CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC BUILDING IN THAILAND - Brill
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CONSERVATION OF
HISTORIC BUILDING IN
THAILAND
Pinraj Khanjanusthiti 1
Introduction
The history and the development of towards religious architecture. The earlier
conservation practice in Thailand can be records of restoration work in Thai history
divided into three phases: the period before can be dated back to the Sukothai period.
the modernization of the country in the
nineteenth century; the transition period; A stone inscription found at Wat Sri Chum,
and the period after the establishment of the dated around 1345 gives the detailed
Department of Fine Arts. The distinctions account of a prince, Mahatera Srisattha,
between the three periods are characterized who, following the way of the Buddha,
by the different attitudes towards the left his worldly life to be ordained in a
historic monuments, and the different monastery. His pilgrimage to various
conservation philosophy and practice as a places including Sri Lanka is mentioned.
result of the social, political, and economic During his many pilgrimage trips in
changes. This article will examine those Thailand, he performed many meritorious
factors that determine the development of duties which demonstrated not only his
the conservation process and its problems. support for Buddhism but also hi s
dedication to the preservation of the
Conservation before the heritage left behind by ancient forbears. It
is mentioned that old stupas and broken
Nineteenth Century stone images were discovered in the jungle
by Mahathera and repaired by using lime.
Sukothai Period
There are a number of lapidary and other Mahathera returned from the pilgrimage
records of the construction or restoration of trip to Sri Lanka accompanied by Sinhalese
monasteries in the past. However, only a craftsmen. At the time of his arrival, Wat
few provide enough detailed explanations Mahatat, built in the reign of king Rama
for · us to understand their construction or Khamheng ( 12 7 5-1317), had fallen into
restoration process. Nevertheless, we are ruin. Mahathera renovated the monastery
able to conceive the general concepts of and enshrined the relic of the Buddha
construction and the attitudes of the period brought by him from Sri Lanka in the main
stupa. The inscription mentions the search
1
Lecturer, Department of Architecture for fragments of ancient stone images of
Faculty of Architecture the Buddha and collecting them together in
Chulalongkom University
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MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities Vol. l No.2 1998
the monastery. The restoration of the sacred king who promptly took on the mission of
images was vividly explained as follows: safeguarding the Buddha image. Since the
"... in one place a neck or a bust had image was constructed of brick and stucco
been found; in another place the hair and of colossal size, it was suggested that it
or an arm or a breast; sometime the should be completely dismantled and
head had fallen and was jar from the reconstructed again using the original
body and it needed jour men to carry material as much as possible.
it... All of these stones of the Buddha
were of large size. They had to be It was a common practice of Thai kings to
placed on a barrow or a cart to be ask learned monks for advice on various
transported to the great sanctuary matters especially when the matters were
where they were joined together with related the religion. Stone inscriptions at
lime" (LeMay 1954: 180). the monastery give an account of the
Meritorious acts similar to the ones carried Sangha's deliberations which opposed the
out by Mahathera have been repeatedly dismantling of the image. ·It is mentioned
carried out by kings and wealthy Buddhists that "After deliberating, they [the Sangha]
throughout Thai history. It is a tradition for said: the statue is a lready the Lord Buddha.
Buddhists to build, repair, and restore It would not be proper to dismantle it in
sacred images and religious bui ldings of order to remove and reconstruct it." The
earlier date as an act of merit making. The decision of the Sangha was fmal and the king
objective of restoration and conservation of ordered the image to be removed intact.
the re lic of the past, therefore, is considered The inscriptions also give a detailed account
as an effort to conserve and maintain the of the operation which involved elaborate
re ligion itself. engineering works and a great expense of
time and man-power. It must have been an
Ayutthaya Period ambitious project when we consider the
One of the most important conservation viability of the. machinery for the task. The
events of the Ayutthaya period was vihara was demolished and the image was
recorded in detail by means of stone moved 168 meter further from the river
inscriptions. The account concerns the bank where a new vihara was built over.
meritorious act done by King Taisa (1707-
1732) at Wat Pa-mok. Wat Pa-mok, The inscriptions are a rare example of their
situates in the north of Ayutthaya on the kind, since they do not only give details of
bank of Pasak River, was one of the the operation that illustrate the technology
important monasteries of the Ayutthaya used but also indicate the attitudes of the
period. The important feature within the period towards the sacred image and the
monastery is a gigantic Buddha image in monastic building. We can conclude that
a vihara. The image is in the reclining the image was valued as the most important
position representing the Buddha entering structure and was the priority in the entire
the state of' parinivarna'. It is built of brick operation, while the destruction of the
and stucco with a gilt finish and is more building was not taken to be of any
than twenty meters long. At the end of importance. It is not the architectural fabric
March 1726, the vihara was in an imminent but the spiritual representation of the
danger from the collapse of the river bank. Buddha that was the aim of the activities to
The abbot of the monastery informed the safeguard it.
