FRUIT AND VEGETABLES - YOUR DIETARY ESSENTIALS - The International Year of Fruits and Vegetables 2021 Background paper - Food and ...
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FRUIT AND VEGETABLES –
YOUR DIETARY ESSENTIALS
The International Year of Fruits and Vegetables 2021
Background paper
Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials The International Year of Fruits and Vegetables, 2021 background paper Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2020
Required citation: FAO. 2020. Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials. The International Year of Fruits and Vegetables, 2021, background paper. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb2395en The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dashed lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The designations employed and the presentation of material in the maps do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO concerning the legal or constitutional status of any country, territory or sea area, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers. ISBN 978-92-5-133709-7 © FAO 2020 Some rights reserved. This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- ShareAlike 3.0 IGO licence (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo/legalcode). Under the terms of this licence, this work may be copied, redistributed and adapted for non-commercial purposes, provided that the work is appropriately cited. In any use of this work, there should be no suggestion that FAO endorses any specific organization, products or services. The use of the FAO logo is not permitted. If the work is adapted, then it must be licensed under the same or equivalent Creative Commons licence. If a translation of this work is created, it must include the following disclaimer along with the required citation: “This translation was not created by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). FAO is not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation. The original English edition shall be the authoritative edition.” Disputes arising under the licence that cannot be settled amicably will be resolved by mediation and arbitration as described in Article 8 of the licence except as otherwise provided herein. The applicable mediation rules will be the mediation rules of the World Intellectual Property Organization http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/mediation/rules and any arbitration will be conducted in accordance with the Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL). Third-party materials. Users wishing to reuse material from this work that is attributed to a third party, such as tables, figures or images, are responsible for determining whether permission is needed for that reuse and for obtaining permission from the copyright holder. The risk of claims resulting from infringement of any third-party- owned component in the work rests solely with the user. Sales, rights and licensing. FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can be purchased through publications-sales@fao.org. Requests for commercial use should be submitted via: www.fao. org/contact-us/licence-request. Queries regarding rights and licensing should be submitted to: copyright@fao.org
Contents
Acknowledgements................................ iv
Foreword................................................... v
1 4
Fruit and vegetables Markets and value chains
Essential for healthy lives.......1 Responding to health-
conscious consumers........... 35
2 5
Good for you Nothing to lose
Health and nutrition Quality, safety, loss and
benefits ....................................9 waste...................................... 45
3 6
Growing green Food for thought
Sustainable production........ 17 Issues for action.................... 59
7
References............................ 63
iii
Acknowledgements
T
his publication was prepared by a Chapter 5:Rosa Rolle (Lead),
multidisciplinary team of the Food Dirk Schulz.
and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO), under the Chapter 6:Rosa Rolle (Lead),
overall direction of Marcela Villarreal, Kayo Takenoshita.
Director of FAO’s Partnerships and UN
Collaboration Division. The primary Thanks are also owed to ElMamoun
conceptualization and coordination Amrouk, Marco Artavia, Cosimo
of this publication were led by Kayo Avesani, Pablo Garcia Campos,
Takenoshita, Teodor Dosa, Rosa Rolle Elena Ilie, Chikelu Mba, Georgios
and Makiko Taguchi in consultation Mermigkas, Mayling Flores Rojas
with the members of the Secretariat and Florence Tartanac for their
of the International Year of Fruits and valuable contributions in preparing
Vegetables 2021 in FAO. and finalizing the technical inputs for
the publication.
The drafting of this publication was
made possible with substantial FAO gratefully acknowledges the
technical contributions from: valuable feedback received from
the external technical reviewers: Dr
Chapter 1:Rosa Rolle (Lead), Siobhan Marzella Wüstefeld (World Health
Kelly, Makiko Taguchi, Kayo Takenoshita. Organization), Mr Yacob Ahmad
(International Tropical Fruits Network)
Chapter 2:Maria Antonia Tuazon and Prof. Dr Yüksel Tüzel (International
(Lead), Megan Harrison. Society for Horticultural Science).
Chapter 3:Makiko Taguchi Sincere gratitude is extended to Paul
(Lead), Fenton Beed, Sara Hassan, Mundy for editing and graphic design.
Bruno Telemans.
Chapter 4:Siobhan Kelly (Lead), Sabine
Altendorf, Pascal Liu, Costanza Rizzo,
Pilar Santacoloma.
iv
Foreword
T
he United Nations has declared prices for quality products make fruits
2021 as the International Year and vegetables inaccessible to many,
of Fruits and Vegetables. The especially in developing countries.
Year aims to raise awareness of the Some areas of the world face limited
nutritional and health benefits of availability and access to these foods.
consuming more fruits and vegetables
as part of a diversified, balanced and Fruits and vegetables are highly
healthy diet and lifestyle as well as to perishable products, and this can cause
direct policy attention to reducing loss high levels of food loss and waste at
and waste of these highly perishable every step of the value chain, starting
produce items. at the farms. Given that many fruits
and vegetables are consumed raw or
When we think of healthy eating, the uncooked, they may also pose a risk for
first food items that often come to mind foodborne illnesses linked to pathogen
are fruits and vegetables – colourful, contamination and food safety risks
vitamin-, mineral- and fibre-rich, they due to chemical contamination.
are vital for the proper functioning
of the human body. The benefits of Therefore, it is crucial to look at the fruit
consuming fruits and vegetables as and vegetable sector holistically as an
part of a nutritious diet are vast. Fresh integral part of the food system, going
produce items are not only beneficial beyond nutritional benefits, and to also
to consumers, but they also benefit the examine their social, economic, and
food system. The fruit and vegetable environmental benefits. Different actors
sector contributes to increasing can contribute to making fruits and
biodiversity, generating environmental vegetables more accessible, affordable
sustainability, and improving the and available. Investing in the cold
livelihoods of farmers and employees chain, research and development, and
operating along the value chains. digital innovation can help improve the
sector substantially.
