands.
Men had the same likelihood of working at home whether or not they had children
in the household. In contrast, women with children were more likely to work at home
compared to women in households without children. Women who worked at home trav-
eled very similarly to women who worked at a workplace—there was just a 1.2-mile differ-
ence per day between them. On the other hand, men who worked at home traveled almost
10 miles more per day (56.9 compared to 47.0 miles) compared to men who worked at a
regular workplace.
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 9
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Workers with the option of telecommuting.
In contrast, workers who had the option of telecommuting traveled more miles than work-
ers who did not—almost 20 percent more overall. Men who had the option to telecommute
traveled much further for work and work-related purposes in an average day—20 miles
compared to 17 for men who could not telecommute. Women with the option to telecom-
mute had work-related travel closer in distance in mileage their counterparts, just 2.5 miles
more (14.8 compared to 12.3 miles in work and work-related travel).
Workers with multiple/part-time jobs.
Workers with multiple/part-time jobs traveled about 10 percent fewer miles per day
compared to workers with full-time jobs. These workers had shorter commutes but they
reported more miles of non-categorized travel, indicating that the typical purposes allowed
in the survey were inadequate for describing their travel. Importantly, the time-of-day pro-
file for these workers was quite different compared to full-time workers.
Workers with flextime.
Workers who could set their own work schedule traveled about 10 percent more than work-
ers who did not have that option. Women with flextime traveled just 5 percent more miles
than women who abided a work schedule, whereas men with flextime traveled 11 percent
more miles compared to men who abided a work schedule. The commute time-of-day
peaks for workers with flextime were quite similar to those without, with just a slight shift
to late morning and evening (on the shoulder of the peaks).
10 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Travel by Non–Traditional Workers
(PMT per Day Compared to All Workers)
Women
Workers Who Usually Work at Home Men
All Workers
Workers Who Can Telecommute
Workers with Multiple/Part–Time Jobs
Workers with Flextime
-3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3%
Fewer Miles than All Workers More Miles than All Workers
Figure 5. Travel by Nontraditional Workers: Percent Difference in Miles per Day
(PMT), 2017
For reference, baseline travel rates by purpose by all workers is shown in Appendix A,
Table A1. The remainder of this brief dives into more detail for each of these nontraditional
groups of workers.
1. Workers with Flextime
Over four out of ten workers in the National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) could set
or change their work time (flextime) but this option was highly related to the type of job,
the level of income, and the gender of the worker, as well as whether or not the work is in
a large metro area (see Appendix A, Table A2 for details). For example, about a third of
workers in sales and service had flextime, compared to well over half (55 percent) of those
in professional, technical, or managerial occupations. Less than a third of workers in low-
er-income households had flextime compared to more than half of workers in the high-
est-income group. Men were more likely than women to have the option of setting their
own work hours.
Workers with flextime had remarkably similar time-of-day profiles for their commutes
compared to workers without it. Overall, workers in both groups traveled during the
morning and evening peaks, with a slight tendency for later morning arrivals for workers
with flextime (Figure 6). Such a similar time-of-day pattern indicates that flextime has
little effect on commute times, which may be more related to extraneous factors such as
dropping children at school, scheduled meetings and co-work, and even after-work plans
(whole-day scheduling).
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 11
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Had Flextime Did Not Have Flextime
35
30
25
Percentage of Workers
20
15
10
5
0
Mid–6AM 6–9AM 9–NOON NOON–3PM 3–6PM 6–9PM 9–Mid
Figure 6. Percentage of Workers by Commute Time: Workers with and without
Flextime, 2017 NHTS
In their daily tasks, workers with flextime traveled more miles than workers overall:
about 37 miles per day on average compared to 34, or about a 9 percent more for workers
with flextime. Women with flextime traveled just 5 percent more miles than women who
abided a work schedule, whereas men with flextime traveled 11 percent more miles com-
pared to men who abided a work schedule (Figure 7).