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Conservation of Historic Building in Thailand
Bangkok Period Apart from the restoration of the political,
During the three hundred years of the social, and economic systems, the king
Ayutthaya kingdom Thailand was involved also took on the duty of a Buddhist king
in several major wars with Burma which to restore the stability of the religion.
resulted in many victories as well as defeats Buddhist scriptures, destroyed during the
on both sides. At the end of the eighteenth Ayutthaya war, were gathered and Pali
century, Ayutthaya engaged in the final war texts were translated. Rama I had the
which resulted in the fall of the kingdom ambition to build a new capital which
in 1767. The capital suffered greatly would have match the glory of Ayutthaya.
as the consequence of the war. Most of Therefore, the creation of art and
the a rchit ecture, art, and literature architecture in the Early Bangkok period,
were destroyed overnight. Most of the especially during the first three reigns,
population migrated to safer places and is characterized by looking back to the past
Ayutthaya was deserted. Tak-sin, a Thai in the attempt to recreate a lost heri4tge.
general, led a small army to fight against After the fall of Ayutthaya, the new capital
the Burmese and restored the independence was established in Bangkok and vigorous
of the country. Having seen that Ayutthaya construction programmes were carried out.
was in a dilapidated state, impossible These included the- building of several
to be reconstructed without exhausted major monasteries and large Buddha
manpower, he moved the capital to images. A number of Buddha images were
Thonburi, an old custom post on the west also transported from Ayutthaya and other
bank of the Chao Praya River. Thonburi towns in order to be reestablished in royal
period is one of the most critical period monasteries in the new capital.
in Tha i history. It was the time of the
restoration and preservation of national Wat Po is one of the monasteries restored
independence. The new capital was not by King Rama I. The work started in 1789
properly built. Social and economic and lasted for twelve years. A stone
improvement as well as political stability inscription on a wall of a vihara gives an
were the priorities. The political situation, account of the construction of a new
however, was in turmoil until the end of ubosot, surrounding cloisters, several
King Tak-sin' s reign. stupas, and other buildings. It also
mentions the transference of more than two
In 1782, a new king ascended the throne. thousand Buddha images from Ayutthaya,
Rama I, the first king of present Chakri Pitsanulok, Lopburi, and Sukothai to
Dynasty, served as a high ranking officer in Bangkok. Most of the images were
the Thai army and fought against the damaged. The king gave orders to have
Burmese along side King Tak-sin. The new them restored by adding the missing parts,
king decided that geographically Thonburi and "beautifying" the faces. The images
was difficult to defend if it were to be that were made from brick and stucco
invaded again by the Burmese. It was also were repaired and regilded. After the
constricted by canals to permit future restorations were complete, the important
expansion. So, he moved the capital to the images were installed in different viharas of
small village of Bangkok, on the opposite the monastery while the lesser ones were
bank of the river. placed along the cloisters. Here orie can
see the simi larity of the restoration works
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MANUSYA: Journal ofHwnanities Vol. 1 No.2 1998
carried out by Rama I and the works of been constructed on the top of the dome to
Mahathera Srisattha of Sukothai four replace the missing original spire. The date
hundred and fifty years previously. of the new structure is given between 1000-
1400 AD. The ruin of this tower was still
The restoration of monasteries by the standing in the nineteenth century though
successive kings was intensively pursued. completely overgrown with vegetation.
The nature of the intervention always The restoration of the old stupa did not start
involved the demolition of old structures until King Rama IV ascended the throne.
and their replacement with new architecture The work began in 1853 and lasted for
in the style of the period. One of the seventeen years. The king died before its
examples which illustrates the typical completion and the work was carried on by
restoration method of a stupa is at a his son, King Chulalongkorn.
monastery at Nakorn Pathom. The town
lies about thirty miles to the west of The restoration of the stupa by Rama IV
Bangkok. According to local tradition, typifies the ancient way of restoring stu pas
the city, situated on the site of an ancient in Thailand. An old stupa was usually
city called Chaisiri, is believed to have enclosed within a new larger and taller
been visited by King Asoka's Buddhist structure which could be of different style.
missionary. Even though this claim is At Nakorn Pathom, the new structure does
rejected by some modern historians, the not bear much resemblance to the original
area around Nakorn Pathom is surrounded and is very much larger. It became the '
by remains of ancient stupa. Resent tallest and the largest stupa in the country.
excavations reveal ancient images and other 120.45 meters in height, 233.5 meters in
art objects that display the strong influence circumference and covered with orange
of the Gupta tradition. There is also a glazed tiles, it dominates the plains for
speculation that Nakorn Pathom may have miles around. The king also built a round
been a sea port and the capital of the gallery surrounding the stupa and four
Dvaravati Kingdom. viharas at the four cardinal points. It is
interesting that the restoration work was
Before his accession, King Rama IV who recorded, though not with architectural or
at the time was in monkhood, made a archaeological correctness. A replica of the
pilgrimage to the city. There he found old stupa was built on the outer platform to
the ruined dome of an ancient stupa. the east of the gallery. It was from this
According to archaeological evidence, the model that archaeologists and historians
stupa was constructed by the Mon in the have speculated on the style and the date of
style .of a Singhalese dagoba (stupa) and the original structure.
can be dated back to the first Dvaravati
settlement. 2 The stupa had undergone some This intervention on the monument, again,
restoration even before the king's discovery. emphasises the restoring of the structure to
It appeared that a Khmer style sikhara had its original glory, or what the original
should have been, regardless of the
2
archaeological or historical evidence. The
The exact date of this ancient stupa is still stupa became once again a shrine suitable
debatable. It ranges from the first to the in every way for the relic of the Lord
eleventh centuries.