Low availability, due to challenges
in production (for example, labour This publication seeks to draw attention
intensity), transport and trade, and high to actions and systematic approaches
v
that must be taken throughout the fruit This publication will help to stimulate
and vegetables food system to ensure an interesting discussion about the
their safety for consumption and to fruit and vegetable sector for the
deliver better nutritional outcomes and observance of the International Year
healthy diets for all. and beyond.
QU Dongyu
FAO Director-General
vi
Fruit and vegetables
Essential for healthy lives 1
G
reen, yellow, orange, red or Yet most of us do not eat enough fruit
purple: fruit and vegetables keep and vegetables. The World Health
us healthy and add variety, taste Organization (WHO) recommends
and texture to our diets. Even if you eat consuming at least 400 g each day
rice or bread every day, you probably to reap their health and nutrition
vary the types of fruit and vegetables benefits. In 2017, some 3.9 million
you consume. A monotonous diet is deaths worldwide were attributable to
not only unhealthy for humans: it is not eating enough fruit and vegetables
also unhealthy for the planet because (WHO, 2019). Insufficient intake of fruit
it can result in monocultures and a loss and vegetables is estimated to cause
of biodiversity. around 14 percent of deaths from
gastro-intestinal cancer worldwide,
about 11 percent of those due to
ischemic heart disease, and about
9 percent of those caused by stroke
(Afshin et al., 2019).
2021 is the International Year
of Fruits and Vegetables
In declaring 2021 as the International
Year of Fruits and Vegetables,
the United Nations (UN) General
Assembly aims to raise awareness of
the nutritional and health benefits
© FAO/ James Hill
of fruit and vegetables and their
contribution to a balanced and healthy
diet and lifestyle. It also hopes to draw
attention to the need to reduce losses
and waste in the fruit and vegetable
1
z The UN Declaration on
Rights of Peasants and Other
People Working in Rural Areas
(UNHRC, 2018).
z The UN Decade of Family Farming
2019–2028 (UN, 2018).
z WHO’s Global Strategy on Diet,
Physical Activity and Health
© FAO/ Alessia Pierdomenico
(WHO, 2004).
The diverse range and characteristics
of fresh fruit and vegetables and their
inherently perishable nature warrants
specific attention to their conditions of
production, agronomic management,
pest and disease control, harvesting
techniques and postharvest handling
systems. The UN General Assembly’s
sector (UN, 2020) while delivering resolution also highlights various
better on environmental outcomes. cross-cutting issues and factors to be
Action is needed at the country addressed during the International
level to increase the production and Year of Fruits and Vegetables.
consumption of fruit and vegetables
and make them more economically Small-scale producers. F ruit and
accessible to consumers, while vegetables are grown by small-scale
generating economic, social and producers around the world, either
environmental benefits in line with the for their own use or for sale. Small-
Sustainable Development Goals. scale producers supply the fruit and
vegetable requirements of mass
The International Year of Fruits and markets in most developing countries.
Vegetables complements several Such farmers each produce relatively
other international initiatives that also low volumes, leading to problems with
support the Sustainable Development reliability and quality. Nevertheless,
Goals that address nutrition, there are clear opportunities for
consumption, health as well as small- improvements in these areas.
scale family farmer issues:
Technologies. Technology and
z The Rome Declaration on innovation are required at all stages in
Nutrition and the Framework for the fruit and vegetable supply chain,
Action (FAO and WHO, 2014). from production to consumption,
to improve both quality and output.
z The UN Decade of Action on Improvements can range from
Nutrition (2016–2025) (UN, 2016). simple farm-level technologies and
2 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials
practices to more sophisticated digital What are fruit and vegetables?
innovations that help assure the
safety and quality of fresh produce There is no widely accepted definition
as it moves along the supply chain. for either fruit or vegetables.
Innovative approaches such as public– The definition agreed to for the
private partnerships can help generate International Year of Fruits and
growth and development in the sector. Vegetables is as follows.
Income and employment. Fruit and Fruit and vegetables are considered
vegetables tend to be worth more edible parts of plants (e.g., seed-
per kilogram than other types of food bearing structures, flowers, buds,
(animal products are an exception). leaves, stems, shoots and roots), either
However, they may also require more cultivated or harvested wild, in their
labour than for many other types raw state or in a minimally processed
of food. This offers opportunities form. Excluded are the following:
for actors throughout the chain to
generate employment and income. z Starchy roots and tubers such
as cassava, potato, sweet potato
Gender and youth. W omen produce and yams (although leaves of
much of the world’s fresh produce, these plants are consumed
and they are often responsible for the as vegetables) .
harvesting, marketing and processing.
As consumers, they often choose what z Dry grain legumes (pulses) unless
items to buy and how to cook them. harvested when immature.
But women face disadvantages at all
stages in the chain – as producers in z Cereals including maize (corn),
their ability to access land, inputs and unless harvested when immature.
advice, as entrepreneurs in getting
finance to develop their businesses,
as workers in terms of fair payment
for their work, and as consumers
in terms of education about food
and nutrition. The high value of fruit
and vegetables and the potential for
innovation open exciting opportunities
for young people to become involved
in production and other aspects of the
value chain.
© FAO/Maxim Zmeyev
Policy. Food policies tend to be tailored
to the needs of staple crops. Fruit
and vegetables have been relatively
neglected in terms of policy attention,
funding, research and extension, and
support for agribusinesses.
1 Fruit and vegetables: Essential for healthy lives 3Box 1. Sustainable Development Goals related to fruit and vegetables
SDGs 2 3
Health benefits of fruit and vegetables
Harness the goodness
Fruit and vegetables have multiple health benefits. They strengthen the immune
system, combat malnutrition and help prevent non-communicable diseases.
SDGs 2 3
Diversified diet and a healthy lifestyle
Live by it, a diverse diet
Adequate amounts of fruit and vegetables should be consumed daily as part of
a diversified and healthy diet.
SDGs 2 8 12 13 14 15
Food loss and waste
Respect food from farm to table
Fruit and vegetables are worth more than their price. Maintaining their
quality and assuring their safety across the supply chain, from production
to consumption, reduces losses and waste and increases their availability
for consumption.