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12 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Miles by Purpose Per Day:
Men and Women Workers with Flextime
Other 3.9
Social/Recreational 10.0
Women
Shop/Family/Personal 10.6
Commute and Work Related 11.6
All 36.1
Other 6.4
Social/Recreational 10.4
Men
Shop/Family/Personal 9.8
Commute and Work Related 17.3
All 44.0
Other 5.3
Social/Recreational 10.3
Shop/Family/Personal 10.1
All
Commute and Work Related 14.9
All 40.6
Figure 7. Miles by Purpose per Day: Men and Women Workers with Flextime, 2017
NHTS
2. Workers Who Telecommute
In 2019, about 26 million Americans—16 percent of the total workforce—had the option
of telecommuting at least part of the time.3 According to the NHTS, the number of workers
that sometimes or occasionally telecommute has nearly doubled in the last two decades.
There are a lot of definitional issues related to telecommuting (Mokhtarian et al., 2005). In
addition to working at home, telecommuters can work in other locations, such as coffee
shops, libraries, or co-working spaces. Workers take work home after hours, or catch up on
the weekends, or work part of their workday remotely. Many large employers encourage full
days of telework; for example, since 2010 the Federal Government has encouraged telecom-
muting and 43 percent of Federal employees were deemed eligible to do so in 2017.4
While telecommuting often means working from home, in this report workers who
usually worked at home and those who telecommuted are differentiated by frequency. As
shown in Figure 8, nearly a quarter of the workers who indicated that they had the option
of telecommuting or sometimes working from home had not done so in the previous
month, another third telecommuted once a month or so, while two out of five workers
took this option once a week or so. Only 2 to 3 percent of workers indicated that they
3 American Time Use Survey. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019. See Table 6 at: https://www.bls.gov/news.release/
atus.t06.htm
4 Status of Telework in the Federal Government: Report to Congress, Fiscal Year 2017. Office of Personnel
Management, 2019. https://www.telework.gov/reports-studies/reports-to-congress/2018-report-to-congress.pdf
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 13
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.telecommuted every day; these could be workers who do not work at their regular work-
place but also do not work at home.
45%
40% Men
Women
35%
Total
Percentage of Workers
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Not in the Last Month Once a Month or So Once a Week or So Almost Every Day
Figure 8. Number of Days Telecommuted in the Last Month by Workers with the
Option to Telecommute, 2017 NHTS
The option to sometimes work from home had been increasing over the last two
decades, inspired by the growth of digital work, the benefit to work/life balance, and
ever-better technology to support telecommuting. Telecommuting showed particular
expansion as an option for higher-income workers in professional and technical fields; by
2017, a quarter of high-income workers and workers in professional/technical/managerial
occupations had the option to telecommute, compared to just 8 percent of lower-income
workers and 10 percent or less of workers in other occupations (see Figures 9 and 10).
14 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Has the Option to Sometimes Work at Home/Telecommute
25.6%
23.2%
18.1%
14.5%
12.1%
9.3%
8.0%
4.9% 5.4%
2001 2009 2017 2001 2009 2017 2001 2009 2017
Less than $50K $50–100K More than $100K
Figure 9. Percentage of Workers with the Option to Telecommute by Income,
2017 NHTS
Trends in Telecommuting by Occupational Category
25.0%
20.1%
13.2%
10.4%
8.3% 9.0%
7.0% 6.4% 6.1%
4.6% 3.7% 4.3%
20 01 20 0 9 2017 20 01 20 0 9 2017 20 01 20 0 9 2017 20 01 20 0 9 2017
Sales and Service Clerical or Administrative Const./Warehouse/Maint. Prof/Manager/Tech
Figure 10. Percentage of Workers with the Option to Telecommute by Occupational
Category, 2017 NHTS
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 15
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Because workers who had the option to telecommute were more likely to be higher-in-
come professionals in larger metro areas, the average miles per day workers who telecom-
muted traveled for all purposes was greater than workers who did not have the option
to telecommute. For instance, telecommuters had longer commute distances on average
than workers without the telecommuting option, 18 miles compared to 14.8 (Figure 11).
However, statistical testing showed that while a clear pattern of telecommuters having
longer commutes was evident, the margins of error in this group were wide. Only workers
engaged in sales and service occupations had statistically longer commutes when they had
the option of telecommuting (see Appendix A, Table A6). Further detailed analysis could
offer more insight.