Buddha and resumed its function as the
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Conservation ofHistoric Building in Thailand
centre of pilgrimage as it was in ancient Among these activities, which gave him the
times. This intention is illustrated, though reputation of being a good Buddhist king
indirectly, by the mural painting in the main and which greatly impressed the population
vihara. It depicts the original stupa of Sukothai, was the restoration of Wat
enclosed within the new structure. The Mahatat (Temple of the Great Relic) in
walls of the chamber also contain murals Pitsanulok which once was the centre of the
showing gods, angels, and various Kingdom.
mythological creatures paying homage to
the great stupa. It was an ancient tradition that when a new
king ascended the throne, he would build a
The Roles of Kings in Caring for new monastery or completely restore an
existing one. That monastery was regarded
Monasteries
as the royal monastery of that reign. The
vast number of monasteries and the
In the past, most of the restoration works magnificence of the buildings signified not
was carried out under the kings' orders. only the stability of the reign and prosperity
The role of the Thai king as a supporter of the religion but also the righteousness
and .protector of Buddhism and the Sangha and merit of the ruling king. The king' s
had existed since the beginning of the meritorious acts would be followed by
Thai Kingdom. Kingship and religion were members of the royal family, nobles and
interdependent since the stability of the wealthy patrons. This resulted in the large
country and the well being of the nation number of monasteries in the country both
depended upon both institutions. under the royal patronage and privately
built and the vast amount of land donated to
Throughout the Sukothai and Ayutthaya monasteries. Today the building of a new
periods, the relationship between the state monastery is no longer practised. Most of
and the Sangha was closely knit. Buddhism, the money donated to a monastery goes to
in a way, was exploited by politics. It was ·the repair or restoration of the existing
used to legitimize the king as claim to the fabric or the construction of new buildings
throne especially when that king was an for the benefit of the community and the
usurper. Buddhism was manifested in the monastery such as schools, multi-purpose
unification of Ayutthaya and Sukothai in halls, and new ubosots or viharas.
the reign of King Trilok of Ayutthaya
(1448-1488). Although Sukothai was under Slave Endowment
Ayutthaya's rule, it was still not totally Another tradition that was practised by the
subdued. It has been suggested that the kings of the Ayutthaya and Early Bangkok
king succeeded in integrating the two periods was the donation of slaves for
kingdoms because he understood the working in royal monasteries. During the
importance of Buddhism and recognized Ayutthaya period when there w a s a
that military occupation alone would not shortage of man-power because of the
be able to ensure stability. The king wars with Burma, large numbers of
temporarily left the throne to be ordained the population were recruited by the
and stayed for a period in a monastery in government to do military service and work
the north. He also made great efforts to as forced labour. This drove many people
restore and build monasteries in that region. into hiding. It was suggested that one
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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities VoL l No.2 1998
method of avoiding becoming an outlaw amount of mo ney and man-power each
was to register with the government a s a monastery should receive as a subs idy
monastic slave or Kha Phra (Suksamran from the gove rnment. The mo nasteries
1992: 14). Kha Phra were also s laves in the first gro up were c lassified as of
captured from countries defeated in war special importance. They were monasteries
(Pramoj 1982: 18-19). The aim of South- built by the king of each reign and regarded
East Asian warfare in the past was not only as the royal monastery of that particular
to extend the country's boundaries but also king. Wat Po and Wat Bavornives in
to find new human resources. It was then a Bangkok were examples of this category.
common practice of the victors to take Monasteries containing chetiya o r stupas
away the people of a defeated country as w ith relics of the Buddha were inc luded
slaves, as well as to loot their cities. Most such as the monasteries of the Great Relic
of the captives belonged to the king and outside Bangkok, and Wat Phrabat where
were catego rized as royal s laves. They the foo t prints of the Buddha had been
would be distributed by the king to hi gh found. These monasteries received money
ranking commanders as a reward and were and man-power for maintaining their fabric.
also donated to royal mo nasteries. Kha The sum of money was not fixed, bu t
Phra were required to look after the was dependent on the requirement of each
monastery and provide security for its monastery.
sa nct u ar ie s and pro pe rti es. If the
monastery also possessed agricultural land, The second category was all the other
they also had to work on the land for the monasteries built by kin gs within the
benefit of the monastery. capital city. These monasteries received a
fixed amount of money once a year. It was
Slavery in Thailand was abolished in 1874 mentioned in the official announcement
by King Rama V. The abolition was a non- that the money was for repairing the fabric
violent but long and gradual process. It in t ime for the Katina ceremony which
took more than thirty years totally to takes place at the end of the rainy season
erad icate the system of s lavery from the retreat. In addition to this, the monasteries
country and it brought about changes within received a separate sum of money to pay
the soc ial and political structure. for the monthly salaries of three men to do
the maintenance work.
The care of monaste ries, espec ially the
royal ones, was affected by these changes Monasteries in the third category were
since most of the care of the monastery those built by kings in other towns outside
fab ri c had been done by the Kha Phra . Bangkok and those built by members of the
Two years after the last legislation for the royal family by royal command both w ithin
abo liti on of slavery was enacted, a new and outside the capital. The final category
policy for the care of monastery fabric was consisted of monasteries built by members
estab li s hed to so lve the prob lem which of the roya l family or by high rank in g
res ulted from the loss of essential man- government officials who presented them
power. under royal patronage. The last two
categories received the same kind of
The policy divided the royal monasteries subsidy as the second category. However,
into four categories in order to define the the amount of money and hired labour was
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Conservation ofHistoric Building in Thailand
reduced according to the category. The supervised the kings were usually the
granting of government subsidy was the Supreme Patriarchs who were chosen from
responsibility of the Department of Church monks associated with religious dwellings
Administration (Krom Dharmakarn), a under the king' s support, or from the monks
ministerial department whose duties who were of royal descent (Suksamran
included the inspection of monastic revenue 1977: 31 ). In some particular matters, a
and the management of monastic lands. committee of learned monks was appointed
and consulted.
We do not have much information on
how small privately built and village The advice of the Sangha was, inevitably,
monasteries were looked after or about based on Buddhist philosophy and ethics.
their financial situation at this period. But Therefore, advice on the care of the
it can be assumed that the abolition of monastery and sacred structures was very
slavery may not have had much effect on much influenced by religious attitudes
these monasteries since they probably did towards the subject. The judgement of the
not have access to slaves in the first place. Sangha was considered to be final as
It was a lways the duty of monks in the illustrated by many examples in the past.
monasteries and their communities to care
for and maintain the fabric by using money Merit Making and the Care of
from donations.