Innovate, cultivate, reduce food loss and waste
Innovation, improved technologies and infrastructure are critical to increase the
efficiency and productivity within fruit and vegetable supply chains to reduce
loss and waste.
SDGs 1 2 12 15
Sustainable value chains
Foster sustainability
Sustainable and inclusive value chains can help increase production, and help
to enhance the availability, safety, affordability and equitable access to fruit and
vegetables to foster economic, social, and environmental sustainability.
SDGs 1 2 3 4 5 8 11 12 15
Highlighting the role of family farmers
Growing prosperity
Cultivating fruit and vegetables contributes to a better quality of life for family
farmers and their communities. It generates income, creates livelihoods,
improves food security and nutrition, and enhances resilience through
sustainably managed local resources and increased agrobiodiversity.
4 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentialsz Nuts, seeds and oilseeds such (such as green beans) must be cooked
as coconuts, walnuts and before they are eaten.
sunflower seeds.
The International Year of Fruits
z Medicinal or herbal plants and and Vegetables focuses on fresh
spices, unless used as vegetables. produce or minimally processed
products. It nonetheless recognizes
z Stimulants such as tea, cacao that the processed forms of fruit and
and coffee. vegetables are important for farmers’
livelihoods and incomes, trade, food
z Processed and ultra-processed security and nutrition. Some varieties
products made from fruit and are grown specifically to be sold as
vegetables such as alcoholic fresh produce; others are destined
beverages (e.g. wine, spirits), from the start for the processing plant.
plant-based meat substitutes, or Still others may go either way: they are
fruit and vegetable products with sorted and graded before sale: the best
added ingredients (e.g., packed fruit items are sold fresh (which typically
juices, ketchup). fetches the highest prices), while the
rest goes for processing.
Minimally processedfruit and
vegetables have undergone Many types of fruit and vegetables are
procedures such as washing, sorting, processed to increase their shelf-life,
trimming, peeling, slicing or chopping year-round availability, or to increase
that do not affect their fresh-like their value. Minimal processing (see
quality (Gil and Kader, 2008). Minimally above) retains the inherent properties
processed food retains most of its of the produce. Full processing, on
inherent physical, chemical, sensory the other hand, may include juicing,
and nutritional properties. Many such fermentation, pickling, or canning in
foods are as nutritious as the food in brine, juices or syrups.
its unprocessed form (Parrish, 2014).
Examples include sliced fruit, bagged
fruit, vegetable salads, and frozen and
dried fruit and vegetables.
Fresh versus processed
Unlike most other categories of food,
fruit are normally eaten raw (uncooked
© FAO/Saul Palma
form): either whole (berries) or after
peeling them (oranges, bananas,
papayas and mangosteens). Many
types of vegetables are also often
eaten uncooked, as in salads. Some
1 Fruit and vegetables: Essential for healthy lives 5External drivers
Globali- Income Population Political & Socio-
Climate Urbani-
zation & levels & growth & economic cultural
change zation
trade distribution migration contexts context
Food systems
Consumer
Agriculture and Food
behaviour and Diets
food supply chains environment
individual factors
• Food production • Food availability Choices in where and • Quantity
systems and physical what food to acquire, • Quality
• Storage and access (proximity) prepare, cook and eat, • Diversity
distribution • Food prices based on individual • Safety
• Processing and (affordability) factors:
packaging • Promotion, • Income and
• Retail and advertising and purchasing power
marketing messaging • Information and
• Food quality and knowledge
safety • Conscious and
unconscious
preferences
Nutrition Other impacts
Policy and governance and health Social, economic,
outcomes environmental
Sustainable Development Goals
Figure 1. Food systems for healthy diets
Adapted from HLPE (2017), FAO (2020)
6 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentialsSustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals
support making the food system
Fruit and vegetable production is more productive, environmentally
central to the livelihoods of many sustainable and resilient (Box 1). The
small-scale farmers. But it can damage elements of food systems – agriculture
the environment, including the soil, and food supply chains, food
water and biodiversity. Chemicals environments and consumer behaviour
used to ensure productivity and – require concerted action to ensure
protect the crop from pests may healthy diets are available, affordable,
pollute the environment. High levels accessible, safe, culturally acceptable
of food loss and waste result from and appealing to all. Opportunities are
poor handling and the perishability of needed throughout food systems to
fresh produce, reducing the efficiency improve diet and nutrition outcomes
and sustainability of the system with (HLPE, 2017). This food-systems
potentially negative impacts on the approach to better nutrition considers
environment and the natural resource the food systems in its totality, taking
base. Ensuring that fruit and vegetables into account all the elements, their
contribute more to nutrition and relationships and related effects
health requires more comprehensive (Figure 1).
and holistic approaches. The supply
of fresh produce must be made more Beyond their relevance to diets
efficient, inclusive and resilient (Box 1). and nutrition, food systems play
an important role in promoting
environmental sustainability (climate
change adaptation and mitigation,
Transforming the sector: biodiversity, soil and water degradation),
inclusivity (viability for smallholder
Adopting a food systems approach farmers, indigenous peoples, gender
It is widely accepted that our food equity) and productivity (increased
systems are increasingly detrimental production of nutritious foods,
to both human and planetary health. economic development).
