Food Systems Summit Brief Prepared by Research Partners of the Scientific Group for the Food Systems
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United Nations Food Systems Summit 2021
Scientific Group
https://sc-fss2021.org/
Food Systems Summit Brief
Prepared by Research Partners of the Scientific Group for the Food Systems
Summit, May 10th, 2021
by Paule Moustier, Michelle Holdsworth, Dao The Anh, Pape Abdoulaye Seck,
Henk Renting, Patrick Caron, Nicolas Bricas
This paper is concerned with: (i) chal- acknowledged that contemporary food
lenges to food systems in Africa, Asia, and systems respond differently to these chal-
Latin America caused by urban develop- lenges according to their traditional (small-
ment, (ii) how existing food systems re- scale, subsistence, informal) versus mod-
spond to these challenges, and (iii) what ern (large-scale, value-oriented, formal)
can be recommended to improve their re- characteristics. We go beyond this classifi-
sponsiveness. We define ‘urban food sys- cation and propose six types of urban food
tems’ as food systems related to cities by systems: subsistence, short relational, long
material and human flows. Urbanisation relational, value-oriented SME-driven,
poses challenges related to food and nutri- value-oriented supermarket-driven, and
tional security with co-existence of multi- digital. They correspond to different con-
ple forms of malnutrition (especially for sumers’ food environments in terms of
women and children/adolescents), chang- subsistence versus market orientation, ac-
ing employment (including for women), cess through retail markets, shops or su-
and environmental protection. It is widely permarkets, diversity of food, prices andquality attributes. Urban food supply the outputs of these activities, including so-
chains differ not only according to scale cio-economic and environmental out-
and technology but also according to the comes” (HLPE, 2014:29). This definition is
origin of food (rural, urban or imports) and close to the definition of food chains, with
the perishability of the product. We stress three major specificities. First, it includes
the complementarity between short chains food diets and consumers’ behaviour. Sec-
that supply many perishable and fresh food ond, it considers a diversity of food prod-
items (commonly nutrient-dense) and long ucts, which is crucial for nutrition security
chains that involve collectors, wholesalers, as well as for the sustainability of produc-
retailers, storage and processing enter- tion systems. Third, it emphasises the key
prises for many staple food commodities role of food environments, i.e., “the physi-
rich in calories. More and more small and cal, economic, political and socio-cultural
medium enterprises are upgrading their context in which consumers engage with
business through technologies, consumer the food system to make their decisions
orientation, and stakeholders’ coordina- about acquiring, preparing and consuming
tion patterns, including food clusters and food” (HLPE, 2017:28). Often contradictory
alliances. Urban food systems based on mi- objectives are attributed to food systems,
cro, small and medium enterprises gathered under the general objective of
(MSMEs) have proven resilient in times of achieving sustainability (Béné et al., 2019).
crisis (including in the ongoing Covid-19 According to FAO (2018:1), a sustainable
pandemic). Rather than promoting linear food system (SFS) is a food system that de-
development from so-called ‘traditional’ livers food security and nutrition for all in
towards ‘modern’ food systems, we pro- such a way that the economic, social and
pose seven sets of recommendations environmental bases to generate food se-
aimed at further upgrading MSMEs’ busi- curity and nutrition for future generations
ness, while improving the affordability and are not compromised. Among sustainable
accessibility of food to ensure food and nu- food systems, inclusive food systems are de-
tritional security and accounting for the fined by Fan and Swinen (2020:9) as “reach-
specificities of the urban contexts of low- ing, benefiting, and empowering all people,
income countries. especially socially and economically disad-
vantaged individuals and groups in society”.
This paper is concerned with: (i) chal-
lenges to food systems in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America caused by urban develop- II.1. Urban growth
ment, (ii) how existing food systems re-
spond to these challenges, and (iii) what The world is becoming increasingly ur-
can be recommended to improve their re- banised. Half of the world’s population
sponsiveness. We define ‘urban food sys- now lives in cities, 40% in Africa, 49% in
tems’ as food systems related to cities by South-East Asia, and 81% in Latin America.
material and human flows. “A food system These figures are expected to increase by a
gathers all the elements (environment, factor of 25% by 2050 (WUP, 2018). Cities
people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, differ considerably in size, and a large share
institutions, etc.) and activities related to of urban growth is taking place in second-
the production, processing, distribution, ary cities, especially in sub-Saharan Africa
preparation and consumption of food, and where, in 2015, half the population lived in
2cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants Food and Agriculture Organization of the
(OECD/WAC, 2017). Compared to the pop- United Nations, is higher (50%) than levels
ulation of rural areas, urban populations in rural areas (43%). In urban slums, other
are more diverse in terms of cultural, eco- studies estimate food insecurity at up to 90
nomic, and social profiles. A middle class is percent” (Tefft et al., 2017, page x). Urban
emerging, which means an income ranging food consumption is characterised by a tri-
from 12 to 50 US$ per day in Africa, ac- ple burden of malnutrition, with the persis-
counting for 13% of the population (Neveu- tence of undernutrition, micronutrient de-
Tafforeau, 2017). In sub-Saharan Africa, in- ficiencies – especially related to iron defi-
come growth benefits urban areas, which ciency anaemia in women of reproductive
started in 2000 but has faltered since 2013 age and young children, and a rising preva-
(Tschirley et al., 2020 based on World Bank lence of overweight/obesity (GNR, 2020).