Sacred Buildings
The Roles of Sangha In Thailand, the construction and the care
of monasteries are·very much related to
The Sangha have always had the duty to the concept of merit making. In order
care for their dwellings and monasteries. to understand the philo soph y behind
Even though there is no direct rule relating the conservation and care of religious
to the care of a monastic fabric mentioned buildings, it is necessary to understand
in the Vinaya, it is generally agreed that the religious philosophy and beliefs that
cleanliness and tidiness are the qualities together form the architecture and its
required of dwelling places. The abbot context.
of a monastery also has a duty to report
on the condition of the monastic fabric Buddhism tn Thailand has a complex
to the appropriate authorities in order background. It is an amalgamation of
that repairs can be carried out. Before several beliefs which form the characteristic
the establ ishment of the responsible of Theravada Buddhism of South-East
organization, the condition of a monastery Asia. Three different "norms of conduct"
and its environment depended solely on can be distinguished (Spiro 1972). Even
its abbot and the Sangha community. The though the aim of religious practice is to
Sangha have also an indirect role in caring discover the way of release from the
for monasteries. In the past, they acted as endless cycle of existence, o r to reach
advisors to the kings and lay-community. Nibbana, this concept is confined to a small
Learned monks were consulted by kings not group of people whose primary concern
only on religious matters but al.so political is with salvation. Another group is the
and social problems. The monks who majority of the Buddhist population who
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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities Vol. 1 No.2 1998
consider the cycle of rebirth as a kind of the ones who are born with poverty,
religious pi lgrimage and the doctrines suffering, ugliness, idiocy, and have
comprising this system provide the means short lives. Merit and demerit
for enhancing one's position within the determine who will be the ruler
cycle by improving one's karma. Apart and who will be the servant or
from these two types of canonical governed. .. " (I'ambiah 1975).
Buddhism, there is also a non-canonical Merit is gained by several means, for
type which is concerned with man's worldly example, by giving gifts, particularly to
welfare. In this type, religion is used as a monks , by leading a pure life and by
protection from devils, to care for the sick observing the Five Precepts in order to
and as an aspect of mythical belief. avoid demerit. Merit is also gained from
worship. This means the worship of
In Thailand, the knowledge of sophisticated "the visible traces of the Buddha on
doctrines is restricted to dedicated monks earth." Stupas and shrines are the focus
and a few lay-people. Most Thai, though of this worship. The worship or "puja",
understanding that Nibbana is the ultimate requires the offering of food, flowers
aspiration of life, believe that Nibbana and sometimes money and also the
cannot be achieved in a single lifetime and performance of particular rituals, such
do not consider Nibbana to be a religious as the circumambulation of a stupa. It is
objective. The religious aspiration of generally believed that the most meritorious
ordinary Buddhists is the hope to be reborn action a layman can perform is to give
in a better world. Better status in a future money to the Sangha for the construction of
life or a time in paradise are the less a monastery. This concept has been long
abstract versions of the ultimate goal. established. An example is illustrated in
Since Nibbana cannot be achieved in a the story of Visaka, a wealthy lay-follower
single life time, it needs the accumulation living in the time of the Buddha, who
of good deeds done by an individual funded the construction of a dwelling for
throughout his previous existences which monks and gave many gifts in accordance
will, in turn, result in the spiritual with a wish that she had made in her former
perfection. life . The story was recounted by the
Buddha to his disciples and, at the end, the
Though Buddhism regards life as suffering, notion of acts of merit was explained:
to be born as a human being is considered "As from a heap offlowers one can
a good position. This is because human make many a garland, even so many
beings have the opportunity to be exposed good deeds should be done by one
to the faith and to gain merit for attaining born a mortal " (I'he Dhammapada
enlightenment in a future life. Most Thai trans. by Harada Thera 1959: 27).
are linked to Buddhism through popular However, monastery building involves a
beliefs about merit (punna) and demerit great deal of labour and financial resources.
(pub). The relationship between merit and It is clear that very few individuals have
karma is explained as follows: adequate means for such donations. Most
"It is merit that determines one's people contribute smaller sums, sometimes
destination; that is why some people as part of a Katina ceremony, which may be
are born with wealth, wisdom, beauty, used for building, repairing or restoring a
power, and have long lives as against monastery fabric.
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Conservation ofHistoric Building in Thailand _
Conservation Practice as Council for judging applications for the
Mentioned in the Mahavagga restoration of monasteries throughout the
country.
The problem of dealing with the repair or
In 1914 the Council of the Elders
restoration of sacred structures and images
(Mahathera Samakom) considered _an
must have existed since ancient times. The
application for repairing an ubosot whtch
Chulakanti Pakorn, which is an amendment
involved the demolition of a group of
chapter of the Mahavagga, mentions the
sacred images. Prince Vajirayanavaroros,
restoration of ruined stupas and Buddha
the Supreme Patriarch at that time, referred
images as follows:
to the text of the Chulakanti Pakom and
"In the case of the stupa that falls
reinterpreted it to signify the concept, for
into a ruinous state, without anyone
example:
to look after it, is situated in an
unsuitable place, or situated among
"Anyone who, with bad intention, damages
sinful people, if any merit-seeking
or destroys stupas or Buddha images, their
individual intervenes with it in any
wilful actions are interpreted as sinful.