Food systems are not delivering the
healthy diets needed for nourishment. Transforming the fruit and vegetable
They result in the increasing prevalence sector requires a holistic and
of all forms of malnutrition (stunting, comprehensive approach that looks at
wasting, overweight, and obesity), the interconnectivity between demand,
all of which are exacerbated by the supply, socio-economic development
current COVID-19 pandemic. Other and fruit and vegetable prices – a major
issues include rising populations and determinant of consumer behaviour.
consumption, increasing urbanization, Stronger linkages among the various
higher rates of non-communicable actors and stakeholders across the
disease (WHO, 2019), decreasing system are needed to integrate
arable land and water resources for sustainable practices in production,
agriculture, the effects of climate harvesting, postharvest handling,
change and possible food shortages. processing and consumption. Factors
1 Fruit and vegetables: Essential for healthy lives 7to consider toward delivering on better and the policies and institutions that
nutrition while also creating a better influence production.
environment, better production and
better livelihoods include facilitating Chapter 4looks at the markets and
access by small-scale producers and value chains that link producers with
agricultural enterprises to viable consumers. It begins by focusing on
markets, assuring the safety and international trade, which is important
quality of fruit and vegetables along for certain crops and enables
supply chains, applying innovation, consumers to buy types of food they
reducing loss and waste, and reducing would not otherwise be able to get.
the energy intensity and ecological It discusses contract farming, which
footprint of supply chains. offers ways for small-scale producers
to participate in high-value markets.
It then examines ways to link farmers
to domestic markets (which account
In this document for the vast majority of the fruit and
vegetables grown and consumed
Chapters 2–5 address the four core around the world), and how to add
elements of the fruit and vegetable value to fresh produce. It concludes
sector. Chapter 2 discusses delivering with a discussion of responsible
better and more efficiently on health business practices.
and nutrition at the consumer
end of the system. Eating fruit and Chapter 5focuses on quality, safety,
vegetables is good for us, but few of us loss and waste reduction. It highlights
consume even the minimum amounts cross-cutting issues and the actions
recommended by the World Health needed to assure sustainability and
Organization. This chapter describes efficiency throughout the food system
the current situation and presents and to deliver safe, good-quality food.
some reasons for the shortfall.
Chapter 6lists the key issues that must
Chapter 3focuses on production. It be addressed to move away from the
presents the volume of production current situation where elements of the
around the world, before focusing on food system operate independently.
the major types of producers: small- What is needed is a more sustainable
scale farmers, urban and peri-urban and systemic approach, where the
producers, and large-scale commercial core elements are better linked with
growers. It then turns to the inputs each other so they can deliver nutrition
needed to grow these crops, the and health benefits and safeguard
environmental aspects of production, the environment.
8 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentialsGood for you
Health and nutrition benefits 2
F
ruit and vegetables are a vital The evidence is clear. Fruit and
part of cuisines around the world. vegetables are an important part of
From gado-gado in Indonesia to a healthy diet. They help children
sauerkraut in Germany and guacamole grow and support body functions and
in Mexico, each country and region has physical, mental and social well-being
its own favourite dishes. Rice, potatoes at all ages. They can help prevent all
and bread are near-universal; it is our forms of malnutrition (undernutrition,
fruit and vegetables that help define micronutrient deficiency, overweight
our culture. and obesity) and reduce the risk of
non-communicable diseases (Afshin
This chapter examines the consumption et al., 2019; WHO and FAO, 2005).
side of the fresh fruit and vegetable Together with malnutrition, unhealthy
system (in other chapters we will look diets are among the top-ten risk factors
at what happens to get these foods to for disease globally.
our tables). We start with the nutritional
and health benefits of these foods. We
then look at consumption levels around
the world, and the reasons for the sad
fact that most people do not eat enough
of them to maintain a healthy life. The
chapter ends with some suggestions as
to how to change this.
Consumption
© FAO/Vasily Maksimov
Parents around the world try to cajole
their children to eat their greens or
snack on fruit rather than junk food.
They do so for a reason: fruit and
vegetables are good for you.
9Box 2. Colour is the key
The colours of fruit and vegetables are often linked to the nutrients and phytochemicals they contain
(FAO, 2003)
Purple/blue
Antioxidant properties that can reduce the risks of cancer, stroke and heart disease.
Examples
z Beetroot, red cabbage, eggplant.
z Blackberry, blueberry, purple grape, plum, passionfruit.
Red
Can help lower the risk of cancer and improve heart health.
Examples
z Red capsicum, radish, tomato.
z Red apple, cactus pear, cherry, red grape, red and pink grapefruit, red guava,
raspberry, strawberry, watermelon.
Orange/yellow
Contain carotenoids that help keep eyes healthy.
Examples
z Carrot, pumpkin, squash.
z Apricot, grapefruit, lemon, mango, melon, nectarine, orange, papaya,
peach, pineapple.
Brown/white
Phytochemicals with antiviral and antibacterial properties as well as potassium.
Examples
z Cauliflower, chive, garlic, ginger, leek, onion.
z Banana, durian, jackfruit, white peach, brown pear.
Green
Phytochemicals with anti-cancer properties.
Examples
z Asparagus, green bean, bok choy, broccoli, cabbage, green capsicum, cucumber,
lettuce, peas, spinach.
z Green apple, avocado, green grape, kiwifruit, lime.
10 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentialsAlmost all countries make dietary z Better mental health.Eating
recommendations that include fruit 7–8 servings a day (more than
and vegetables, using depictions such the recommended minimum of 5
as triangles, pyramids and plates (see, servings) is linked to lower risk of
for example, EU Science Hub). The depression and anxiety (Conner et
recommendations vary from country al., 2017).
to country, depending on what is
locally available, affordable, and socio- z Healthy heart.Fibre and
culturally acceptable. antioxidants in fruit and vegetables
can help prevent cardiovascular
WHO currently recommends disease (Wang et al., 2014; Collese et
consuming at least 400 grams of fruit al., 2017; Miller et al., 2017; Aune et
and vegetables each day – or five al., 2017).
servings of 80 grams each (WHO and
FAO, 2003). The optimum amount z Lower cancer risk.In 128 out of
depends on various factors, including 156 dietary studies, consuming fruit
age, sex, and level of physical activity. and vegetables was found to lower
All the guidance promotes a varied diet the risk of lung, colon, breast, cervix,
and a balance between different types oesophagus, oral cavity, stomach,
of food. Fruit and vegetables are a vital bladder, pancreas and ovarian
part of this advice. cancer (Boffetta et al., 2010).
z Lower obesity risk.A number of
studies have observed a lowered
Benefits of eating fruit
and vegetables
Consuming enough (or even more than
the recommended amounts) of fruit and
vegetables has many benefits (Box 2):
z Children’s growth and
development.Fruit and vegetables
are rich in Vitamin A, calcium, iron
and folate, which can promote good
health, strengthen a child’s immune
system and help protect against
disease, both now and in the future
© FAO/Miguel Schincariol
(Xin, 2016).
z Longer life.People who eat more
fruit and vegetables live longer
than those who do not, according
to a large study in 10 European
countries (Leenders et al., 2013).