data). In Latin America, 40 to 50% of the With rising incomes, urban residents are
population of most countries live in few big eating more animal-source foods and pro-
cities larger than one million inhabitants. cessed foods that may be low in micronu-
Urbanization is positively correlated with trients, high in calories and fat (Popkin et
income per capita, but Latin America is the al, 2012; Yaya et al., 2018; Holdsworth et
continent with the highest income inequal- al., 2020; Rousham et al.,2020). These poor
ity which also persists in urban areas (BBVA quality diets affect children of all ages from
Research, 2017; OECD, 2019). Asia has infancy to adolescence and food systems
modest levels of urbanization as a region, do not currently account sufficiently for the
but it is home to half of the world’s urban nutritional needs of children and adoles-
community, and the continent with the cents (UNICEF/GAIN, 2018). Nutritional
fastest urban growth (Leeson, 2018). problems are amplified by excessively mo-
notonous diets, limited consumption of
II.2. Challenges for urban food systems fruit, vegetables, and pulses, as well as lack
of physical activity (Popkin et al., 2012).
Urbanisation poses several policy chal- Likewise, the consumption of imported
lenges for urban food systems. These are food by urban dwellers is increasing – alt-
related to food and nutritional security, hough the proportion is still limited (only
employment, and environmental protec- 5% in Africa, mostly relating to cereals, ac-
tion. cording to Bricas et al. (2016) and Tschirley
et al., (2014); and consumers commonly
II.2.1. Urban food and nutritional security combine local and imported products in
meals, resulting in a hybridization of cook-
In contrast to rural areas, the majority ing (Soula et al., 2020). In Latin American
of people who live in cities do not produce cities, food security improved for many
food and have to rely on local markets. years, partly as result of “zero hunger”
Food purchased in markets represents strategies first developed in Brazil in the
more than 80% of food consumption in cit- late 1990s and later in other countries in
ies of sub-Saharan Africa, compared with the region. However, in the last years food
50% in rural areas (Tschirley et al., 2020). insecurity is rising again as result of in-
There are many signs that urban food creased social inequality and recently due
security is inadequately addressed, espe- to the Covid-19 pandemic. At the same
cially in Africa. “Urban food insecurity in time Latin America is facing high levels of
low-income countries, estimated by the obesity rates, affecting 24% of the regional
Food Insecurity Experience Scale of the – mostly urban – population, almost double
3the global level of 13.2%, which is ex- The proportion varies across African cities,
plained by unhealthy diets and poverty ranging from 6% in Freetown and Conakry
(FAO, RUAF,2019). to 25% in cities of Nigeria and Tanzania,
In parallel, food safety has become and 30% in Cotonou, Lomé and Abidjan
a major public health issue. Food safety cri- (Tschirley et al., 2020). Street food is espe-
ses are regularly reported in the media, es- cially convenient for urban workers and
pecially in South-East Asia, where consum- low-income households who may not have
ers’ fears are linked to chemical products in the resources and facilities to purchase raw
fruit and vegetables and antibiotic residues ingredients and prepare dishes at home,
in meat (Figuie et al., 2004; Ortega and especially in slums (Soula et al., 2020; Pra-
Tschirley, 2017; Hinh et al., 2021). This is deilles et al., forthcoming). In Latin Amer-
because of new industrial and domestic ica, between 2000 and 2013, the consump-
sources of pollution close to agricultural tion of ultra-processed products grew by
production areas, and the increase in the more than 25 percent, and fast food con-
use of chemical inputs by farmers (de Bon sumption grew almost 40 percent (PAHO,
et al., 2010; Reynolds et al., 2015, di Gre- 2015).
gorio et al., 2003). The lengthening of food
supply chains and the lack of knowledge II.2.3. Urban employment
about hygiene also generate risks of con-
tamination at the processing, marketing, Southern cities are characterized by
handling and consumption stages (Jaffee et lack of access to stable employment, which
al., 2018). Consumer concerns about food explains that poverty is becoming increas-
safety have potential nutritional conse- ingly an urban phenomenon (Ravaillon,
quences as they may reduce consumption 2016). The difference in living standards
of fruit and vegetables because of concerns among the urban population is widening,
about pesticides, or push consumers to- increasing social inequalities. The informal
wards packaged (often highly processed) sector still provides most employment (es-
foods because they are perceived as safer pecially for women), accounting for up to
(Trübswasser et al., 2020). 90% in low-income countries and 67% in
emerging countries (Bonnet et al., 2019).