respect or dismantles and restores it
Examples of bad intentions were given such
into its normal condition, he will
as digging for buried treasure, re_lics or
receive as great merit as in the
amulets· demolition of sacred archttecture
case of the royal doctor, Jivaka-
in orde; to gain an empty piece of land for
Komarabacca, who bled the bad
building their own dwellings or farming; or
blood from the Lord Buddha. "3
destroying monuments because of different
The explanation from the text is not clear
belief, hatred or jealousy. On the contrary,
especially when one considers wh_at is
actions done by people with good
permitted to be done on the fabnc of
intentions are acceptable and considered to
a monume nt. But what is obvious is
be acts of merit. Example of these include:
that restoration and acts of merit are
the demolition of a ruined stupa and the
strongly related and that architectur~l
rebuilding of a new one in the same place;
fabric is not considered as important as tts
the alteration of a ruined stupa in order to
symbolic representation. This conc~pt is
improve the structure; the demolition or
understandable, since the Chulakantt was
dismantling of a stupa not of great beauty
written when religious ideology was the
and rebuilding one which is more beautiful;
only consideration when dealing wi~h
the removal of a stupa that had been
sacred monuments and images . Even m
situated in an unsuitable place to a new
the early years of this century, when the
place deemed more suitable." 4 The
archaeological value of a monument had
unsuitable places were referred to by the
been rea lized, the Chulakanti was still
supreme patriarch as places where there
used as a point of reference by the Sangha
would be no Buddhist to look after the
structure. In the case that the whole
3
Author's translation from 'P hra Maha structure of a stupa could not be removed,
Sammana Yinitchai' which is a compilation of
reports from the Council of Elders in 1914,
4
headed by the Supreme Patriarch, Prince Author's translation from 'Phra Maha
Vaj irayanavaroros. Sammana Yinitchai', as above.
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MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities Vol. l No.2 1998
dismantling of the old structure and using to religious monuments and images. Here
the old materials to build a new one was the various acts of offence and vandalism
acceptable, even though the new structure are mentioned: for example stealing
was not the same in appearance as the Buddha images from a monastery; smelting
original. These principles were applied to gold from images or stupas; vandalizing
Buddha images as well. stupas, viharas, images or sacred Bodhi
trees. Those who committed these criminal
It can be concluded from the opinions of acts were regarded as sinners who must
the supreme patriarch and the Sangha be persecuted. The corporal punishment
Council that the 'objective' of any mentioned in the law was rather severe
intervention was considered the most ranging from lashing to various kinds of
important factor. No matter what degree of torture with execution as the final penalty.
intervention was involved, if it was done The methods of punishment seem
with a pure and moral mind (kusala), the incongruous with the Buddhist concept of
deed was considered acceptable. compassion and non-violence. However,
the justification for the law was given as
The Development of Early the need for protecting the sacred
representations of the religion itself.
Legislation
The growing interest in safeguarding the
The law relating to the care of religious national heritage as artistic and historical
monuments in Thailand did not exist until evidence started in the reign of King Rama
1854. However, an awareness of the IV. The idea was stated in a royal edict,
importance of sacred structures and images issued in 1854, concerning the care of
had long been recognized. The care of monasteries in the country. The problem of
monuments in Thailand before the looting and treasure-hunting in monasteries
nineteenth century was largely dependent was still continuing at this period no matter
on the personal initiative of individual how harsh the corporal punishment was.
rulers. It stressed the protection of the Therefore, the purpose of the edict was to
religious institution rather than the cultural prevent the further damage to a monastery
significance of the structure. This can by keeping it under surveillance. If any
be seen by studying the ancient law damage caused by looters was found on
promulgated at the beginning of the the structure of ubosot, vihara, stupa, or
Ayutthaya Kingdom ( 13 50). The law Buddha images, the people who lived in the
included traditional Thai customs and was vicinity of the monastery were obliged to
subsequently modified by assimilation with report this damage to the authorities within
the Laws of Manu, the ancient Indian law one month. If they neglected to do so, they
and so~ial ideology dating from the second were obliged to restore the structure to its
to first centuries BC. The law provided the former state at their own expense. The
basic principles of Thai law until the reign purpose of this decree was stated at the end
of King Rama V ( 1868-191 0) when it was of the edict as follows:
replaced by modern legislation. "The purpose of this [decree] is to
encourage the people to look after
One section of the ancient law dealt with the monastery that is close to their
corporal punishment for crimes that related residences, not to let any one dig up,
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damage, or destroy the sacred place. between the kingdoms in the area and the
Since the monasteries were built by western world since the sixteenth century,
our ancestors, using bricks, mortar, the interest in art and archaeology was
stones or other materials, large or previously not developed. The European
small, even though in decay, they are quest for knowledge in the field of human
still the elements which adorn our science during the nineteenth century was
city." one contribution to the study. The Royal
Geographic Society in London was one of
The Transition Period many organizations who sponsored several
explorers to distant lands. In 1858, Henri
Mouhot, a French naturalist, made a journey
The influx of western influences during the
to Thailand and, later Laos and Cambodia
reign of King Rama V not only transformed
with encouragement from the Society.
the characteristic of Thai art and
It was during this expedition that he visited
architecture but also the attitude towards
the ruined city of Angkor. The study of
them. The interest in art and archaeology
Indochina attracted a lot of attention from
was started among the new generation of
the west and several permanent research
educated Thai. It was the first time that the
institutions were established as a result.
national heritage was regarded as an object
The Ecole Francaise d' Extreme Orient was
of art distinct from its religious context.
founded by the French to carry out research
However, the enthusiasm towards
and survey monuments and archaeological
conservation was confined the area of
sites in French Indochina as well as studies
antiquity. Archaeological research was
of the history and languages through
started by individual initiative focusing on
ancient inscriptions.