2 Good for you: Health and nutrition benefits 11such as gas, constipation and
diarrhoea (Klimenko et al., 2018;
Maxner et al., 2020).
z Improved immunity.Adequate
intakes of fruit and vegetables
may reduce the severity of some
infectious diseases. Though they
will not protect you against a virus
© FAO/Alessia Pierdomenico
such as COVID-19, recovery from
infectious disease is better when
consuming fruit and vegetables
than with diets low in this food
group (Chowdhury et al., 2020).
Consumption levels
risk of adiposity and obesity in Worldwide, we consume far less fruit
certain groups who consume fruit and vegetables than the minimum
and vegetables (Ledoux et al., 2011; total of 400 g recommended by
Schwingshackl et al., 2015). WHO for a healthy diet. The amount
of fruit and vegetables you need
z Lower diabetes risk.A systematic to eat depends on your age, sex,
review and meta-analysis found and level of physical activity. Many
higher green leafy vegetable and countries have developed additional
higher fruit intake was associated recommendations for children, given
with a significant reduction in the importance of fruit and vegetables
Type 2 diabetes risk. For every 0.2 for healthy growth and development.
serving/day of vegetable intake,
there was a 13 percent lower risk of On average, we consume only about
diabetes (Li et al., 2014). two-thirds of the recommended
minimum amounts of fruit and
z Better gut health.A diet rich in vegetables (calculation based on
fruit, vegetables and other high- Afshin et al., 2019). The quantities
fibre, plant-based foods improves vary considerably: people in Central
gut bacteria diversity and tends to Asia, North Africa and the Middle
increase bacteria associated with anti- East consume slightly more than the
inflammatory compounds linked recommended minimum, while those
to improved metabolism. Higher in sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania
consumption of fruit and vegetables consume only about one-third of this.
has also been shown to decrease Residents of the Caribbean consume
the prevalence of diverticulosis as the most fruit, while those in southern
well as other digestive problems Africa consume the least.
12 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentialsConsumption of fruit and vegetables in they consume, and vice-versa. Possible
sub-Saharan Africa is particularly low reasons for this could be:
(Amao, 2018).
z Where incomes are generally low
z In South Africa, a study of 3 480 (as in sub-Saharan Africa and South
adults aged 50 years or more Asia), people tend to spend their
found that 68.5 percent did not eat limited food budget on cheaper
enough fruit and vegetables. This staple foods. Cultural preferences
was especially true of Black African and the low availability of fruit and
or Coloured men, men with low vegetables may also play a role.
educational level, and those with
low socio-economic status. z In other parts of the world,
consumption levels are higher,
z In Benin, school-going adolescents but consumers still have a limited
consumed on average only 97 g of budget for fresh produce (or wish
fruit and vegetables as compared to to consume only a certain amount
the generally recommended intake of such items). They balance their
of 300 g for fruits and 150–225 g for spending or consumption: if they
vegetables for this age group. consume more fruit, they eat fewer
vegetables. The levels of each
z In Lagos, Nigeria, the same age depend on factors such as price,
group knew of the nutritional and availability and culture.
health benefits, but only 5.5 percent
of those interviewed consumed the
recommended minimum amounts.
Why do people not eat enough
There is only a limited relationship
between income levels at a regional
fruit and vegetables?
level and the intake of fruit and Eating behaviours are complex and
vegetables. People in high-income shaped by interwoven physical,
Western Europe and Northern biological, psychological, historical, and
America consume only half of the ideal cultural factors. While it is not possible
amounts, while those in North Africa to examine all the factors that influence
and the Middle East consume larger fruit and vegetable consumption here,
quantities, even though incomes in below are a few factors that emerged
this region are generally lower. during a FAO/WHO workshop in 2020:
Overall, there is little apparent Availability.Many fruit and vegetables
relationship between the consumption are seasonal and perishable and
of vegetables with that of fruit. If we are not available year-round. High
exclude those areas with low levels of losses during harvesting, transport
consumption, there is a strong negative and storage reduce the quantities
correlation between the intake of fruit available in shops and markets.
and that of vegetables: the more fruit This is compounded by the lack of
people consume, the fewer vegetables refrigeration and transport facilities,
2 Good for you: Health and nutrition benefits 13with fields or gardens can grow and
Box 3. Consumption in sub-Saharan Africa eat their own fruit and vegetables,
but many crops are seasonal and
A study in 10 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Ruel perishable, and are therefore not
et al., 2004) found that the expenditure for fruit and always available.
vegetables accounts for between 3 and 13 percent
of the total household budget, or between 5 and 16 Education and culture.Food is
percent of the food budget. intensely cultural: our tastes are
influenced by the culture we are
As household incomes rise, demand for fruit and vegetables brought up in and how we were brought
also rise, but at a slower rate than the income. Households up as children. Indeed, food is an
headed by women tend to spend more on fruit and important part of culture itself: what
vegetables than do those headed by men. we cook and eat in part determines
Urban residents tend to eat more fruit and vegetables than our identity. Immigrants prefer to
do those in rural areas – but this is because urban residents eat food they are used to; immigrant
tend to have higher incomes. communities frequent shops selling the
products with which they are familiar.