II.2.2. Food convenience Sub-Saharan Africa is facing premature de-
industrialisation with only 11% of employ-
Another growing consumer pattern ment in manufacturing, mostly in the food
is related to the convenience of where they industry (Giordano et al., 2019 based on
buy and what they buy. As women are in- Rodrik,2016 and ILO, 2018). In Latin Amer-
creasingly employed outside their homes ica, sixty percent of –mostly urban-people
and lifestyles are more sedentary, demand are employed in the informal sector
is growing for packed, pre-prepared food
that can be purchased near offices or shops II.2.4. Quality of the urban environment
where it is easy to park (for the middle clas-
ses) (Reardon et al., 2019). In sub-Saharan Last but not least, the urban environ-
Africa, processed food accounts for be- ment is responsible for major air, water,
tween 60% (in West Africa) and 70% (in and soil pollution problems (Amegali et al.,
eastern and southern Africa) of total food 2017; Adimalla, 2020), severe risks of
consumption, compared to, respectively, flooding (Douglas, 2017; Pervin et al.,
50% and 30% in rural areas. Food consump- 2020), and waste disposal, as the balance
tion outside the home is on the increase. between what enters and leaves the city is
4largely negative (Guerrero et al., 2013; Re- backgrounds mix, including rural and inter-
migios, 2010; Zhou et al., 2017). This jeop- national migrants, as well as public and pri-
ardises the production of safe food in cities. vate investments that provide a favourable
At the same time, if handled safely, agricul- substrate for innovations (Cobbinah et al.,
ture can recycle part of the waste produced 2015).
(De Bon et al., 2010). The challenges faced by urban devel-
Cities can be viewed as concentrations opment and new consumer expectations
of people and biomass that produce partic- question the capacity of existing urban
ular economic and environmental stresses food systems to adapt. This is detailed in
(Chaboud et al., 2020). Yet they also con- the following section.
centrate knowledge, as people of different
Figure 1. The characteristics of urban food systems in the Global South
DRIVERS
Economic Commodity and spatial
Environmental Demographic Policy
Income gaps Specialisation of territories
Public investments, food aid
Urban pollutions Instability Perishability, freshness
Rural-urban balance
URBAN FOOD CHAINS
URBAN FOOD SYSTEMS
Imports Urban food environment: home
gardens, market places, street ven-
dors, shops, supermarkets, food ca-
terers; prices, safety, promotion
Local producers Market intermediaries
(assembling, processing, Urban
(urban/rural)
wholesaling, retailing) consumers
Food
Food Diets
Waste
Environmental impacts OUTCOMES
Waste, pollution Employment, livelihoods Food and nutritional security
Adapted from HLPE (2017) and David-Benz et al., forthcoming.
We review the characteristics of the
chains that supply food to urban consum-
ers, their relations with urban food envi-
ronments, and urban consumers’ profiles.
III.1. Spatial and relational organisation
The nature of urban food environments,
especially in terms of food retailing land-
The organisation of urban food sys-
scapes, as well as the profiles of consumers
tems in Africa, Asia, and Latin America is
summarised in Figure 1.
5in terms of living standards, in addition per- dens have also important pedagogical func-
ishability and origin of food, result in major tions, e.g. through schooling programmes
differences between food supply chains. or community gardens (Hou, 2017). The
Food chains and food systems in low- multi-functionality of urban agriculture
income countries (LICs) are currently classi- means it is a ‘cheap’ producer of public
fied differently depending on their opera- goods (Moustier and Danso, 2015),
tion and organisation, which is related to
the evaluation of their outcomes/im- We now turn to market-oriented ur-
pacts/performance (HLPE, 2017). Such a ban food systems. Urban consumers are
classification relates to the market-orienta- mainly supplied by small-scale market ven-
tion, the scale of activities, informal versus dors and neighbourhood shops, even
formal (referring to whether or not the though supermarkets and convenience
business is registered), added value in the stores are increasing their market share.