8.5
Social/Recreational
10.4
8.1
Shop/Family/Personal
9.7
14.8
Commute and Work Related
18.0
35.4
All
44.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
Number of Miles per Worker per Day
*Travel coded as "Other" not included
Figure 11. Miles per Day of Travel for Workers Who Had the Option to
Telecommute and Those Who Did Not, 2017 NHTS
16 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.3. Workers with Multiple and/or Part-Time Jobs
Online digital platforms accelerated policymakers’ interest in the effects of nontraditional
work on overall travel. A plethora of new apps match a large pool of labor and service pro-
viders with a wide pool of buyers or potential customers. In this gig labor market, workers
act as independent contractors or freelancers for short-term or multiple jobs, structured
unlike formal employment.
For businesses, defining who is an employee and who
is a contractor has become increasingly difficult5 and there “Online, picking up a ‘gig’ (or a
is no fixed definition of who is part of the gig economy. temporary work engagement)
is as easy as making plans for
However, the literature points to a growing number of
dinner or finding a date… These
workers engaged in jobs that are not traditional payroll companies make it easy for
style. In this section, we use data from the Bureau of Labor workers to find a quick, tempo-
rary job (i.e., a gig), which can
Statistics (BLS), which defines “electronically-mediated”
include any kind of work, from a
and “contingent” workers, and from the NHTS, where this musical performance to fixing a
category includes workers with multiple and/or part-time leaky faucet… However… that
gig is a temporary work engage-
jobs.
ment, and the worker is paid
only for that specific job.”
Generally, gig workers can be divided into two catego-
National Association of Counties (NACO)
ries: Labor providers (for example: drivers, housecleaners, “The Future of Work:
handymen, health aide workers) and goods producers (for The Rise of the Gig Economy”
https://www.naco.org/featured-resources/
example: writers, artists, craftsmen, designers). In 2019, future-work-rise-gig-economy
about half of electronically-mediated workers did their
work online and half in person.6 Contract or contingent
workers were found across all industries but particu-
lar growth has been seen in the transportation and warehousing sectors (Uber/Lyft and
Amazon).
The NHTS data shows that younger, lower-income, non-white workers are more likely
than their counterparts to hold multiple/part-time jobs; they may piece together multiple
jobs for their entire livelihood, whereas higher-income and more-educated workers may
use gig work as supplemental income.
5 The IRS has guidance on their site: The general rule is that an individual is an independent contractor if
the payer has the right to control or direct only the result of the work, not what will be done and how it will be
done. Businesses providing employee-type benefits, such as insurance, a pension plan, vacation pay, or sick pay
have employees. Businesses generally do not grant these benefits to independent contractors. The permanency
of the relationship is important. An expectation that the relationship will continue indefinitely, rather than for
a specific project or period, is generally seen as evidence that the intent was to create an employer–employee
relationship. In general, determination is made on a case-by-case basis.
6 A Look at Contingent Workers. September 2018. https://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2018/contingent-workers/
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 17
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.According to the 2018 American Time Use Survey, multiple jobholders were more likely
to work on an average weekday than were single jobholders—90 percent of these workers
reported working on the sample day compared to 82 percent of workers with a single job.
Multiple jobholders were also more likely to work on an average weekend day—56 percent,
compared with 28 percent.7
Workers with multiple/part-time jobs traveled about 10 percent fewer miles per day
compared to workers with full-time jobs. The commute distances for these workers was
much less than that of full-time workers, but they reported more miles of non-categorized
travel, indicating that the typical purposes contained in the survey were inadequate to
describe their travel.
Travel by Workers with Multiple/Part-Time Jobs
(PMT per Day Compared to Full-Time Workers)
Other
Social/Recreational
Shop/Family/Personal
Commute and Work Related
All
-40% -30% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20%
Fewer Miles than All Workers More Miles than All Workers
Figure 12. Travel by Workers with Multiple/Part-Time Jobs (PMT per Day
Compared to Full-Time Workers), 2017 NHTS
Importantly, the time-of-day profiles for the commute trips by workers with multiple/
part-time jobs was quite different compared to traditional workers with a single full-time
job. Figure 13 shows that only 40 percent of workers in this category arrived at work during
the morning peak of 6 to 9 am, compared to 70 percent of traditional workers.
