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Grapevine management
guide 2020 –21
NSW DPI MANAGEMENT GUIDE
Compiled by Darren Fahey
www.dpi.nsw.gov.au
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*Always read product labels and permits before use.
Grapevine management guide 2020 –21 Darren Fahey Development Officer – Viticulture Department of Primary Industries Orange Agricultural Institute 1447 Forest Road Orange NSW 2800 M: 0457 842 874 E: darren.fahey@dpi.nsw.gov.au W: www.dpi.nsw.gov.au
© State of New South Wales through Regional NSW
2020. Permits
ISSN 1036-7551 (Print) Some of the chemical use patterns quoted in this
ISSN 2209-7503 (Online) publication are approved under permits issued by
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You may copy, distribute, display, download Authority (APVMA) and in force at the time the
and otherwise freely deal with this publication publication was prepared. Persons wishing to use a
for any purpose, provided that you attribute the chemical in a manner approved under permit should
NSW Department of Primary Industries as the owner. obtain a copy of the relevant permit and approved
However, you must obtain permission if you wish to: use pattern from the supplier of the product at point
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than at cost) with the details, conditions and limitations prior to
• include the publication advertising or a product and during use.
for sale Acknowledgements
• modify the publication We would like to acknowledge the valuable
• republish the publication on a website. contributions made by many members of the
Australian wine industry in the preparation of this
You may freely link to the publication on a publication. Particular thanks to staff from NSW
departmental website. Department of Primary Industries, Charles Sturt
Disclaimer University, National Wine and Grape Industry Centre,
The information contained in this publication is based Australian Wine Research Institute, State Vine
on knowledge and understanding at the time of Improvement Groups, Riverina Wine Grapes Marketing
writing (July 2020). However, because of advances in Board, Murray Valley Wine Grape Growers Inc., Grape
knowledge, users are reminded of the need to ensure and Wine Research and Development Corporation,
that the information upon which they rely is up to date NSW Wine Industry Association, South Australian
and to check the currency of the information with the Research and Development Institute, VineHealth
appropriate officer of NSW Department of Primary Australia and Wine Australia.
Industries, or the user’s independent advisor. Image acknowledgements
The product trade names in this publication are Unless otherwise stated, the images in this guide have
supplied on the understanding that no preference been sourced from the NSW Department of Primary
between equivalent products is intended and that Industries.
the inclusion of a product name does not imply Cover photo
endorsement by the department over any equivalent
product from another manufacturer. Shiraz grapes from Rosnay Wines, Canowindra, looking
at fruit quality after installing a sub-surface irrigation
Recognising that some of the information in this (page 46). Photo: Darren Fahey.
document is provided by third parties, the State of
New South Wales, the author and the publisher take Printing
no responsibility for the accuracy, currency, reliability DPI are pleased to support regional business and the
and correctness of any information included in the environment in the publication of this guide.
document provided by third parties. Supplied by GK Craig Printing, Orange NSW
Always read the label www.gkcraig.com.au. Printed on FSC accredited paper
sourced from farmed trees/plantation grown pulp.
Users of agricultural chemical products must always
read the label and any permit before using the product, Advertising
and strictly comply with the directions on the label and If you wish to advertise within this guide and expose
the conditions of any permit. Users are not absolved your product or service to viticulturists before and
from any compliance with the directions on the label or during the vineyard growing season, please contact Dr
the conditions of the permit by reason of any statement Amanda Warren-Smith at amanda.warren-smith@dpi.
made or omitted to be made in this publication. nsw.gov.au or phone 02 6391 3953.