chain through technologies and orientation Supermarket distribution is still limited for
towards consumer expectations, in partic- food, especially in Africa and South-East
ular regarding visual, organoleptic, and Asia: less than 10% of purchases in Côte
sanitary quality. The HLPE (2017) report d’Ivoire (Neveu-Tafforeau, 2017), Kenya
distinguishes traditional food systems, and Uganda (Wanyama et al., 2019), and
which are dominant in rural areas and in- less than 20% Vietnam (Un. Adelaide, 2014)
volve open-air markets and small shops – the percentages being even lower for
without much concern for food quality nor fresh food-, which may be explained by low
diversity, and modern food systems which consumer purchasing power as well as con-
develop in urban areas and are driven by sumer preference for traditional retail for-
supermarket development and income mats. So-called urban traditional food sys-
growth, with an intermediary type labelled tems are dominant in the urban context of
as mixed food systems. As the HLPE typol- low-income countries. There is a common
ogy mostly considers differences between overlap between what is termed as tradi-
rural and urban settings, and as urban food tional or informal markets/sectors/sys-
supplying chains are diverse, the rest of the tems, referring to the small scale of produc-
paper will highlight determinants that in- tion, absence of registration, and public
fluence the variable organisation and per- support. Traditional systems are often de-
formance of urban food systems and will scribed as poor-friendly, as suppliers are
result in the proposition of six types. mostly concerned with subsistence in-
comes (Vorley, 2013). Moreover, they are
Even though subsistence agriculture is an important part of the social fabric of
of minor importance in terms of total urban low-income urban communities, as seen in
food consumption, in cities in the Global studies in Ghana and Kenya (Pradeilles et
South it can play an important role in the al., 2021). Food processing, food distribu-
livelihoods and social inclusion of some vul- tion, and food catering are major sources
nerable inhabitants as evidenced in Tamale of urban employment, especially for the
and Ouagadougou (Bellwood-Howard et vulnerable poor (particularly women) who
al., 2018), Cape Town (Olivier et al., 2017), lack qualifications and capital (Allen et al.,
Hanoi (Pulliat, 2015), Quito and Rosario 2018). The urban food catering sector is di-
(Renting and Dubelling, 2013). Urban gar- verse, ranging from school canteens to
6street caterers and restaurants targeting long chains (Blay-Palmer et al., 2018;
different types of customers. Most pro- Schreiber et al., 2021). Short versus long
cessing takes place in micro, small and me- chains refers to physical as well relational,
dium enterprises (MSMEs) at an artisanal and the two are linked (Morgan, 2004; Ke-
scale (Tshirley et al., 2020) in various loca- bir and Torre, 2010). Short chains (in terms
tions within and outside cities. While street of distance and relations) have fewer inter-
vendors are documented as major provid- mediaries than long ones. This may lead to
ers of food and livelihoods to poor urban lower final prices than longer chains but
residents, especially women, in Africa and this is not systematic because long chains
Asia, they commonly lack public support may enable economy of scale (De Cara et
(Turner and Schloenberger, 2011; al., 2017). In line with predictions from spa-
Ogunkola et al., 2021). tial economics, short food chains predomi-
nate in the supply of perishable produce,
Traditional food systems are some-
e.g. leafy vegetables, milk, eggs, chicken.
times judged to be inefficient in responding
These commodities are nutrient-dense and
to new consumer expectations, especially
commonly under-consumed relative to nu-
quality and convenience (Reardon et al.,
tritional recommendations. Farmers or one
2019). Low investments in infrastructure
of their relatives are frequently involved in
may limit the regular availability and supply
wholesale and/or retail. On the other hand,
of some nutrient-dense foods like fruit and
staple food crops including cereals, tubers,
vegetables (Maestre et al., 2017). Regard-
pulses, and vegetables that can be stored,
ing the effect of traditional food systems on
e.g., onions, and some animal products, are
waste reduction, some studies report evi-
supplied by long chains originating in local
dence for inefficiency related to poor logis-
rural areas or by imports (Moustier, 2017;
tics, while others argue that less stringent
Lemeilleur et al., 2020; Karg et al., 2018,
quality criteria help reduce waste
2019). They often involve a chain of rural
(Chaboud and Moustier, 2020).
collectors, rural wholesalers, urban whole-
In addition to scales and technology, salers, and urban retailers who supply all
another major factor that influences the types of urban consumers. Transactions
organisation of food chains is food perisha- take place on wholesale and retail markets
bility as it influences the location of produc- that are located to minimise traders’ and
tion and the length of chains, especially consumers’ transport costs (Blekking,
when logistics are limited, which is even 2017; Lemeilleur et al.,2019). With the de-
worse in times of crisis, like the current velopment of transport, credit, and tele-
Covid-19 crisis. The location of production phone, these chains may be shortened, and
and the possibility of producing locally de- the roles of rural collectors and wholesal-
pends on the climate and on soil, as well as ers may be reduced. This transformation is
on the history of specialisation in some ter- termed as a ‘quiet revolution’ in agrifood
ritories. Mapping food supply chains is cru- value chains of developing countries by
cial to represent differences in the length Reardon et al. (2015).