7 American Time Use Survey. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019. See Table 4. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/
pdf/atus.pdf
18 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Arrival Time at Work (On Workdays) for Workers
with Multiple/Part-Time Jobs and All Others
80.0%
Gig Workers
70.0%
All Others
60.0%
Percentage of Workers
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
Mid–6AM 6–9AM 9–NOON NOON–3PM 3–6PM 6–9PM 9–Mid
Figure 13. Arrival Time at Work (on Workdays) for Workers with Multiple/Part-Time
Jobs and All Others, 2017 NHTS
4. Workers Who Usually Work at Home
The number of people who usually worked at home had been increasing since the 1990s.
Both demographics and technology advances contributed to this trend. Between the 1990
and the 2018 ACS, the number of workers who worked at home increased substantially, and
faster than the overall growth in the workforce, especially since 2010.
A contributing demographic factor is the number of people who continue to work past
the traditional retirement age, many of whom work only at home. According to the BLS,
more than half of people aged 60 to 64—54.7 percent—were working at least part time in
2017 and a third of those aged 65 to 69—31.2 percent—were working. According to the
NHTS, a quarter of workers aged 65 and older reported working only from home.
Overall, the trend data shows that in 1995 few workers (just over 2 percent of all)
worked only at home (not including occasional telecommuting) and not much variation
was seen between people of different ages. Since then, the increase in home workers has
been substantial in every age group but the growth in older workers working from home
is notable. By 2017, the oldest workers showed the highest levels of work at home but even
for prime-age workers (30 to 64, shown in different age groups), between 10 and 15 percent
reported usually working at home (Figure 14).
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 19
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Trends in the Percentage of Workers by
Age Group Who Work Only at Home
30%
Percentage of Workers Who Work at Home 25% 75 and older
65 to 74 years old
20%
15% 55 to 64 years old
45 to 54 years old
10% 30 to 44 years old
16 to 29 years old
5%
0%
1995 2001 2009 2017
Source: BTS Analaysis of NHTS Data Series
Figure 14. Trends in the Number of Workers by Age Group Who Work at Home,
NHTS Data Series 1995–2017
Another factor related to working at home is the presence of children. Workers aged
21 to 54 make up 71 percent of all workers (in the NHTS) and more than half of workers
in this age group (54 percent) are living in a household with one or more children. The
presence of children is well known to constrain workers’ commutes; for example, dropping
children at school on the way to work is a common purpose of trip chaining (McGuckin, et
al., 2004; McDonald, 2014).
A little over 10 percent of workers in this age group worked at home in 2017, whether
or not there were children present. (The estimates of 10.2 and 10.7 percent are within the
margin of error.) Interestingly, men in households with and without children had the same
likelihood of working at home. On the other hand, women in households with children
were more likely to usually work from home compared to women in households without
children, as shown in Figure 15 (these estimates are statistically different).
20 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.WAH in Households with Child(ren) WAH in Households w/o Child(ren)
12.6%
10.5% 10.7%
9.9% 9.9% 10.2%
Men Women All
Figure 15. Percentage of Workers Aged 21 to 54 Who Work at Home,
Comparing Men and Women in Households with Children, 2017 NHTS
One of the important questions about travel behavior of people who usually worked at
home is whether they traveled less than workers who went to work. Logic says that home
workers who did not make a work trip—for most people the longest trip of the day—would
travel fewer miles than workers who commuted to work. And while this is true, it is only a
marginal difference.
According to the 2017 NHTS, workers traveled just under 45 miles per day on average;
34 percent were spent commuting (15.3 miles traveling to and from work including work-
ers who went to work and those that did not). Working men travel farther in an average day
(48 miles on average) than working women (41 miles on average). (Baseline data for PMT
by workers by purpose is in Appendix A, Table A1—Daily PMT by All Workers by Gender
and Purpose.)