ii | Compiled by Darren Fahey – NSW DPI Development Officer – Viticulture
Contents
1 Introduction 16 The effects of Aspergillus rot on grapes
3 Current NWGIC research and wine: fumonisin production by
A. niger and A. welwitschiae associated
3 Determining thresholds for bunch with Australian wine grapes
rot tolerance in wine and detecting
unwanted fungal aromas 20 Biological control of grapevine
trunk diseases using bacterial
3 Rapid pre-harvest grape assessment
endophytes from grapevines
to quantify fungal biomarkers
21 Entomopathogenic fungi as
4 Producing volatile organic compounds
with biocontrol properties by potential biocontrol agents
of grapevine phylloxera
Aureobasidium pullulans
4 Grapevine trunk disease 24 Vineyard management research
management for vineyard longevity 24 Early leaf removal helps
in diverse climates of Australia reduce grape sunburn
4 Evaluating and demonstrating new 25 Australian Wine Research Institute
disease-resistant red and white Advanced Viticulture Course
grapevine selections in cool and
warm wine regions in NSW 28 Biodiversity planting trials
5 Vineyard water balance and 34 Protecting your investment with netting
drought resilience – a pilot study 40 Sap flow sensors and managing
in the Orange wine region grapevine irrigation
6 Vine nutrition 46 ‘Going in and under’ – a case
6 Vascular transport in the grape berry study in applying irrigation
differently to control weeds
6 The link between cell vitality and
potassium in grape berries 50 'Exercise Sour Grapes' harvests
sweet collaboration
7 Assessing bushfire smoke exposure
levels on grape and wine composition 51 Undervine cover crop case study
7 Managing wine pH in a changing climate 52 Nutrition research
8 The effect of metal speciation 52 Correct petiole sampling for
on wine development, shelf- accurate vine nutrient analyses
life and sensory properties
53 How rootstock influences
8 Benchmarking regional and subregional grape potassium
Contents
influences on Shiraz fine wines
54 Smartphone app to assess
9 Defining regional sensory variability grapevine nutrient disorders
of premium Shiraz wines
56 Wine research
10 Wealth of experience and
familiar faces at the NWGIC 56 Effects of viticultural conditions and
juice composition on oxidative and
11 Disease research reductive wine development
11 Comparison of Botrytis infection 58 It’s easy to waste money on waste!
quantification methods using
laboratory-infected Cabernet 60 Effect of high and extremely
Sauvignon grape bunches high temperatures on berry
tannin composition in Shiraz
14 Phytotoxins produced by the
Botryosphaeriaceae and their role 62 NSW DPI Agriculture – Horticulture
in grapevine trunk diseases Leaders and Development Officers
GRAPE VINE MANAGEMENT GUIDE 2020–21 | iii
The National Wine and Grape Industry Centre is The National Wine and Grape Industry Centre
an alliance between NSW Department of Primary delivers high-value research, education, training
Industries, the NSW Wine Industry Association and extension to the Australian Wine Industry.
and Charles Sturt University.
ers
r tn u ts
tp
Pa
Ou
The NSW Wine
Industry Association
represents the interests RESEARCH
of the wine industry in
New South Wales
EXTENSION
Leading provider of
information for the
agricultural sector
EDUCATION
Leading provider of
education for the wine TRAINING
industry
iv | Compiled by Darren Fahey – NSW DPI Development Officer – Viticulture
Introduction
Extraordinary times publications are a crucial means of packaging
It is with great pleasure that I welcome you to information for producers, and as such, I
read, benefit and grow from the information recommend this current edition to you.
contained within The Grapevine Management Feedback please
Guide 2020–2021.
The NSW DPI wants to make sure that the
While compiling this edition of the GVMG, it information we are providing is what you need
made me reflect on what has been a year of to make your business grow. We would like to
extraordinary times. After experiencing the receive any feedback that you care to offer –
ongoing relentless drought across many regions, good, bad or indifferent. This will help us to make
followed closely by spring and summer bushfires future editions even more useful. Please contact
and the resultant smoke taint affects to wine us with your suggestions by mail, phone or email.
grape production, my role as development officer
changed. I was providing support to industry and
information on policy development to decision Darren Fahey
Development Officer – Viticulture
makers to address the effects on industry from
NSW Department of Primary Industries
these natural disasters and COVID-19.
Orange Agricultural Institute
The government focused itself toward recovery 1447 Forest Road Orange NSW 2800
and assisting industry in the best way it could by Mobile: 0457 842 874
providing relief packages and grant funding to Email: darren.fahey@dpi.nsw.gov.au
support individuals, businesses and regions in the Web: www.dpi.nsw.gov.au
wine industry. I sincerely hope you were able to
benefit in some way from the initiatives rolled out
across NSW.
Interestingly, all of my contributions for this year’s
GVMG were written while working from home.
While working remotely is not a new thing for me,
it did bring to mind the importance of conducting
research, fieldwork and demonstration trials out
in the vineyards across the regions. Both the
netting trial (page 34) and the biodiversity trials
(page 28) are perfect examples of this. Introduction
Further contributions from researchers, vineyard
managers and viticulturists make this year’s
guide one that is full of practical information that
can be implemented readily and easily into any
vineyard operation.
NSW DPI would like to thank Adrian Engelfield for
his contributions to the GVMG over the years and
hopefully, by the time you read this version, we
will have filled his role with a new employee ready
to take on the Wine Australia regional program
in the Riverina and assist with Skills Development
across the rest of NSW.
The Grapevine Management Guide 2020–2021
is one of NSW DPI’s flagship publications. Such
GRAPE VINE MANAGEMENT GUIDE 2020–21 | 1
NATIONAL WINE
AND GRAPE
INDUSTRY CENTRE
A leader in viticulture and wine science research, education and
industry training.
Our research aims to increase the development, sustainability and
profitability of the wine industry, delivering solutions throughout the
value chain.