of chains, in the number of intermediaries
Another important aspect of chain or-
and in their origin. This is the basis of ap-
ganisation concerns business-to-business
proaches based on foodshed identification,
relationships. Food chains in low-income
city-region food systems and short versus
7countries are characterised by long-term III.2. Innovations in urban food systems
acquaintanceship and reciprocity, together
with competition between hundreds of Considering the ability of urban food
vendors which together enable a certain systems to adapt to new consumer de-
degree of price homogeneity, even though mand for quality and convenience, we
need to look beyond the traditional ap-
oligopolies of wholesalers are observed be-
proach that qualifies modern or supermar-
cause of limited access to credit and stor-
ket-driven chains as innovative and tradi-
age facilities (Fafchamps, 2004). tional chains as obsolete and lacking dy-
Modern distribution systems, driven namics. A number of micro, small and me-
by supermarkets, are characterized by la- dium enterprises (MSMEs) are indeed in-
bour-saving and capital-intensive technolo- creasingly upgrading their technologies
gies in terms of logistics, refrigeration, self- and improving product quality in response
service, packaging, cash registers, in addi- to new consumer expectations. At the
tion to the recourse to contractual arrange- same time, they create new chain organisa-
ments with dedicated wholesalers (Hagen, tion patterns with increased chain interac-
2002). They are judged to be efficient in tions and different forms of vertical inte-
terms of logistics and quality (Reardon et gration, with the general support of na-
al., 2019), but with potential negative ef- tional and international public pro-
fects on nutrition because they supply a grammes (Moustier and Renting, 2015; de
wide range of highly processed food rich in Brauw et al., 2019; Tefft et a., 2019). This is
fats and sugar (Demmler et al., 2018; the case of farmer organisations that sell
Gomez and Ricketts, 2013; Peyton et al., food in shops or farmer markets in Laos, In-
2015; Wertheim-Heck et al., 2020). Regard- dia, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, or Kenya, or
ing affordability for the poor, modern sys- by subscription in Dakar and, in some South
tems are usually presented as less poor- African cities (Freidberg and Goldberg,
friendly because of higher prices and 2011; Joshi and Hioki, 2012; Renting and
transport constraints. Modern systems also Dubelling, 2013). Entrepreneurial produc-
create less employment per unit of product ers, e.g., le Terroir in Abidjan, are able to
(Moustier et al., 2010; Wertheim-Heck et sell dairy products and cold cuts to wealthy
al., 2015). Regarding differences in prices urban consumers thanks to processing and
between supermarkets and traditional ven- cold storage (Neveu-Tafforeau, 2017). Ca-
dors, when controlling for quality differ- terers, both private companies, restau-
ences, results are country-specific. When rants, and school canteens are developing
supermarkets gain a substantial market strategies to ensure food safety and pro-
share, they can reduce their logistic costs mote local products by signing contracts
and provide food at lower prices, especially with local producer groups. This is also the
food that can be stored (Reardon et al., case for public programmes targeting the
2010, Nuthalapati et al., 2020). Prior to that urban poor, e.g., the food purchase pro-
stage, food is usually more affordable and gramme in Brazil (Berchin et al., 2019). Yet
accessible in open markets and small shops these initiatives are evidenced as precari-
than in supermarkets (Moustier et al., ous because of the cost of access to sales
2009; Wanyama et al., 2019). Moreover, points for farmers, low levels of state sup-
supermarkets favour the use of plastics for port, lack of product diversity, and lack of
wrapping fresh food, which is a major envi- guaranteed food safety.
ronmental concern.
8Supermarket chains are developing egies, including whether they favour link-
rapidly in countries where incomes are ris- ages with local food chains, in their pricing
ing, like in South Africa, Côte d’Ivoire, and and in the payment conditions offered to
China. Supermarkets carry both local and local farmers, as well as in the training and
international brands and are developing logistics they may provide to farmers
strategies for quality control and guaran- (Minten et al., 2017).
teed origin, including using dedicated
Digital technology can be used by
wholesalers and contracts but still face dif-
MSMEs as well as by supermarkets or by
ficulties concerning quality control and
new large-scale capital-intensive compa-
traceability. Supermarket chains are usu-
nies which sometimes partner with SMEs
ally supported by city and national govern-
for their supply, logistics, or final delivery
ments on the grounds of modernity and hy-
(Reardon et al., 2021; Tefft et al., 2019; Si
giene but face increasing competition,
et al., 2019). E-commerce has been spurred
from traditional markets and from compa-
by sanitary crises including SARS and Covid-
nies that use digital technology for logistics
19 and is developing especially fast in Asian
and delivery to consumers (Neveu-Taffor-
countries including China, India and Vi-
eau, 2017 in reference to Côte d’Ivoire and
etnam (Reardon et al., 2021; Vietnamnews,
Si et al., 2019 in reference to China). Over-
2021; Dao T.A., 2020).