Figure 16 compares the daily miles of travel by purpose for men and women who
worked at home and who did not. Overall, workers who usually worked at home traveled
just 1.3 fewer miles per day than workers who did not work at home. While home workers
traveled nearly half the miles for work-related tasks—such as client meetings, site visits, or
service calls—they traveled more miles for shopping and errands and for social and recre-
ational purposes.
There was a significant difference in the daily miles of travel by men and women home
workers but the overall pattern was similar: home workers shifted the miles spent com-
muting to household errands and social and recreational travel. The age of the worker also
made a significant difference; men aged 21 to 54 and 55 to 69 and women aged 55 to 69
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 21
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.traveled nearly the same number of miles per day when they were home workers or not.
That is, workers in these age groups seemed to replace the lost commute trip with other
travel. On the other hand, home workers who were women aged 21 to 54 and the oldest
home workers of both genders (those aged 70 and older) traveled much less than their
counterparts for all daily tasks.
Did Not Work at Home Work at Home
All Other Purposes 4.3
4.8
8.8
Social/Recreational
10.6
8.3
Shop/Family/Personal
12.2
Commute and Work Related 15.3
8.0
All 36.8
35.5
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
Person Miles of Travel per Worker per Day
Figure 16. Daily Miles of Travel (PMT) for Workers Who Worked at Home
Compared to Those Who Do Not, 2017 NHTS
22 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Conclusions
Flextime
Flextime was an option for a plurality of workers but seems unlikely to increase to occupa-
tions reliant on shift work (e.g. hospitals, retail, hospitality, manufacturing, warehousing).
In addition, flextime had little effect on travel rates or time of day of commuting—that is,
workers with flextime seemed to travel to work at about the same time as those without.
Working at Home and Telecommuting
In 2019, the option to telecommute or primarily work from home was tied to higher-income
professions in large metro areas. The stay-at-home orders forced most workers to conduct
their daily work only from home. In the future, there will be workers who continue to work
only at home and more dispersion of the option to telecommute across income groups,
across occupations, and in metro areas large and small. Working at home and the option to
telecommute are the most likely to permanently increase in the workforce after 2020.
Multiple/Part-Time Jobs
As online platforms continue to grow, the ability of businesses and individuals to connect
with skilled and unskilled labor directly will also grow. Participation by workers through
online platforms will undoubtedly continue to increase but the increase may come in the
form of lower-wage, labor-based services. While in 2019 about half of contract or contin-
gent workers were working online, there may be a shift to more in-person work such as
delivery services; elder, child, and pet care; handyman; and other services.
Critically, not only is this sector likely to increase, workers in these jobs exhibit the
greatest differences in travel compared to traditional workers. For example, they are more
likely to travel from worksite to worksite, to travel for work on weekends and at non-peak
times, and to use their vehicle for commercial passenger or freight delivery.
Likely Overall Impact
Looking forward, the changes to the workforce would undoubtedly have had a profound
impact on travel behavior, even without the pandemic. There was a latent demand prior
to 2020 for more telecommuting and work-at-home and many more workers will do so if
their occupations can accommodate it. Some form of flextime or new shift work may evolve
over the next year to help workplaces maintain social distancing. While hospitality, tourism,
and entertainment businesses may reopen, we cannot predict the demand for gathering or
traveling in crowds. Finally, workers who turned to online platforms while unemployed
may retain that relationship as a supplement even if their regular job resumes. Contract and
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 23
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.contingent workers were the focus of some policy interventions prior to 2020 and we may
expect more worker protections alongside more workers engaged in gig work.
Other economic and demographic trends will continue and some may reflect reces-
sionary adaptations. For example, in the near future we can expect larger household size as
families consolidate; especially, college-aged children may remain at home. Slower popu-
lation growth (especially in the prime working age) will result from lowered immigration.
Lost income during the stay-at-home period may force older workers to delay retiring even
longer. Delays in marriage, childbearing, and household formation may result from uncer-
tain economic times. Urban population growth may slow.
For transportation-related changes, the most impactful will probably be a slow recov-
ery of long-distance air travel and related hospitality and tourism. Transit and ridesharing,
especially the carpool and vanpool options, may face some obstacles. Home delivery of gro-
ceries and other daily goods will gain a greater market share along with continued growth
in e-commerce.