Charles Sturt University CRICOS 00005F. © 2019 Charles Sturt University. F5928.
OUR KEY AREAS OF RESEARCH
Vine health and disease management
Diagnostics
Pest and disease management
Grapevine trunk diseases
Bunch rots and wine quality
Vine science
Vine physiology and nutrition
Root functioning
Flowering and berry growth
Wine science
Fruit and wine composition
Process engineering
Sensory and consumer sciences
Wine styles
OUR RESEARCH AIMS
Reduce costs in the vineyard and cellar
Develop decision support tools
Improve understanding of grape maturation cycles, harvest dates and
wine styles
Improve pest and disease detection, and management options
WHAT WE’RE INVESTIGATING
Solutions to the negative impact of warmer growing environments on
vine and wine production
Methods to manage the alcohol content and desired flavour
characteristics of wines
Sustainable resource management, including water and soils
How to reduce chemical spray applications and other inputs through the
development of more environmentally friendly methods and products
csu.edu.au/nwgic nwgic@csu.edu.au
+61 2 6933 2940 @NWGICWagga
An alliance between
Current NWGIC research
Determining thresholds for bunch Rapid pre-harvest grape assessment
rot tolerance in wine and detecting to quantify fungal biomarkers
unwanted fungal aromas Research aims: to develop in-field assessment
Research aims: to accurately define bunch rot capability for grape quality, composition and
contamination thresholds for wine grapes and fungal taint compounds. This work builds on
find solutions for winemakers to allow them to our expertise for quantifying volatiles linked
cope with situations where these thresholds have to grape fungal infection and will extend
been exceeded. Outcomes from the project will to volatiles linked to wine faults and taints.
provide the industry with better indicators of New instrumentation will aid growers and
bunch rot thresholds before the fruit has to be winemakers to ensure quality, thereby offering
rejected or downgraded. better wine to consumers, but could also be
Industry outcomes and relevance: current applied more broadly to other horticultural
management practices for bunch rots include a crops.
combination of cultural practices (e.g. canopy New instrumentation that collects targeted
management, varietal selection) and chemical chemical signatures from the volatile
control. While these practices are effective in low compounds of grapes will be developed and
disease pressure years, bunch rot management used to fingerprint biomarkers associated with
frequently fails in years that have high rainfall. In taint compounds, with an initial emphasis
severe seasons when bunch rots are a problem, on Botrytis detection. Non-specific grape
growers often waste money on applying composition measures will also be assessed for
fungicides when disease control practices may objective grape quality measures.
be too late and fungal taints have reached an
unacceptable level. Establishing bunch rot Industry outcomes and relevance: harvest
thresholds and early bunch rot detection will help decisions are often pressured by transport,
prevent this economic loss to the wine industry. winery logistics and the need to coordinate
Aside from yield losses, bunch rots can affect with the ripening of other grape varieties.
wine quality by producing off flavours and taints. Vintage compression, late rain and associated
If detected, this leads to the downgrading or mould growth and off-flavours add to the
possible rejection of fruit at the winery with a challenges. Rapid objective methods to assess
Current NWGIC research
huge cost to the industry, particularly in years that grape quality and mould taints would help
have high rainfall. If the fungal contamination decision-making and grading of grapes but
is not detected or is ignored, the result can be currently no methods exist.
inferior quality wine which has the potential to Researchers and students involved:
damage the reputation of Australian wine as a
Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt,
quality product. Detecting fungal taints in grapes
NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
before they are turned into wine will circumvent
Professor Christopher Steel (Charles Sturt,
this problem and reduce wine production costs.
NWGIC)
Researchers and students involved: Dr Morphy Dumlao (Charles Sturt, NWGIC, ARC
Professor Christopher Steel (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) TC-IWP)
Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt, Jiang Liang (Charles Sturt PhD student, NWGIC,
NWGIC, ARC Training Centre for Innovative Wine ARC TC-IWP)
Production [ARC TC-IWP]) Associate Professor Alex Donald (UNSW)
Dr Andrew Clark (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) Anthony Tran (UNSW)
Dr Yu (Michael) Qu (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) Time frame: 2019–2022
Dr Bob Dambergs (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
Funding bodies and collaborators: the
Time frame: 2018–2020 Australian Research Council Training Centre for
Funding bodies and collaborators: Wine Innovative Wine Production in collaboration
Australia and Charles Sturt University. with the University of New South Wales.