the ancient artifacts. This group of people
consisted of members of the royal family,
The Ecole Francaise d ' Extreme Orient
western educated Thai, and foreigners
played an important role in bringing
living in the country. Several excavations
Indochinese archaeology to light. The first
were carried out on various sites. These
inventory of Khmer monuments in
resulted in a better understanding of the
Cambodia and Thailand was drawn up
history and the development of art and
by Lunet de Lajonquiere in 1900. This
architecture. Art objects were collected
inventory was used by the Thai authorities
from sites all over the country and the
as one of the fundamental pieces of
National Museum was established.
information for surveying monuments
in the country. In 1907 , the French
The Western Approach to successfully forced Thailand to surrender
Conservation in Thailand the provinces of Siemreap and Battambong
in which Angkor and other principal Khmer
The systematic study of the archaeology monuments are situated. The Angkor
and history of monuments in Thailand and Conservancy, an office responsible for the
elsewhere in South-East Asia began in the documentation and conservation of the
late nineteenth century. It is suggested that monuments, was set up and conservation
colonial conquest was the origin of the works were carried out. The method and
study of Indochina (Groslier 1970: 155). philosophy used in the conservation of
Even though there had been relationships Angkor later became one of the popular
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approaches used in Thailand at a later date. The ruined temples of Thailand and
Cambodia were restored by the method
Even though Cambodia, as in Thailand and of anastylosis. It is noticeable that the
Laos, possessed Buddhist monuments monuments that caught the attention of the
which were very much in use, the works of West were constructed of stone. From a
the French in Indochina dealt entirely with practical point of view, stone and its
ruined stone monuments. It is possible that construction technique were more familiar
the interest of the western nations in South- to the West than other kinds of materials
East Asian culture was triggered by a used by indigenous peoples. As the result,
romantic approach to an ancient and the stone monuments of Thailand and
unknown civilization. It is mentioned that French Indochina were intensively studied,
"The basis of our concern with archaeology recorded, and restored while other kinds
or, more generally, with Oriental studies is, of monuments were not given so much
quite simply, a curiosity about man" importance. Monasteries which can be
(Groslier 1971: 250). The zeal ofthe West considered as centres of traditional art and
in the study and conservation of historical crafts were, at the beginning, disregarded
heritage derived from the attitude towards by western scholars as unworthy of study.
colonialism that prevailed during the James Fergusson (1808-1886), an
period. It was generally believed by the architectural historian who was the first in
western countries that it was the duty of a England to set about writing a world history
civilized nation to safeguard world heritage of architecture, writes about monasteries in
from the negligence and ignorance of the Burma as follows:
native people. The idea was expressed in "The travellers who have visited the
many writing by the leading figures both country have been silent on the
French and British. Sir Stamford Raffles subject, principally because the
wrote with naive enthusiasm as follows: monasteries are, in almost all
"[We must collect} the scattered instances, less magnificent than the
remains of the literature of these pagodas to which they are attached,
countries ... The rays of intellectual and are, with scarcely an exception,
now divided and lost will be built of wood- a practice destructive
concentrated into a focus from which of their architectural character, and
they will be radiated with an added also depriving them wholly of that
lustre, brightened and strengthened monumental appearance of stability
by our superior lights...If the time which is so essential to true
shall come when [Britain's} Empire architectural expression" (Fergusson
shall have passed away, these 1899: 626).
monuments of her virtue will endure, The early study of South-East Asian
when her triumphs shall have architecture shows the subjective
become an empty name ... Let interpretation of historians towards
[Britain} be remembered. .. as the incomprehensible art and culture.
gale of spring, reviving the Fergusson, again, gives his opinions about
slumbering seeds of mind, and the lavishly decorated monasteries in
calling them to life from the winter of Burma and Thailand as the representing
ignorance" (Raffles cited in Groslier " ... a building such as the West never
1970: 254). saw, and, let us hope, never will see; for,
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however dazzling its splendour, such which have a relatively shorter life-span,
barbar~c magnificence is worthy only of a rapidly deteriorate in the intense heat and
half-civilized race" (Fergusson 1899: 628). the heavy rain fall of a tropical climate.
It was more comprehensible for the West to The nature of the deterioration of
study architecture as an object of art and architectural surfaces involves the fading of
research into its origin. Together with the the gold leaf, dull coloured glass, and the
idea of conserving the neglected remains of loosening or breaking of tiles on the relief
a past civilization, the ruined monuments patterns. Hard tropical timber is the main
and archaeological sites were the focus of construction material for the roof structure,
attention rather than the living monasteries. windows, and doors, and other decorative
Western archaeologists were able to impose elements such as ceiling and eave brackets.
their own methods of research and This timber suffers from the effects of
conservation approaches on the ruined weather as well as from fungus and insects.
monuments without creating much conflict It would have been more efficient if
with local people who still carried on problems could have been detected earlier
the traditional way of caring for their so preventive measures could be carried
living monasteries. There were however out. However, most of the Thai monasteries
some restoration works that related to did not have a regular inspectio n
monasteries and their occupants; in these programme. It always was too late when
cases the western conservation approach the problems of deterioration became
had to give way to the traditional method evident.
of repair. The restoration of temples in
Pagan in Burma was carried out by the During the early part. of this century, there
Burmese Archaeological Survey. They were several major restoration works
were " ...anticipated by the monks, whose carried out in various monasteries under the
zeal - comprehensive but somewhat over- patronage of King Rama V. The records of
possessive - led them to undertake lavish a ll the restoration works, which were
white washing or regilding operations, or in always major interventions, illustrates the
some cases to adopt the alternative solution norm of practice. The restoration often
of applying a fresh layer of brick or stucco" involved replacement of materials of both
(Groslier 1971: 180). decorative and structural elements that had
deteriorated far beyond the point of repair.