In short, as the number of people involved in nontraditional work continues to rise,
some important transportation impacts could include:
• Greater number of workers working at home and greater participation in tele-
commuting across income groups and occupations
• Greater number of workers engaged in part-time gig work
• Shrinking portion of workers making traditional commutes during peak period
• Fewer opportunities for transit and carpool to serve workers
• More vehicle miles traveled (VMT) for deliveries, transport services, and non-
peak commuting
• More day-to-day variation in travel; more work travel on the weekends
• Greater number of workers who are now marginal (e.g. older, younger,
differently-abled)
Implications for Data
All the federal datasets need to examine the questions related to worker status, occupation,
and work location for their relevance in light of the growth in nontraditional work. To
understand the total impact on travel, researchers need more detailed information about
the work life of sampled people. For example, direct questions about the use of online plat-
forms (and whether travel was needed to complete the job), questions about the number
of hours worked day to day, and better information on time spent working at home. The
NHTS also should try to identify people who drive to deliver goods or serve passengers as
part of their daily activity.
24 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Notes on the Data Sources
Note that the NHTS data subset workers aged 21 years and older. For PMT estimates, the
variable TRPMILES was capped at 480 miles per trip to remove outliers (the 2017 NHTS
method of obtaining trip distance used a google API to calculate network distance from
geocoded origin to geocoded destination which resulted in some outliers). The character-
istics under analysis: “Usually works at home,” “Has the option of working at home,” and
“Has a flexible work schedule” are coded as single variables for workers in the NHTS but
those engaged in gig work were constructed from multiple variables.
Notes on Teleworking Definitions
(from “The Future of Work,” Cambridge Systematics for Southern California
Association of Governments)
One of the challenges of combining analyses from various survey data is that each survey
can ask common questions in different ways that might lead to different responses from
the same person. A publication from the Census Bureau explains differences estimates of
home-based workers from SIPP and ACS. Table 1 details the data sources and definitions
used in this report.
The estimates of home-based workers from the Survey of Income and Program
Participation (SIPP) and ACS are not directly comparable because each survey queries
workers about home-based activities differently. The SIPP asks workers aged 15 and over to
indicate which days of the work week they work entirely from home. Thus, to be regarded
as an at-home worker by this survey, a respondent must report having worked only at home
on a given workday. Individuals who check email or carry out other work activities at home
but outside of their normal work hours are not counted as home-based workers in SIPP.
In the ACS, workers aged 16 and over are asked to report how they “usually” got to
work last week. Those who used several methods of getting to work, either in the same
week or in the same day, are asked to list the mode used most often. If two or more modes
are used with the same frequency, the respondent selects the mode used for the longest
distance. Respondents who select work at home, presumably, work the majority of the week
from home. This measure of home-based work is more conservative than the SIPP measure
and excludes respondents who work at home during off hours or those who sometimes
telework from home but for less than the majority of a workweek.
Home-based worker estimates between the two surveys may also differ because of
differences in labor force definitions and survey design. In SIPP, the labor force estimates in
the Work Schedule Topical Module refer to a typical week in the month prior to the inter-
view month but the ACS estimates are based on work activities that occur during the week
prior to the interview week. The SIPP also includes more extensive labor force questions
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 25
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.aimed at measuring contingent and unpaid family work. Lastly, the SIPP uses two interview
modes (personal visit and telephone), while the ACS uses three (mail, phone, and personal
visit). Taken together, these differences may increase the likelihood that SIPP identifies
respondents who work irregular schedules. Some additional differences, the effects of
which are more difficult to speculate about, included the survey collection period—1 year
for the ACS and 4 months for SIPP—editing and imputation procedures, and the calcula-
tion of survey weights.
Table 1. Commuter Type Definitions from Various Data Sources
Data Source Definitions
Telecommuter
SIPP A worker who is not flagged as working from home but worked
from home 1 to 4 days per week
NHTS 2009 A worker who has a teleworking option and telecommuted at least
1 day per week
NHTS 2017 A non-home worker who has a teleworking option and
telecommuted at least 1 day per week
Home Worker
SIPP A worker who is flagged as working from home or worked from
home 5 or more days a week
ACS Those who reported working from home as their commute last
week
NHTS 2009 and 2017 Those who reported working from home full time or part time
Flexible Worker
NHTS 2009 and 2017 Workers who reported having “the ability to set or change their
own start time.”