GRAPE VINE MANAGEMENT GUIDE 2020–21 | 3
Producing volatile organic compounds grapevine plant materials
with biocontrol properties by 4. investigate the infection thresholds of
Aureobasidium pullulans Botryosphaeria dieback in nursery plant
materials and the effects of water stress in the
Research aims: increasing restrictions with
development of the diseases in young vines
fungicide use means growers must find
alternative disease control methods. This 5. understand the health status of nursery plant
project seeks to investigate the mode of action materials and its effect on the establishment
of Aureobasidium pullulans, a yeast-like fungus and productivity in vineyards.
with known biocontrol properties. Reports in the Industry outcomes and relevance: improving
literature indicate that A. pullulans produces a our understanding of grapevine trunk disease
number of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) pathogen epidemiology will allow targeted
that are potentially antimicrobial. Using solid control methods, thereby reducing vineyard
phase microextraction-gas chromatography mass inputs. It will also provide growers with better
spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS), this research aims disease forecasting and management options,
to identify VOCs produced by A. pullulans that ultimately improving vineyard performance.
are antimicrobial against Alternaria solani and
Researchers and students involved:
Botrytis cinerea, two fungal pathogens of grapes
and tomatoes. Further aims include determining Associate Professor Sandra Savocchia (Charles
the optimum culture conditions for VOC Sturt, NWGIC)
production along with elucidating how VOCs Dr Regina Billones Baaijens (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
inhibit fungal growth. Mrs Meifang Liu (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
Industry outcomes and relevance: lack of Professor Christopher Steel (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
fungicide availability due to nil MRL restrictions Dr Mark Sosnowski (South Australian Research
in destination export countries means that many and Development Institute SARDI)
effective fungicides cannot be applied to wine Mr Matthew Ayres (SARDI)
grapes post-véraison. This research will open new Professor Eileen Scott (University of Adelaide)
avenues for managing grapevine diseases without
relying solely on fungicides. Time frame: 2017–2020 with extension to 2022
Researchers and students involved: Funding bodies and collaborators: South
Sashika Yalage Don (Charles Sturt PhD candidate, Australian Research and Development Institute
NWGIC) (SARDI), funded by Wine Australia with leverage
Professor Christopher Steel (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) funding from Charles Sturt University.
Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt, NWGIC,
ARC TC-IWP)
Time frame: 2017–2020 Evaluating and demonstrating new
Funding bodies and collaborators: Australian
disease-resistant red and white
Government Research Training Program grapevine selections in cool and warm
scholarship from Charles Sturt University. wine regions in NSW
Research aims: evaluating new grape varieties
for their performance is crucial to determine their
Grapevine trunk disease management suitability for a region. Assessing the resultant
wines is equally important to validate market
for vineyard longevity in diverse
potential. Breeding grapevine varieties with
climates of Australia disease resistance is a high priority, particularly
Research aims: resistance to the two major diseases, downy
1. investigate spore dispersal patterns of Eutypa mildew (Plasmopara viticola) and powdery
dieback and Botryosphaeria dieback (BD) mildew (Erysiphe necator syn. Uncinula necator).
pathogens throughout the growing season Downy mildew requires high humidity and
2. use remedial surgery techniques to manage rainfall to germinate and grow, whereas powdery
BD-infected vines mildew develops under a wide range of climatic
conditions.
3. develop DNA-based diagnostic tools to
detect and quantify grapevine trunk disease The drivers for breeding disease-resistant wine
pathogens from the environment and grape varieties include:
4 | Compiled by Darren Fahey – NSW DPI Development Officer – Viticulture• lowering production costs by reducing spray Australia via the Commonwealth Scientific
applications and thus the need for labour, and Industrial Research Organisation (strategic
chemicals and fuel alliance).
• improving the microbial activity of the soil
in the vineyard by reducing the compaction Vineyard water balance and drought
caused by tractor usage resilience – a pilot study in the Orange
• providing a healthier vineyard environment. wine region
From the first generation crosses made by Research aims:
CSIRO, a total of 20 white and 20 red varieties 1. determine the depth of water uptake and total
exhibiting promising viticultural and winemaking water storage capacity within the root zone
characteristics have been selected and planted in at vineyards representative of three of the
diverse grape growing regions around Australia. region’s main soil types
NSW DPI evaluates these selections in the
2. collect a dataset consisting of mid-row and
Orange and Riverina regions in New South Wales under-vine soil water dynamics, whole vine
(South Eastern Australia) for productivity, grape transpiration, rainfall, irrigation and potential
composition and wine attributes. The results evapotranspiration
from the Riverina region showed considerable
differences in yield, yield parameters and must 3. compare measured soil and vine water use
composition. Experimental wines made from dynamics from field trials with existing vineyard
these selections showed not only a considerable water balance models
range in the overall scores, but also differences in 4. provide a basis to simulate and test potential
aromas and attributes. These varieties will allow management strategies to reduce drought risk
reduced production costs of wines exhibiting style and adapt production systems to a warmer and
characteristics similar to current major varieties. drier climate.