Controlling for income, better-educated people tend to But cultures and diets sometimes
consume less fruit and vegetables than those with less change, and rising incomes and
education. This is because the better-educated tend to work urban lifestyles with a preference for
outside the home; they prefer processed foods that contain “convenience” are often associated with
less fruit and vegetables. an increased intake of sugar, oils, animal
products and highly processed foods,
and lower consumption of fresh fruit
warehouses and retail outlets, which and vegetables – a change known as the
shortens the shelf-life of especially “global nutrition transition” (Caballero
perishable items. Breakdowns in and Popkin, 2002; Popkin et al., 2012).
supply chains disrupt the marketing of
produce and reduce the incentives for Lack of knowledge.People may like
producers to grow these crops. Low (or dislike) fruit and vegetables for
demand creates low supply, and vice- their taste but not know of their value
versa: a chicken-and-egg situation (see for health and nutrition. The needs
Chapter 3). of children, teenagers, adults and the
elderly differ, as do those of men and
Affordability. F ruit and vegetables women. Women who are pregnant
can be a relatively expensive part of or lactating need extra nutrition, but
the diet (Box 3). Many of the poor they and their families may not be
spend what food money they have on aware of this. People living with HIV/
cheap, stomach-filling, energy-rich, AIDS, and those with diabetes and
staple carbohydrates such as rice or other health problems, also need
cassava. They add small amounts of special diets. But nutrition and health-
vegetables and animal products for awareness campaigns are often
taste when available. Fruit can also be poorly targeted and fail to match the
a luxury item, but may be affordable physiological needs of these specific
when production is at its peak. Those population groups.
14 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentialsCompetition with alternatives. Improving health and nutrition
Processed foods are backed by
powerful advertising that present Alongside the current COVID-19
them as tasty and socially desirable. pandemic, we are also facing a
Aggressive marketing promotes pandemic of non-communicable
unhealthy foods and beverages in diseases, many of them caused by
schools, offices and shops. Sugary poor nutrition (Allen, 2017). This
drinks are easier to buy and consume requires decisive action. The policy
than freshly pressed juice; sweets and areas needing attention include
packaged snacks have a longer shelf the following.
life than fruit. Such foods compete
with fruit and vegetables for the same Promoting production.Interventions
dollar, euro, franc, peso, pound, rupee are needed to help small farmers
or shilling. produce more fruit and vegetables.
That will mean improving agricultural
Food safety.Unlike many processed extension services to promote good
foods, fruit and vegetables have to be farm practices, good soil management
washed or peeled and perhaps cooked and the availability of inputs such as
before they can be eaten. Eating seed and fertilizer. Attention is needed
contaminated fruit and vegetables to empower women, who tend many
may make you ill. The contamination a field and home-garden. Imports are
may happen during production – from important for supplying the nutrition
irrigation water, the soil, fertilizer or needs of countries that do not
pesticides – or come from unsanitary produce enough fruit and vegetables
processing and preparation (see domestically (FAO, 2018).
Chapter 5).
Improving availability.The availability
National policies.Governments of fruit and vegetables can be
concerned about food security, the increased by improving the value chain
balance of trade and geopolitical
concerns have focused a great deal of
attention on staple crops and export
commodities. They have devoted far
less attention to fruit and vegetables.
As a result, far fewer investments
have been made by medium-sized
and commercial farmers in their © FAO/Alessia Pierdomenico
production. Trade policies have also
promoted the influx of cheap, imported
fruit and vegetables to the detriment
of locally produced, indigenous
varieties. This has contributed to
the low consumption of neglected,
underutilized but nutritious fruit and
vegetables (see Chapter 4).
2 Good for you: Health and nutrition benefits 15aspect of such promotional campaigns.
Nutritional messages and horticultural
production integrated in curricula can
help children acquire life-long skills
and promote the consumption of fruit
and vegetables from the early years
of life. School feeding-programmes,
already important in the effort to end
hunger, should be part of national
education policies as well. Legislation
© FAO/Ami Vitale
can promote the inclusion of fruit and
vegetables in school canteens, vending
machines and procurement practices.
Marketing restrictions on the sale near
to schools of foods that are high in salt,
that connects growers with consumers sugar and trans-fat can help improve
(see Chapter 4). This includes transport, the school food environment.
marketing, storage and processing
facilities, labour resources and finance Measuring nutrition.Further
to make the value chain more efficient efforts are needed to measure the
and to reduce losses and waste. consumption of fruit and vegetables,
along with other dietary components.
Improving affordability.Subsidies Progress is being made. Two indicators
can increase the intake of fruit and are the Minimum Dietary Diversity
vegetables (WHO, 2017). for Women of Reproductive Age, and
the Infant and Young Child Feeding
Promoting consumption.Education Minimum Dietary Diversity (FAO and
and information are key to promoting FHI 360, 2016). The former is included
fruit and vegetables as part of the in the suite of nutrition indicators
diet. The poor consume less (or opt planned for around 90 countries that
for cheaper alternatives) because they will conduct demographic health
cannot afford them. In high-income surveys.
countries, many people choose to eat
unhealthy alternatives. Better targeted Studies on nutrition campaigns have
information and incentives can help so far focused largely on content
change such behaviours. and process rather than on impact.
A number of good practices have not
Integrating nutrition in school yet been properly documented. Such
curricula.Schools are an important studies are urgently needed.
16 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentialsGrowing green
Sustainable production 3
M
ost fruit grow on trees – and and the alarming loss of biodiversity
trees have to be planted, threatening all fruit and vegetable
tended and harvested. species. Finally, we examine three
Vegetables (most of which are annual aspects of policies and institutions
crops) must be sown, transplanted, that particularly affect the production
weeded, managed for pests and end of the value chain: research and
diseases, and harvested. Fruit and technology development, extension
vegetable production tends to be services, and rural infrastructure.
labour- and skill-intensive. That
generates employment, but also adds
to the cost of production, pushing up
prices of the output. Production
This chapter focuses on the production In 2018, the world produced a total of
of fruit and vegetables. We start with 868 million tonnes of fruit and 1 089
an overview of production worldwide, million tonnes of vegetables (FAOSTAT).
in terms of commodities, regions and
growth in the last two decades. We
then examine three different types of
producers: small-scale producers (who
grow the majority of the world’s fruit
and vegetables), urban and peri-urban
producers (who are frequently also
small-scale producers), and large-scale © FAO/Vyacheslav Oseledko
commercial producers.