26 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.References
Asgari, H. and X. Jin. Toward a Comprehensive Telecommuting Analysis Framework. In
Transportation Research Record 2496. Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, DC, 2015. Available from https://www.academia.edu/21009023/
Toward_a_Comprehensive_Telecommuting_Analysis_Framework?email_work_card=view-paper
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Tank: News in the Numbers, Pew Research Center, March 2020. Available from https://www.pewresearch.org/
fact-tank/2020/03/20/before-the-coronavirus-telework-was-an-optional-benefit-mostly-for-the-affluent-few/
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McGuckin, N. and A. Fucci. Summary of Travel Trends: 2017 National Household Travel Survey. FHWA
PL-18-019. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, July
2018, Table 27, p. 79. Available from https://nhts.ornl.gov/assets/2017_nhts_summary_travel_trends.pdf
Mokhtarian, P., I. Salomon, and S. Choo. Data and Measurement Issues in Transportation, with
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University of California at Davis, 2004. Available from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9pt8s9jv
Mokhtarian, P., I. Salomon, and S. Choo. Measuring the Measurable: Why Can’t We Agree
on the Number of Telecommuters in the U.S.? Quality and Quantity, Vol. 39, No. 4, 2005, pp.
423–452. Available from https://escholarship.org/content/qt7mb104c1/qt7mb104c1.pdf
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 27
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Appendix A. Statistical Testing
Table A1. Daily PMT by All Workers by Gender and Purpose, NHTS 2017
PMT Percent-
Total per age of
Number of Worker PMT by
Gender Purpose Total Daily PMT Workers per Day Purpose
All ALL 2,565,098,709,327 156,988,243 44.8 100.0%
Commute and 873,677,306,296 156,988,243 15.2 34.1%
Work Related
Shop/Family/ 561,843,569,668 156,988,243 9.8 21.9%
Personal
Social/Recreational 568,916,983,513 156,988,243 9.9 22.2%
Other 560,660,849,850 156,988,243 9.8 21.9%
Men Commute and 552,201,581,551 83,588,762 18.1 37.6%
Work Related
Shop/Family/ 274,831,738,598 83,588,762 9.0 18.7%
Personal
Social/Recreational 306,573,036,163 83,588,762 10.0 20.9%
Other 335,413,110,065 83,588,762 11.0 22.8%
Women Commute and 321,475,724,745 73,399,481 12.0 29.3%
Work Related
Shop/Family/ 287,011,831,070 73,399,481 10.7 26.2%
Personal
Social/Recreational 262,343,947,350 73,399,481 9.8 23.9%
Other 225,247,739,785 73,399,481 8.4 20.6%
28 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Table A2. Percentage of Workers with Flextime by Gender, Geography, Income, and
Occupation (2017 Estimate with 90 percent Confidence Limits), NHTS 2017
Percentage of
Workers Who Can
Change Work Margin of
Start Time Error ±
Gender
Men 46.0% 0.1%
Women 40.4% 0.4%
Total 43.4% 0.1%
Metro Area Size
MSA Less Than 250K* 39.0% 0.6%
MSA 250K to Less Than 500K* 39.5% 1.0%
MSA 500K to Less Than 1 mil. 42.1% 0.4%
MSA or CMSA 1 mil. to Less Than 3 mil. 44.4% 0.7%
MSA or CMSA Greater Than 3 mil. 47.3% 0.3%
Not in an MSA 37.4% 1.0%
Household Income
Income Not Reported 46.8% 2.0%
Less Than $50K 32.1% 0.5%
$50K to $99,999 41.2% 0.4%
$100,000 and Over 55.1% 0.3%
Occupational Category
Sales and Service 33.4% 0.5%
Clerical or Administrative 36.2% 0.9%
Construction/Warehouse/Maintenance 29.9% 0.8%
Professional, Managerial, or Technical 54.7% 0.2%
*The percentage of workers with flextime in these categories is not significantly different.