Industry outcomes and relevance: this project Industry outcomes and relevance: Australian
will benefit a range of different stakeholders in
viticulture is set to be increasingly challenged
the Australian wine industry. Growers will benefit
by water availability with predictions for more
from reduced fungicide requirements, which will
lead to substantial savings during the growing frequent and severe droughts, drier winters
season. The wineries will benefit from receiving and a long-term decline in annual rainfall. A key
grapes that have fewer residues, being potentially to adapting to these changes will be reducing
more marketable. Industry representatives, reliance on irrigation, using what irrigation
contractors, consultants and consumers should is available as strategically as possible, and
also benefit from the new information on the adjusting management practices to reduce
Current NWGIC research
suitability of these resistant varieties that are the difference between water demand and
evaluated in this project. supply. This research hopes to understand the
New knowledge on the performance and basic size of that difference in relation to different
adaptation capacity of new red and white soil types, canopies and climate, and the
varieties for warm and cool climates will allow extent to which changes in the whole vineyard
growers and winemakers to choose the most management system could allow productivity to
suitable variety for their production process. We be maintained through seasons of limited water
will aim to determine growth characteristics, availability.
berry and wine composition (and style) for warm
and cool grape growing regions and provide basic Researchers involved:
knowledge on these varieties in relation to yield Dr Jason Smith (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
and components including bunch compactness. Dr Bruno Holzapfel (NSW DPI, NWGIC)
Researchers involved:
Time frame: 2019–2023
Dr Bruno Holzapfel (NSW DPI, NWGIC)
Funding bodies and collaborators: Charles
Di Hubbard (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
Sturt University and the New South Department
Dr Gerhard Rossouw (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
of Primary Industries through the National Wine
Darren Fahey (NSW DPI)
and Grape Industry Centre. Peter Hedberg and
Time frame: 2017–2022 David McKenzie, See Saw Wines, Ross Hill and
Funding bodies and collaborators: Wine Angullong Wines.
GRAPE VINE MANAGEMENT GUIDE 2020–21 | 5Vine nutrition development and composition.
Diagnosing irregular growth characteristics of Industry outcomes and relevance: improving
vegetative tissues can be challenging, especially vineyard performance and efficient and
when a nutrient disorder is suspected. Field sustainable vineyard management.
manuals can be helpful but they are not cultivar Researchers involved:
specific and do not show the progression of the Dr Suzy Rogiers (NSW DPI, NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
symptoms as they develop over time and with Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt,
increasing severity. Our research attempts to NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
provide clarity on symptom development for Professor Steve Tyerman (University of Adelaide)
both red and white varieties. Dr Vinay Pagay (University of Adelaide, ARC TC-
Research aims: IWP)
1. to characterise nutrient deficiency and toxicity Dr Bill Price (Western Sydney University)
symptoms in red and white varieties Dr Timothy Stait-Gardner (Western Sydney
2. to develop an app that provides information University)
easily and quickly to growers on nutritional Dr Zeyu Xiao (Charles Sturt, NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
disorders in red and white varieties. Time frame: 2018–2022
Industry outcomes and relevance: the Funding bodies and collaborators: Australian
smartphone diagnostic app will use underlying Research Council in collaboration with the
artificial intelligence to help with nutrient University of Adelaide.
disorder identification. In conjunction with leaf
tissue sampling it will help a grower to better
understand vine nutrient requirements.
The link between cell vitality and
Researchers involved: potassium in grape berries
Dr Suzy Rogiers (NSW DPI, NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP) The cessation of potassium (K) accumulation
Dr Bruno Holzapfel (NSW DPI, NWGIC) into the berry during the mid to late-ripening
Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt, stage of wine grape berries coincides with the
NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP) loss of cell vitality within the mesocarp. This
Associate Professor Lihong Zheng (Charles Sturt, loss of vitality and cell membrane integrity can
NWGIC) be associated with berry weight loss and berry
Dr Manoranjan Paul (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) shrivel. The cause and contributing factors to
Dr Tintu Baby (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) mesocarp cell death are not clear. That said,
Dr Motiur Rahaman (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) hypoxia has been linked to mesocarp cell death
Alexander Oczkowski (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) in ripening berries, suggesting that respiration
Darren Fahey (NSW DPI) and the hypoxia response in berries may play
important roles in cell vitality regulation.
Time frame: 2018–2021 Moreover, ion transport and K homeostasis are
Funding bodies and collaborators: NSW thought to be involved in programmed cell
Department of Primary Industries, Wine Australia death because K is important to maintaining
and Charles Sturt University. membrane function.