The Nature of Repair
In 1839, sixty-three years after the major
restoration by King Rama III, Wat Po in
The distinctive character of Buddhist
Bangkok was in the state of disrepair.
monastic architecture in Thailand is lavish
A detailed proposal for its restoration
decqration of architectural elements. Gold
was drawn up by the order of King Rama
leaf, mirror tiles and ceramic tiles are
V. A proposal written by Prince
common material s used for exterior
Narisaranuvatiwong, the royal architect,
decoration. The materials are used as part
mentions that most of the architecture in the
of the intricately carved timber or stucco
monastery was in a dilapidated condition.
motifs. Tiles are cut into small pieces and
In his report, Prince Naris suggested the
arranged into delicate low-relief patterns. It
demolition of several structures which were
is inevitable that these detail decorations,
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too decayed to be repaired. 5 A number of elements that were decayed beyond repair
structures pending demolition were stupas were replaced with new ones using the
within the Buddhavas area. The stupas are same design and material. The surfaces of
components of the whole lay-out of the the timber elements that were fmished with
Buddhavas complex. The ubosot which is gilding or mirror tiles were stripped off in
the centre of the complex is surrounded by order to be regilded or replaced with a new
double cloisters with a small vihara at each layer of tiles and gold leaf. Both exterior
of the four cardinal points. Seventy-one and interior walls were re-plastered and
small stupas are placed at close intervals mural paintings inside the vihara repainted.
outside and follow the outline of the The windows and doors, decorated with
cloisters. At each corner of the cloister, a gold gilded patterns on lacquer surfaces,
group of stupas is constructed. Each group were in a dilapidated condition. It was
consists of five stupas on the same pedestal, planned that all of windows and doors were
with the central stupa slightly larger than to be repainted and regilded.
the others.
The proposal of the restoration signifies the
The restoration proposal mentions that all two different approaches to the care of a
of the four grouped stupas were to be living monument. The traditional methods
demolished and out of the seventy-one of repair were undertaken without concern
small stupas, only thirty-two would be for the archaeological value of the
repaired while the rest would be structure. It is mentioned in the proposal
demolished. The restoration programme that the objective of repairs was not to
was divided into several phases and would make the old look new as if they had been
last for seventeen years. It was carried just constructed but to repair the dilapidated
out until the end of the reign, when King elements so that they retained their use and
Rama VI took on the task. However, the durability. It also illustrates the attitude
restoration records of the later pe~iod do not of an architect of the period towards
mention the demolition of the stupas. The monastic buildings. Prince Naris proposed
plan must have been altered at a later date. the demolition of the stupas even though, as
seen from an architectural point of view,
Nevertheless, other proposed schemes were they are part of the architectural elements
carried out. The vihara that enshrined a that form the unified plan of the Buddhavas
reclining Buddha image, built in the reign area. The proposal was made about sixty
of King Rama III, was in disrepair when the years after the vihara and the seventy-
restoration programme took place. The one small stupas had been constructed.
roof of the building was repaired and the Therefore, it is possible that the structures
timber roof decorations were removed. The were seen not as historical architecture but
functional and contemporary ones.
5
Information on the restoration ofWat Phra
Chetupon (Wat Po, Bangkok) was taken from During the reign of King Rama V, there
documents ofThe Ministry of Engineering was no legislation directly related to
service in the National Archive, Bangkok, the care and conservation of historic
dated between 1837-1839 as well as records of monuments. Nevertheless, an interest
restoration works published by Wat Phra in antiquity arose and was promoted. by
Chetupon (see bibliography).
the king. The Archaeological Society
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(Borankadee Samosorn) was established in religious, and ancient man-made structures
1907 under royal patronage . The role of such as reservoirs and bridges. The second
the Society was to raise public awareness of group concerned movable objects, for
the importance of national monuments and example stone inscriptions, Buddha images,
antiquities. During this period, the king and other artifacts. Criteria for determining
issued an edict protecting the ancient city of the values of monuments and artifacts were
Ayutthaya as a national heritage site. In the established by the Council. Two factors
reign of Rama VI, the care of national which were considered important were their
heritage became an activity of the royal historical and artistic value . How these
government. In 1923, the king established values could be established was explained
a committee responsible for this task. by Prince Damrong Rajanuparb, the first
Codes of practice were issued. The content president of the Council, in his lecture
of the codes dealt mainly with the survey given in November 1930 which can be
and se lection of ancient artifacts and regarded as a landmark document m
monuments by the committee, and the roles conservation in Thailand.
of the committee as an advisory body for
local authorities in matters dealing with Monuments, sites and artifacts that could be
national heritage. Even though the king related to a particular period or important
passed away two years after the committee events in Thai history were of historical
was established and the committee was value. The monuments or artifacts that
annexed to a new institute founded by the showed distinguished craftsmanship or
succeeding king; it was the first step to an were the specimen of a particular style from
organized body directly responsible for the past were considered as having artistic
national heritage. value. This lecture is the only written
document describing the conservation
The Royal Academic Council approach of the council. At that time,
however, there was no legislation issued by
the government to support the Council in
The Royal Academic Council was
carrying out its conservation works . The
established by King Rama VII in 1926.
pioneers in the conservation field undertook
It was divided into three divisions, namely:
their projects within many constraints
Art and Craft, Literature, and Archaeology.