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 29
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Table A3. Daily PMT by Workers with Flextime by Gender and Purpose,
NHTS 2017
Total Num- PMT per Percent of
ber of Worker PMT by
Total Daily PMT Workers per Day Purpose
Both All 2,021,303,530,573 151,093,348 36.7 100.0%
Men Commute and 795,952,935,990 151,093,348 14.4 39.4%
and Work Related
Women
Shop/Family/ 485,087,840,988 151,093,348 8.8 24.0%
Personal
Social/ 498,232,351,863 151,093,348 9.0 24.6%
Recreational
Other 242,030,401,733 151,093,348 4.4 12.0%
Men All 1,162,379,136,144 80,890,669 39.4 100.0%
Commute and 492,448,722,304 80,890,669 16.7 42.4%
Work Related
Shop/Family/ 245,927,691,726 80,890,669 8.3 21.2%
Personal
Social/ 270,450,105,543 80,890,669 9.2 23.3%
Recreational
Other 153,552,616,570 80,890,669 5.2 13.2%
Women All 858,924,394,429 70,202,680 33.5 100.0%
Commute and 303,504,213,686 70,202,680 11.8 35.3%
Work Related
Shop/Family/ 239,160,149,261 70,202,680 9.3 27.8%
Personal
Social/ 227,782,246,320 70,202,680 8.9 26.5%
Recreational
Other 88,477,785,163 70,202,680 3.5 10.3%
30 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Table A4. Percent of Workers with the Option to Telecommute by Gender,
Geography, Income, and Occupation (2017 Estimate with 90 percent Confidence
Limits), NHTS 2017
Percent of
Workers Who
Have the Option Margin of
to Telecommute Error ±
Gender
Men 18.5% 0.4%
Women 13.8% 0.8%
Total 16.3% 0.3%
Metro Area Size
MSA Less Than 250K* 12.1% 0.9%
MSA 250K to Less Than 500K* 12.2% 2.2%
MSA 500K to Less Than 1 mil.* 15.0% 1.5%
MSA or CMSA 1 mil. to Less Than 3 mil. 17.3% 0.8%
MSA or CMSA Greater Than 3 mil. 20.8% 0.6%
Not in an MSA 9.3% 2.1%
Household Income
Income Not Reported 16.9% 3.6%
Less Than $50K 8.0% 0.9%
$50K to $99,999 14.5% 0.8%
$100,000 and Over 25.6% 0.3%
Occupational Category
Sales and Service* 9.0% 1.8%
Clerical or Administrative* 10.4% 1.7%
Construction/Warehouse/Maintenance 6.1% 2.8%
Professional, Managerial, or Technical 25.0% 0.4%
*Percentage of workers who can telecommute in these categories is not significantly different.
Brief 21.1. The Changing Nature of Work 31
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Table A5. Daily PMT for Workers Who Have the Option to Telecommute
by Gender and Purpose, NHTS 2017
Workers Who Have the Option to Work at Home (Telecommute)
Total
Workers
with the PMT
Option of per
Telecom- Worker
Gender Purpose Daily PMT muting per Day
Both ALL 349,558,925,794 21,756,325 44.0
Men Commute and Work Related 143,307,320,259 21,756,325 18.0
and
Women Shop/Family/Personal 77,099,038,221 21,756,325 9.7
Social/Recreational 82,708,435,553 21,756,325 10.4
Other 46,444,131,762 21,756,325 5.8
Men ALL 230,329,881,745 13,247,470 47.6
Commute and Work Related 97,273,499,126 13,247,470 20.1
Shop/Family/Personal 47,561,850,220 13,247,470 9.8
Social/Recreational 51,150,590,242 13,247,470 10.6
Other 34,343,942,156 13,247,470 7.1
Women ALL 119,229,044,049 8,508,855 38.4
Commute and Work Related 46,033,821,132 8,508,855 14.8
Shop/Family/Personal 29,537,188,001 8,508,855 9.5
Social/Recreational 31,557,845,311 8,508,855 10.2
Other 12,100,189,605 8,508,855 3.9
32 Commuting in America 2021: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends
© 2021 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.You can also read