Research aims: to investigate the potential
contributing factors to mesocarp cell vitality
Vascular transport in the grape berry and to provide insights into the developmental
Research aims: fruits, roots and leaves are transition from ripening to senescence in wine
interconnected by a dynamic vascular system grapes.
allowing transport of essential materials and Industry outcomes and relevance: berry
a system for whole plant communication and cell death is associated with shrivelling and
integration. Long distance transport through the this will ultimately impact on the yield and
grapevine’s vascular network ultimately defines composition of berries. Shrivelling results in
fruit size and composition, affecting yield and higher sugar levels and this will lead to higher
wine style. This project aims to understand how alcohol content in wine. Moreover, the loss
the grapevine's transport system drives berry of membrane integrity can lead to reactions
6 | Compiled by Darren Fahey – NSW DPI Development Officer – Viticulturebetween cell metabolites as they are no longer Association, Australian Wine Research Institute,
compartmentalised from each other, and thus New South Wales Department of Primary
changes in important sensory attributes may Industries.
occur.
Researcher/s students involved:
Ms Yin Liu (Charles Sturt PhD student, NWGIC, Managing wine pH in a changing
ARC TC-IWP) climate
Dr Suzy Rogiers (NSW DPI, NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP) Grape production is limited to a narrow climate
Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt, range. Global warming is challenging where
NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP) particular cultivars can be grown for optimal
Professor Steve Tyerman (University of Adelaide) quality. The decline in respiratory malate that
Dr Vinay Pagay (University of Adelaide) is associated with higher temperatures has
Time frame: 2019–2022 adverse effects on grape and wine acid levels.
This is often addressed in the winery with the
Funding bodies and collaborators: Australian
addition of expensive tartaric acid, resulting
Research Council in collaboration with the
in greater winemaking costs. Berry potassium
University of Adelaide.
content has also been increasing with climate
change and this has can have negative
consequences as it neutralises organic acids.
Assessing bushfire smoke exposure This element can alter microbiological stability
levels on grape and wine composition and fermentation processes, can increase
oxidation and alter wine colour. The formation
Research aims: vineyard smoke exposure
of insoluble K bitartrate during winemaking
results in uptake of volatile phenolic
is also problematic. The project objective is to
compounds in grapes with varying outcomes
explore the potential to control berry pH in the
depending on grape maturation, duration of vineyard through the addition of ameliorants to
smoke exposure, intensity and temperature. limit potassium uptake by the vines. Competing
Smoke derived phenolic compounds become elements such as calcium or magnesium, which
glycosylated in the berry and these are cleaved are antagonists for potassium uptake, will be
during fermentation to produce undesirable applied and consequences on berry acidity will
sensory outcomes in the wines. This project be monitored.
aims to determine measures of smoke exposure
Research aims:
as evidenced by the levels of glycosoyated
phenolic compounds in Chardonnay, Shiraz 1. to better understand the relationship
and Pinot Noir with wine sensory outcomes to between vineyard cultural strategies and site
Current NWGIC research
inform harvest decisions for grapes exposed to characteristics on berry composition and its
bushfire smoke. ultimate effect on wine acidity
Industry outcomes and relevance: establishing 2. to devise a management strategy so that
threshold levels of glycosylated phenolic appropriate sugar-acid balance is achieved
compounds in grapes as markers of smoke and maintained.
exposure levels and linking these to wine Industry outcomes and relevance: improving
sensory outcomes will enable informed decisions vineyard performance and efficient and
for harvest after future bushfires. sustainable vineyard management.
Researchers and students involved: Researchers involved:
Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt, Dr Suzy Rogiers (NSW DPI, NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP) Dr Bruno Holzapfel (NSW DPI, NWGIC)
Dr John Blackman (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt,
Dr Andrew Clark (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
Dr Sijing Li (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) Dr Tintu Baby (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
Johnny Clark (Charles Sturt, NWGIC) Dr Zeyu Xiao (Charles Sturt, NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
Time frame: 2021–2022 Dr Rob Walker (CSIRO)
Funding bodies and collaborators: Wine Darren Fahey (NSW DPI)
Australia, New South Wales Wine Industry Time frame: 2019 –2022
GRAPE VINE MANAGEMENT GUIDE 2020–21 | 7Funding bodies and collaborators: NSW during wine production will also be provided.
Department of Primary Industries, CSIRO, Wine Researcher/s students involved:
Australia and Charles Sturt University.
Dr Andrew Clark (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
The effect of metal speciation on wine Dr Nikos Kontoudakis (The University of Athens,
development, shelf-life and sensory NWGIC)
properties Dr John Blackman (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt,
Research aims: to produce wine with improved NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
bottle development by understanding how
Dr Geoffrey Scollary (NWGIC)
metal speciation influences wine ageing in-
bottle, and providing options to minimise Time frame: 2018–2022
detrimental influences of metals through wine Funding body: Wine Australia.
production processes. Specific objectives
include:
1. determine the influence of metal speciation Benchmarking regional and
and wine composition on the amount of subregional influences on
sulfur dioxide consumed per mg/L oxygen in Shiraz fine wines
red and white wines
Research aims: this multidisciplinary project
2. assess the reversibility of key copper will define the sensory properties of Shiraz
speciation forms and their activity on wines from selected regions in New South
mechanisms directly relevant to the Wales, Victoria and South Australia and identify
development of red and white wines the sensory and chemical attributes associated
3. establish the influence of ascorbic acid on with typicality from these regions by drawing
the stability and activity of copper (I) sulfide upon the collective expertise of climate
during wine ageing scientists, wine scientists and sensory experts.