all, supermarkets vary in their supply strat-
Table 1. Characteristics and outcomes of the six types of urban food systems
Type of UFS (urban Description Outcomes
food system)
Subsistence Urban agriculture, including home gar- Variable additional contribution to the food
dens and nutrition security of the poor
Waste recycling
Possible food safety problems when use of pol-
luted soil, water or waste
Short relational Chain of farmers and retailers in markets Provisioning of nutrient-dense fresh food at low
(perishables) or streets cost
Oral commitments Employment of low qualified population
All income categories of consumers Limited quality management
Long relational Chain of farmers, collectors, wholesalers, Possible high margins due to wholesalers’ oli-
(non perishables) market and street retailers gopolies
Oral commitments Employment of low qualified population
All income categories of consumers Limited quality management
Value oriented Chain of farmers-entrepreneurs or collec- Employment and value added for low qualified
SME-driven tives, processors, retailers; quality control population
and labelling Rise in quality
Middle and high income consumers Rise in price
Supermarket- Like above + common dedicated wholesal- Rise in quality
driven ers + contracts Rise in price
Middle and high income consumers Variable impacts on inclusion of the poor
Increased availability of unhealthy food
9Digital Cross-cutting use of digital technologies in Overcome risks linked with sanitary crises
the types above, plus some specialized e- Higher traceability and trust, supporting for
commerce companies delivering food, certification schemes
sometimes partnering with SMEs Increased convenience
Middle and high income consumers Rise in price
Exclusion of consumers with poor internet ac-
cess
III.3. Six types of urban food systems caused by innovations and agribusinesses
(Glover and Poole, 2019). Labour-saving
To summarise, we advocate going be- and scale-biased innovations have a nega-
yond the classification of traditional versus tive impact on employment for the poor
modern food systems. This classification and they are less suitable in regions where
may appear to stigmatise the small-scale labour is in excess supply than is the case of
relational food systems that are competi- capital-saving or neutral innovations (un-
tive in terms of food availability, accessibil- less massive credit programmes focusing
ity, and affordability. Moreover, it may sug- on the poor are launched). Moreover, they
gest a linear trend of evolution from one ignore the diversity and creativity that exist
system to another, while the reality is a fre- at the level of food systems driven by
quent combination and synergies between MSMEs, including producer organizations,
different patterns. Hence, based on the re- as displayed in III.2.
viewed literature, we propose the follow- The Covid-19 crisis has caused major
ing typology – acknowledging for some disturbances, the most important being the
possible overlaps and combinations be- decrease in sources of income among vul-
tween each type. The main characteristics nerable urban dwellers, impacting on
of each type are summarised in Table 1. women and children, due to restrictions on
movement and the disturbances in logistics
systems (Shekar et al., 2021). In some
countries, the increased vulnerability of the
urban poor has been addressed through
food aid programmes and increased social
safety nets targeting women (Shekar et al.,
2021). At the same time, the local food pro-
visioning sector has proven to be quite re-
silient with no major breaks in the food
The capacity of food systems in less-
supply chains. Public policies restricting the
developed countries to supply urban popu-
sale of food in open markets have varied,
lations in sufficient quality and quantity is
with varying consequences for access to
often questioned. The development of ag-
employment and food by the poor. For in-
ribusiness at all stages of food chains is
stance, the municipalities of Abidjan and
sometimes seen as one way to overcome
Dakar, found ways to maintain retail sales
these shortcomings. Large-scale private in-
of food in open markets through regula-
vestments in mechanised production, pro-
tions concerning hygiene and social dis-
cessing, storage, and retailing are put to
tancing, enabling some contactless proxim-
the fore. Yet innovations are not neutral in
ity, which was not the case in Burkina Faso
terms of social inclusion. It is sometimes
where markets were shut down at the be-
even claimed that the present problems of
ginning of the crisis (Dury et al., 2021; IPES
food security, including unhealthy food, are
10Food, 2020; Moustier, 2020; Devereux et may have little knowledge of their health
al., 2020). benefits or of how to include them in their
Considering their inclusiveness and re- meals and dietary practices. Rural-urban
silience, we recommend supporting urban transportation, which is the mandate of na-
food transformations based on MSMEs. tional governments, should be a priority to
These are developed in the next section. improve both food availability and quality
and to reduce food losses. National pro-
grammes should also improve access to
credit and training on food processing and
storage for food MSMEs. Improvements in
food quality can be obtained by food pro-
In the previous section, we reported
cessing and storage technologies which are
insights from the literature on the ad-
not always available to MSMEs because
vantages and shortcomings of current ur-
they have no access to credit and training
ban food systems. Yet these insights are
programmes. Finally, securing coordination
quite patchy in terms of time, space, and
between food system actors is required to
commodity coverage. That is why our first
enhance the quality and availability of di-
recommendation relates to a need for bet-
verse food items. Details of these recom-
ter data. Second, we provide recommenda-
mendations are given below. Some recom-
tions related to urban food planning,
mendations concur with the recent work of
mostly concerning the protection of land
London Center for Food Policy to identify
for agriculture, marketplaces, and shops, as
policies and actions to orient food systems
well as regulations pertaining to supermar-
towards healthier diets for all (Hawkes et
kets and food safety. These should enable
al., 2020).
urban consumers to benefit from a variety
While some recommendations (V.1,
of food retailing formats. We also recom-
V.3) relate to all types of urban food sys-
mend communication actions to promote
nutrient-dense foods, e.g., fruit, vegeta- tems, some are more particularly relevant
bles, nuts and legumes, which may be avail- for some of the identified urban food sys-
able to consumers locally, but which are tem types (see Table 2).