Next we turn to the farm inputs (seeds,
water, fertilizers and pest management)
and good farm practices. We then
highlight selected environmental
issues: resource use, climate change,
neglected crops and wild species,
3 Growing green: Sustainable production 17Fruit, million tonnes
Banana, plantain, 155 Watermelon, Grape, 79 Other, 76
melon, 131
Mango, Peach, Pineapple,
Citrus, 152 Apple, pear, mango- nectarine, 28
quince, pomes, steen, apricot,
111 guava, 55 28
Berries,
currants, 12
Date, 9
Cherry, 4
Papaya, Plum, sloe,
Total: 868 13 stone fruit,
13
Figure 2. World fruit production by commodity, 2018
Source: FAOSTAT
Vegetables, million tonnes
Other fresh Tomato, 182 Cabbage, Cucumber,
vegetables, 327 cauliflower, gherkin, 75
brassicas, 96
Eggplant Carrot, Chilli, green
(aubergine), turnip, 40 pepper, 37
54
Onion, garlic,
shallot, leek, 133
Lettuce,
chicory,
Beans, 27
peas,
carobs,
legumes, 50
Maize
(green), 12
Total: 1,089 Spinach, Pumpkin,
cassava squash,
leaves, 29 gourds, 28
Figure 3. World vegetable production by commodity, 2018
Source: FAOSTAT
18 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentialsE Europe
23.1
N Europe 1.0
W Europe 15.0 C Asia
27.1
11.0
N America E Asia
S Europe 48.4
251.8
9.3 N Africa 34.2 37.2
W Asia
Caribbean
39.4 26.5 134.8
C America W Africa
S Asia
17.4
Middle 25.1 63.5
Africa E Africa SE Asia
87.3
7.5 8.1
S America
Southern Oceania
Africa
Fruit production, 2018
million tonnes
Figure 4. World fruit production by region, 2018
Source: FAOSTAT
E Europe
N Europe 4.1 36.2
34.0 C Asia
W Europe 16.2
N America 17.1
S Europe 34.1
E Asia
N Africa 34.0 574.4
3.4 35.9
18.3 W Asia
Caribbean
C America 26.2
W Africa
4.7 159.9
Middle 13.8 S Asia
Africa E Africa 45.6
24.7 SE Asia
S America 2.8
Southern 3.4
Africa Oceania
Vegetable production, 2018
million tonnes
Figure 5. World vegetable production by region, 2018
Source: FAOSTAT
3 Growing green: Sustainable production 19The main fruit in order of importance way, is East Asia, followed by South
were banana, citrus (orange, tangerine, Asia (Figures 4 and 5). Other major
mandarin, lemon, grapefruit, etc.), producing regions are South America,
melons, apple and grape (Figure 2). Southeast Asia and Southern Europe
“Other” fruit accounted for 76 million (for fruit), and Southeast Asia (for
tonnes, reflecting the wide range of vegetables). Northern and Western
different types of fruit that are grown Europe produce relatively little, so have
around the world. to import much of what they consume
(see Chapter 4).
The main vegetables were tomato,
various alliums (onion, garlic, shallot, Nonetheless, production statistics
leek), brassicas (cabbage, cauliflower, cover only a few of the many species
broccoli), and cucumber. But overall, of fruit and vegetables that are grown
“other” fresh vegetables are more and consumed. A large proportion of
important than any of these individual the output of small-scale producers
categories: nearly twice as many also does not appear in the official
“other” vegetables were produced than production and trade statistics.
tomatoes (Figure 3). Home gardening and production
for home consumption are vastly
The world’s main producing region of undocumented, so their impact is
both fruit and vegetables, by a long largely unknown. We need to better
1200 1200
Fruit Vegetables 1089
1000 1000
924
868
836
800 800
741
694 685
600 600
577
507
484
400 421 400
286
200 200
163
139 150
111
93 84 88 88 91
68 76 66 81 72 76 80 84
45
0 0
Africa Americas Asia, Oceania Europe World Africa Americas Asia, Oceania Europe World
2000 2010 2018 2000 2010 2018
Figure 6. Change in production of fruit and vegetables, 2000–2018
Source: FAOSTAT
20 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentialsunderstand the diversity and reality of difficult to produce enough to meet
different production systems. the WHO’s recommended daily intakes
(Mason-D’Croz et al., 2019). And the
Worldwide production of both fruit 400-gram-a-day figure is an average:
and vegetables rose by about half the actual recommended amounts
between 2000 and 2018 (Figure 6). The depend on factors such as age and
biggest absolute increase was in Asia, sex (Chapter 2). Making sure that
especially East Asia (where China is by everyone can get enough fruit and
far the largest producer). In relative vegetables will require improvements
terms, the biggest increases were in along the entire value chain, from
Central Asia (where production of both production to processing, marketing,
fruit and vegetables more than tripled) and finally consumption.
and Central Africa (nearly triple the
amount of fruit and double the volume The umbrella term “fruit and
of vegetables, though from a very low vegetables” covers an incredible range
base). Production of vegetables also of species, varieties, cropping systems,
doubled in East and West Africa. agro-climatic conditions, and farm and
market types. No single production
Production in some regions has approach can be used for them all.
stagnated or even declined: in Northern For production to be sustainable, the
America and Southern and Western practices and technologies must be
Europe (fruit and vegetables) and in adjusted to the local context.
Northern Europe (vegetables only).
The world is producing more fruit and
vegetables – but still not enough. In
2000 world production totalled just 306
grams per person per day. By 2017 this
had risen to 390 grams (FAO, 2020) –
but this includes non-edible portions
such as the core and peel, as well as
loss and waste, which are often very
high. WHO recommends that people
should eat at least 400 grams of fruit
and vegetables a day (Mason-D’Croz et
al., 2019).