4. determine the effect of metal speciation and Geographical indications (GI) will be selected
metal concentration ratios on mechanisms based on commercial reputation for consistent
that contribute to colour and flavour fine wine production and systematic searches
development in wine of climate data (SILO/AWAP) to match
5. establish a link between metal speciation and regions with similar and differing climatic
steps in the wine production process that conditions as designated by climatic indices
allow efficient removal of metals from wine (Huglin, cool night, rainfall). Typicality and
and juice. regionality of fine Shiraz wines will be identified
Industry outcomes and relevance: the using comprehensive sensory profiling of a
Australian wine industry will be the immediate selection of wines chosen by an expert panel
beneficiary by applying the operations that of winemakers. Specific terroir markers will
stem from previously untapped fundamental be identified using a range of targeted and
research results. Improving our understanding untargeted chemical analyses. In addition, an
of how sulfur dioxide reacts in wine might allow international sommelier delegation will sort and
a reduction in the amount of the preservative ascribe preferences to a selection of premium
used, which should be viewed as a positive Shiraz/Syrah wines.
by consumers. Likewise, the greater our Industry outcomes and relevance: a
understanding of the effects of metal forms on concept of terroir is important for fine wine
wine development will allow identification of producers who aim to associate their product
the potential for negative wine development. with unique geographical areas, associated
This will be particularly important for the mesoclimates and landscapes that influence
ascorbic acid-metal speciation interplay, wine typicality. Defining a terroir influence
given the widespread use of ascorbic acid for fine wine producers will enhance the
in Australian white wines. Options to allow uniqueness of Australian wines in a global
remediation of the metal speciation profile context. Commoditisation of agricultural
8 | Compiled by Darren Fahey – NSW DPI Development Officer – Viticultureproducts arises from global financial pressures Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt,
to lower inputs and expenses while enhancing NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
profitability. The ability for fine wine producers Dr Leigh Francis (Australian Wine Research
to substantiate uniqueness claims will reverse Institute)
this trend, enabling product positioning within Time frame: 2017–2020
markets as distinctive and exclusive wines that Funding bodies and collaborators: Wine
command premium prices in a global context. Australia, NWGIC and The Australian Wine
This project is strongly aligned with the Wine Research Institute.
Australia Strategic Plan Priority 1, increasing
demand and Strategy 3, building Australian
grape and wine excellence, wine provenance
and measures of quality.
Researcher/s students involved:
Dr John Blackman (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
Dr Andrew Hall (Charles Sturt)
Professor Leigh Schmidtke (Charles Sturt,
NWGIC, ARC TC-IWP)
Dr Andrew Clark (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
Dr Sijing Li (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
Dr Leigh Francis (Australian Wine Research
Institute, AWRI)
Wes Pearson (Charles Sturt PhD candidate,
NWGIC, AWRI)
Time frame: 2017–2020
Funding bodies and collaborators: Wine
Australia in collaboration with The Australian
Wine Research Institute.
Defining regional sensory variability
of premium Shiraz wines
Research aims: to better understand the
Current NWGIC research
sensory characteristics defining Shiraz wines
produced in different regions of Australia, along
with the development and testing of a novel
sensory method. This project forms the basis
for Wes Pearson's PhD submission and is closely
aligned to the NWGIC project 'Benchmarking
regional and subregional influences on Shiraz
fine wines'.
Industry outcomes and relevance: industry
will gain more fundamental knowledge of
the wines they are producing and the regions
from which they are produced. Also, the
development of a new rapid sensory method to
be used by industry.
Researcher/s students involved:
Wes Pearson (Charles Sturt PhD candidate,
NWGIC, AWRI)
Dr John Blackman (Charles Sturt, NWGIC)
GRAPE VINE MANAGEMENT GUIDE 2020–21 | 9Wealth of experience and
familiar faces at the NWGIC
The National Wine and Grape Industry Centre methods using spectroscopy and chemometrics.
(NWGIC) is pleased to announce new additions to His research is focused on practical outcomes for
the research team, welcoming some familiar faces. grape growers and winemakers, something he
Dr Gerhard Rossouw (Figure 1) re-joined Charles will continue at the NWGIC.