not always purchased because consumers
Table 2. Recommendations according to targeted types of urban food systems
V.2.1. V.2.2. Upgrading of V.2.3. Mobile ven- V.4.1. Rural-urban V.4.2. Services to
open market places dors’ markets transportation MSMEs
Land protection
Subsistence X
Short relational X X x
Long relational X x x
Value-oriented SMEs x x
Supermarket-driven x x
Digital x
11Recommended interventions are traded. Surveys should be conducted at dif-
meant to upgrade the operation of MSMEs ferent times of the year to account for sea-
as well as changing consumers’ environ- sonal variations, and with specific rela-
ments towards more healthy food, while tional expertise. A foodshed approach
keeping costs and prices affordable for the (Schreiber et al., 2021) combined with
urban poor. This is why proposed interven- value-chain analysis (Smith and Dyer, 2021)
tions are sober in terms of capital and en- is recommended to identify the production
ergy; moreover, economies of scale are areas of targeted nutrient-dense food and
reached through coordination of SMEs ra- assess how value chain organisation (geo-
ther than support to agribusinesses. graphical and intermediation) determines
the quality, accessibility and competitive-
V.1. Obtaining accurate data on food con- ness of the supply of targeted food prod-
sumption, foodsheds, and food chains1 ucts.
Policy makers need to support inter- V.2. Urban food planning for poor-
disciplinary teams of researchers, including friendly production and marketing spaces
geographers, economists, specialists of
consumption and statistics, to collect accu- V.2.1. Protection of land for multifunc-
rate and updated data on food consump- tional urban agriculture
tion, foodsheds and food chains.
Available data on food consumption If market forces are left unrestricted,
under-estimate two kinds of patterns: food urban agriculture is doomed to disappear
consumed away from home, and seasonal given the forces of pressure on land and
food, including fruit and vegetables. Ade- water. This is detrimental to urban food se-
quate and valid measuring methods are curity and livelihoods and may create envi-
needed to address this deficiency ronmental problems. We consequently
(Rousham et al.; 2020). Identifying the spe- recommend protecting land for agriculture
cific role of different production areas and in areas where it is documented to play a
market intermediaries in urban food supply major role in both food supplies and liveli-
requires original sources of data. Compar- hoods, and where pollution is not an issue.
ing what is produced over a year in a city, Access to land can be secured through reg-
in rural areas and what is imported has ulations (protecting agricultural parks or
many limitations, including difficulties in zoning measures) and formal contracts.
grasping information on perishable sea- How urban planning is enforced needs to
sonal products; and also because it does be closely monitored as it has frequently
not take the destination of products into been observed that legal protection of land
consideration. Precisely appraising the role is regularly trespassed because of the at-
of different production areas and interme- traction of private investors’ urban devel-
diaries in urban food supply requires sur- opment schemes (de Bon et al., 2010;
veys of wholesale and retail markets, and Valette and Philibert, 2014; Ayambire et al.,
of the origin and quantities of products 2019; Dao T.A., 2019).
1
The lack of data was underlined at the Milan
Urban Food Policy Pact meeting in Ouagadou-
gou, 15-19 February 2021.
12V.2.2. Upgrading food marketplaces of the urban poor. Regulatory enforcement
requires consulting a panel of street ven-
Urban marketplaces are frequently dors to protect some urban spaces in order
characterised by congestion, difficulty to allow them to conduct their temporary
moving around, and lack of hygiene. Some business while ensuring their commitment
past projects aimed to replace urban mar- to respecting rules of hygiene and traffic
ketplaces with wholesale markets located safety. Some examples of successful inte-
outside the city boundaries, but these mar- gration of street vending in urban planning
kets were underused due to limited in Vietnam can be found in Loc and
transport facilities as well as the high cost Moustier (2016), in India in Srivastana
of stalls (Moustier, 2017). We thus recom- (2012), in China in Dai et al., (2019), and in
mend upgrading existing markets. A prior- Thailand in Tangworamonycon (2014).
ity is covering them and concreting the
ground. Other basic infrastructures and
V.3. Consumer-oriented promotion of nu-
services should be provided, including ac-
trient-dense food
cess to clean water. Planning new markets
should include in-depth consultation of a
panel of market users, especially wholesal- Culinary recipes and techniques that
ers and retailers (Hubbard and Onumah, enhance the nutritional quality of the food,
2001). Food markets can also be combined as well as the packaging and labelling of lo-
with a “food hub” function, thereby creat- cal nutrient-dense food items, including
ing new market linkages with food produc- fruit, vegetables, pulses, and nuts, should
ers in the region, as developed in Colombia be promoted. These food items are recom-
(Dubbeling et al, 2017). Market regulations mended to enable urban consumers, in-
concerning hygiene should be designed cluding women and children, to diversify
with the involvement of representatives of their diets in line with nutritional and plan-
market users. Farmers’ markets should be etary limits, and the promotion of local bi-
encouraged by providing adequate space odiversity (Eat Lancet Commission, 2019).
and market services (Baker and de Zeeuw, Different ways to increase public aware-
2015). ness about healthy food and promote tra-
ditional food cultures are developed by
Hawkes et al. (2020).
V.2.3. Accommodating space for mobile
vendors V.4. National provisioning of infrastructures
and services for MSMEs.