Distribution and access problems
mean that many people cannot get the
types or amounts of food they need
© FAO/Paul Mundy
(Chapter 4). A sizeable proportion of
the harvest is lost or wasted before it
reaches consumers’ plates (Chapter
5). Climate change and a lack of
water for growing crops will make it
3 Growing green: Sustainable production 21Producers z In Cambodia, fruit and vegetables
are the second most important
commodity group after rice in
value terms and provide the main
Small-scale producers additional source of income for
most households in the country
Family farmers, who are often (but not (Altendorf, 2018).
always) small-scale producers, account
for 80 percent of the world’s food in z Around 80 percent of avocado
value terms (FAO and IFAD, 2019), production in Mexico is estimated
as well as a large share of fruit and to be carried out by small-scale
vegetables. farmers (Altendorf, 2019).
Worldwide, over 50 percent of the fruit z Some 200 000 rural families are
and vegetables are grown on farms reported to be directly involved
smaller than 20 hectares (most of in, and benefiting from, banana
which are family farms). In developing production in Guatemala
countries, such farms grow the vast (Altendorf, 2019).
majority of horticultural produce –
over 80 percent in most of Asia, sub- In Europe and North and Central
Saharan Africa and China (Figure 7). America, medium-sized farms of
Fruit Vegetables
Australia and New Zealand Farm size (ha)
North America >200
>50-200
South America >20-50
Central America >2-20
≤2
Europe
West Asia and North Africa
Southeast Asia
South Asia
East Asia Pacific
Sub-Saharan Africa
China
World
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
Production (%) Production (%)
Figure 7. Production of fruit and vegetables by farm size and world region
Adapted from Herrero et al., 2017.
22 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials20–200 hectares are more important, But small scale and a diversity of
while it is only in South America and in products makes it difficult for individual
Australia and New Zealand that farms farmers to market their produce
over 200 ha dominate. effectively. Marketing must therefore
rely on farmers getting organized into
Fruit and vegetables typically are groups or entering contract-farming
more profitable than staple crops arrangements with traders (see
for a given area of land. They also Chapter 4). As a group, farmers can
require more intensive management. perform collective actions such buying
That opens opportunities for small- inputs, hiring services and selling their
scale farmers to take advantage of output. The group members can also
rising demand and to earn more by swap ideas and experience, and they
producing and marketing fruit and have a bigger chance of receiving
vegetables. Small-scale production technical advice.
also has the potential to protect the
environment and ensure social equity
(FAO, 2012). Women, in particular,
can benefit as they are frequently Urban and peri-urban producers
engaged in fruit and vegetable
production and marketing (Fisher et Many of the smallest-scale producers
al., 2018). are found in and around towns
and cities. They include commercial
Small-scale family farms are often growers who sell their output to local
more diverse than larger farms, with a markets, as well as home-gardeners
mix of staple crops, fruit, vegetables, and community gardeners who grow
other crops, and livestock. This mix produce for their own consumption or
allows them to spread their risk: if one to share with friends and neighbours.
crop fails, they have others to fall back Surplus produce is sometimes sold
on. Diversity also means ecological directly to consumers or to small-scale
balance, with crop residues used to traders. These producers can increase
feed livestock and manure used to the availability and access to fruit and
fertilize crops. Different crops harbour vegetables for urban dwellers. The
pollinating insects and beneficials that COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted
control pests. the importance of local production
(FAO, 2020).
Many countries are currently
experiencing a decline in the numbers Bad roads mean that highly perishable
and diversity of insects, threatening fruit and vegetables cannot be
the many fruit and vegetable crops transported far. This is less of a
that rely on insect pollination. The problem for cereals or crops like cacao
small size of many family farms can and coffee, which can be dried, bagged,
help preserve biodiversity. At the same loaded onto trucks and hauled off to
time, diversified systems are more distant markets. This is one reason
knowledge-intensive and require skills intensive commercial horticulture
to manage them efficiently. tends to cluster around urban areas.
3 Growing green: Sustainable production 23While growing fruit and vegetables Inputs
in and near cities has advantages,
it also brings risks – of pollution,
contamination, and the loss of land
to urban growth. In addition, in some Production and marketing technologies
countries urban agriculture does not
fall under the responsibility of the Technologies have been developed that
ministry of agriculture, so growers make the production, processing and
cannot benefit from extension services marketing of fruit and vegetables more
or government-supported inputs efficient. These include the following.
(Aubry and Manouchehri, 2019;
Taguchi and Santini, 2019). z Production:tissue culture and
grafting for seedling supply, high
yielding and disease-tolerant
cultivars, grafting, precision
Large-scale commercial producers agriculture, drones, extension
advice systems, irrigation,
Larger-scale commercial producers greenhouses, insect-breeding for
of fruit and vegetables tend to focus pollination and pest control, pest
on a relatively small range of major identification and management,
crops, such as tomatoes, bananas conservation-farming techniques.
and pineapples. Many of these are
destined for the export market or z Harvest and postharvest:
for industrial processing. Depending harvesting, sorting and packing
on the structure of the market, there equipment, improved packaging
may (or may not) be opportunities for and storage techniques (see
small-scale farmers to take advantage Chapter 5).
of larger farms and processing facilities
nearby through arrangements such as z Marketing:market information
contract farming. systems, digital communications,
traceability systems, remote
Sophisticated technologies such as payments (see Chapter 4).
irrigation systems, artificial lighting,
hydroponics and digital information These technologies not only increase
systems require capital investment productivity, yields and quality; they
and special skills; only larger also reduce losses, cut the amount of
commercial operations can afford the labour required, and place greater
these. In countries such as Kenya and emphasis on management skills.
Ethiopia, growers raise green beans They are also more likely to attract
and other vegetables in greenhouses young, better-educated people to the
and export them by airfreight to horticultural professions and create
dealers in Europe. However, even new business opportunities both on-
smaller-scale producers can adopt and off-farm. However, they involve
technologies such as greenhouses and capital outlays that may be beyond the
drip irrigation. reach of poor small-scale producers.
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