and experienced many difficulties . The
The works of the Archaeology Division
early work of the Council was to make an
ranged from caring for archaeological sites
inventory of important monuments and
and artifacts in the country to museum
artifacts in the country. Since the Council
management. The conservation policies
was centralized, this being unavoidable
and the practical approach of the Council
because of the limited number of staff,
were established by using western
it asked for collaboration from local
examples carried out by western
authorities to inform it of monuments and
archaeologists as they had always done
artifacts in their region. The inspectors
in other countries in South-East Asia.
were sent by the Council to inspect the
National heritage was categorized into
condition of the monument and an
two groups. The first group consisted of
inventory was made. One of the purposes
monuments and sites such as cities,
of the inventory was to use it as a reference
important buildings both secular and
for judging which monuments should be
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given priority in conservation. Since there change in the style and details of the
was not a large amount of government original. In the case of monasteries, a local
funding, the monuments had to be authority had a duty to explain these
classified and work undertaken according principles of conservation to the monks.
to their condition and need. If there were any problems related to
the restoration, the Council should be
Three degrees of intervention were set up, immediately informed in order that expert
beginning with a programme to recognize advice could be given or the Council could
the monuments. Though this process is intervene in the restoration process when
similar to the listing of historic monuments, necessary to prevent damage to the
there was no legislation to support this monument.
process. The next step was to put a kind of
structural support around the monument to An important task of the Council was to
prevent further deterioration. The work of raise awareness of the value of cultural
this kind was carried out on both stone and heritage among ordinary citize.ns. During
brick buildings. Scaffolding for supporting this period, antique collection had become a
the structure was built using timber, bricks, fashion among the elite Thai as well as
and, at a later date, reinforced concrete. among foreign visitors and there were
The third degree of intervention was total several reports to the Council about the
restoration. It was mentioned in the lecture looting of monuments by treasure hunters.
by the president of the Council that this Deserted monuments in remote parts of the
method was tried at a stone Kluner temple country suffered the most.
in Lopburi and it was also being put into
practice by L' Ecole Francaise d' Extreme The establishment of the Royal Academic
Orient at Angkor Thorn in French Indo- Council was the first step to a more
China. The method used here was organized conservation practice based on
anastylosis which was an acceptable western models. The Council was started
conservation technique for restoration of from devotion of like-minded people who
dry stone masonry. Though the ethic in realized the necessity of systematic
restoration has always been arguable and conservation. However, they had to
the technique has never been satisfactory overcome many obstacles such as the lack
when used on brick and stucco buildings. of qualified personnel and funding. This is
The Council did not mention the method of mentioned in a letter from Professor George
intervention between the supporting of a Coedes, a French archaeologist and advisor
structure and the total restoration nor did to the Council, written to Prince Damrong
they object to anastylosis. But the Council in 1929 that:
realized there was a loss of historical value "I have a sad feeling that... when I
when r~storation was undertaken. Prince shall retire, nobody in Siam will be
Damrong Rajanuparb illustrated examples able to read a Sanskrit, Cambodian,
of several monastic buildings that were or even old Thai inscriptions ... The
repaired or reconstructed not in keeping collaboration with Your Royal
with their original style. The Council also Highness in the creation of the
asked a local authority to supervise the Archaeological Service and of the
repair or restoration of any historic building Museum has been for me a source of
in their area, so that there would be no immense satisfaction, but here again,
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owing to lack offunds and of staff were listed for the first time. From then on
I cannot see the realisation of what there have been several amendments to
I deem most essential in that the legislation and several restoration
connection: I mean a full and programmes have been carried out.
detailed survey of the antiquities
of Siam, and a numbering and During this period, there were collaborative
cataloguing of the objects kept in the projects between Thai and French
Museum" (Coedes's letter: National archaeologists in many parts of the country.
Archive). The Ecole Francise d' Extreme Orient made
Until 1926, there was no legislation enacted an agreement with the Thai authorities on
by the government directly concerned with the excavation of archaeological sites in
the conservation of historic monuments. 1937. According to the agreement the
The first legislation related to the caring of Ecole would send a French expert to
national heritage was aimed at protecting Thailand to supervise the excavation and
artifacts which, at that time, were being research. The Thai authorities had priority
widely excavated and smuggled out of in selecting the finds from the sites for
the country. Important monuments were the national collection while the French
recognized and protected to a certain received according to the proportion of the
extent. However, the care of most of money that they spent in the operation. The
monasteries still very much depended upon first site that was excavated by the Ecole
their patrons and monks while the quality was at Wat Pra-meru in Nakorn Pathom.
of the repaired work depended on employed
local craftsmen. French Restoration Works in
Thailand
Conservation after 1932
Restoration of historic monuments by the
1932 saw Thailand enter another major French and the Department of Fine Arts
period of change. On June 24 , 1932 a was carried out on stones temples in the
revolution broke out, bringing in a new era north-east of the country. The restoration
of constitutional government and ending method that the French commonly used was
the seven hundred year rule of the absolute anastylosis. It was also successfully used
monarchy. The political change had an by the Netherlands Indies Archaeological
indirect impact on the care of national Service in restoring the stone temples in
heritage. The duty that had always been Java which, at the time, was under Dutch
under the patronage of the kings and royal occupation. The principle of this method
family was transferred to the government. was that " ...whenever necessary, the whole
In 1933, the work of the Royal Academic building was taken to pieces , a nd
Council in matters relating to national reconstructed, stone by stone, exactly as
museums and the care of the historic it stood originally and reinforced by
monuments was transferred to' a newly modern methods, as it never was before"
established body: the Department of Fine (LeMay 1954). Maurice Glaize, who was
Arts. In 1934, the first legislation for the a conservator at the Angkor Conservancy
care of historic monuments and ancient from 1937 to 1945, applied the techniques
artifacts was issued and historic monuments of complete restoration to some of the large
63
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