Given the importance of street vend-
ing in the livelihoods of vulnerable urban V.4.1. Improving rural-urban transport
populations (especially women), we rec-
Roads between cities and the rural ar-
ommend their business should be acknowl-
eas, which play a major role in supplying
edged and supported towards “semi-for-
food to cities, need to be expanded and
mality” (Cross, 2010). Semi formality refers maintained, along with alternative
a self-regulating system with some light transport routes by rail or water (Poppoola
third-party regulatory enforcement, thus et al., 2021).
protecting the flexibility of street vending
which is uniquely adapted to the conditions
13V.4.2. Disseminating small-scale food pro- e.g., “Entreprises de Services et Organisa-
cessing technologies tions de Producteurs” (ESOPs), should be
encouraged as this increases the scale of
Technological innovations exist to im- operation and investments in quality while
prove the safety and nutritional qualities of creating added value for farmers
food, but are not available to MSMEs at a
(Maertens and Valde, 2017). The concept
sufficient scale (Ferré et al., 2018; Pallet
of ‘intermediate food systems’ (systèmes
and Sainte-Beuve, 2016). Examples of
small-scale food storage and processing alimentaires du milieu) developed by
technologies reducing food losses, based Chazoule et al. (2018) and tested in some
on a thorough assessment of losses along African situations (Sirdey, 2020) can be
food chains, are given by Tefft et al. (2019). used to model the hybridisation of tradi-
tional and modern systems that combine
V.4.3. Service provisioning for MSMEs cooperation mechanisms with economies
of scale.
Innovation in the artisanal sector Cities become important actors in the
needs to be supported by providing credit development of sustainable food systems,
to increase the working capital, to enable particularly through their governance of ur-
investment in semi-industrial processing. ban agriculture, school canteens, and
Training on how to improve the quality of waste (Bricas, 2019; Fages and Bricas,
food needs also to be made available to 2017). Through the Milan food policy pact
MSMEs. This falls under the mandate of the (https://www.milanurbanfoodpoli-
public sector. As public resources are cypact.org/), city officials are invited to
scarce, partnering with the retail sector commit to thirty-one actions aimed at sus-
may be an appropriate solution, if it ena- tainable food provisioning and consump-
bles sufficiently wide coverage of both tion. In many cities, permanent urban food
farmers’ and consumer’s economic pro- policy councils have been set up with inter-
files. The public sector also needs to invest esting outcomes, e.g., school catering pro-
human resources in food quality control, grammes (Sonnino et al., 2019). Governing
with random checks of food safety and la- urban food systems in an inclusive way in-
belling frauds, and graduated sanctions for volves setting up multi-stakeholder city-re-
non-compliance, at various points of the gion food platforms. These include public
chain including wholesale and retail mar- stakeholders working in different sectors
kets (Hawkes et al., 2020; Dao T.A, 2020). (agriculture, trade, environment, health,
social care) and at national and city scale,
together with a panel of value chain actors
V.5. Fostering multi-stakeholder coordination
and governance and service support organisations. They
meet regularly to exchange and discuss in-
formation, aiming at reaching a consensus
Secured forms of coordination be-
on desirable outcomes and a set of policy
tween food suppliers and vendors range
recommendations (Blay-Palmer et al. 2018;
from agreements on quality or quantity re-
see also https://ruaf.org/ for many exam-
quirements to contractual joint commit-
ples of urban food policy platforms, some-
ments. Innovative producer organisations
times starting on urban agriculture pro-
which include processing and distribution,
14grammes, like in Qito). Food system assess- urban context and food systems of low-in-
ment and dialogues are good starting come countries. These include the im-
points for those (Huynh, T.T.T. et al., 2021; portance of food caterers, mobile and
David-Benz et al., forthcoming). open-market vendors, as well as urban ag-
In all these platforms, access and use riculture, in the provisioning of the urban
of market information is strategic. Systems poor; the high pressure on urban agricul-
favouring the interactions between farm- tural land and water; the innovative nature
ers, traders and public agencies, conducive and consumer-orientation of many food
to new marketing decisions for farmers, MSMEs; the growing concerns and involve-
new supplying options for traders, as well ment of urban authorities relative to urban
as priorities for extension workers and in- food security. Opportunities exist to re-
put suppliers, e.g., for the support of off- spond to consumer demand and needs in
season production to substitute for im- terms of nutritional balance and food
ports, are termed as alliances, by World safety, while generating employment for
Bank (2016) quoted by Tefft et al. (2017), less educated urban populations, especially
or market information and consultation for women. To exploit those, we recom-
system (MICS) by Moustier et al., 2014. mended a set of actions representing pub-
Modelling tools and serious games can be lic support to endogenous patterns,
combined in such information and consul- adapted to the six types of urban food sys-
tation systems to present options for local tems which were brought to the fore, as a
production that better address consumer plurality of food systems is needed to tar-
needs (Verger et al., 2020; Mangnus et al., get different objectives and local contexts
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