Sturt University and the NWGIC in April 2020 Charles Sturt winemaker Johnny Clark also
after spending the last two years with CSIRO in joined the NWGIC team in 2020 after working over
Adelaide. Dr Rossouw was a PhD student at the twenty vintages in Australia, Europe and North
centre between 2013 and 2016 before conducting America. He holds a degree in Wine Marketing
further research whilst being employed as an and a Master’s in Oenology from the University
associate lecturer with Charles Sturt University of Adelaide and is looking forward to making the
for 18 months. Gerhard’s new role as a lecturer in most of the close connection between research
viticulture will involve teaching in many subjects and winemaking at the NWGIC.
including Grape and Wine Science, Integrated The Centre farewelled Dr Dennis Greer after 18
Vineyard Management and Vine Physiology and years at Charles Sturt University and winemaker
Performance. Campbell Meeks.
Dr Rossouw’s career started by studying
Viticulture and Oenology at the University
of Stellenbosch in South Africa before being
employed in the wine industry for nearly five
years. His industry experience includes various
vineyard management and wine production
related roles. Gerhard’s past research activities
include evaluating the implications of water
supply and canopy biomass on grapevine
physiological responses, particularly carbohydrate
and nitrogen use.
He has also evaluated the implications of herbicide
drift on grapevine vegetative and reproductive
development. More recently, Dr Rossouw has
been assessing new powdery and downy mildew
resistant grapevine varieties, particularly in terms
Figure 1. Dr Gerhard Rossouw.
of their suitability for Australian conditions.
Gerhard is looking forward to continuing his
research in viticulture at the NWGIC.
Dr Bob Dambergs’ (Figure 2) research in
developing rapid grape and wine analysis has
brought him to the National Wine and Grape
Industry Centre many times to share his expertise;
now he is part of the team. Dr Dambergs has
joined Charles Sturt University as a senior lecturer
in wine production after 15 years as a senior
research scientist at the Australian Wine Research
Institute (AWRI).
The central theme for Dr Dambergs’ research
involves the link between grape and wine
quality, and manipulating quality during
the winemaking process. This has included
developing rapid grape and wine analysis Figure 2. Dr Bob Dambergs.
10 | Compiled by Darren Fahey – NSW DPI Development Officer – ViticultureDisease research
Comparison of Botrytis infection
quantification methods using laboratory-
infected Cabernet Sauvignon grape bunches
Dr Y Qiu and Professor Christopher Steel; Charles Sturt University and NWGIC
Introduction for the quantification of D-gluconic acid,
Wine grape bunch rot caused by the filamentous Botrytis antigen detection using a lateral flow
fungus Botrytis cinerea, especially close to device (LFD), quantitative polymerase chain
harvest after rainfall, is a worldwide problem reaction (qPCR), and Loop-mediated Isothermal
for the grape and wine industry. Yield loss is Amplification (LAMP).
one of the most obvious direct consequences
of bunch rot, however, fungal rots growing on Materials and methods
the berry before vinification cause changes in Laboratory infected grape bunch
grape composition as well as unwanted aroma preparation
and flavour compounds forming in the resulting Cabernet sauvignon bunches (EL 38, 12.7 °Bé)
wine. While Botrytis bunch rot contamination with no apparent disease symptoms or damage
thresholds for wine grapes are still not fully were hand-harvested from a local Riverina
understood, more accurate and rapid methods vineyard on 14 March 2019. Grapes were stored
of Botrytis detection and quantification are at 4 °C overnight at the NWGIC before use.
needed in the wine industry.
A spore suspension of a mixture of five B. cinerea
In this study at the National Wine and Grape isolates adjusted to 0.5 × 10⁶ spores per mL
Industry Centre (NWGIC), Cabernet Sauvignon was used as inoculum. Bunches were wounded
grapes infected with B. cinerea under controlled randomly with a sterile needle to encourage
laboratory conditions were used to investigate fungal development. The spore suspension
the effectiveness and accuracy of several was sprayed evenly onto the bunches, which
methods to estimate fungal biomass in wine were then incubated for five days at room
grape bunches. The techniques investigated temperature (~21 °C). Un-inoculated grape
included visual assessment, measurements of bunches incubated under the same conditions
the fungal sterol ergosterol, enzyme assays served as controls.
Disease research
Figure 3. Grape bunches inoculated with Botrytis cinerea under laboratory conditions. They were sorted into four
infection levels based on visual classification after 5 days of incubation at room temperature (~21 °C).
GRAPE VINE MANAGEMENT GUIDE 2020–21 | 11Grape bunches were then sorted into one
of four infection levels (approximately 9 kg
each); clean (i.e. un-inoculated control), low,
medium-low and medium based on visual
appearance (Figure 3). The grapes were then
vinified (3 ferments at each infection level)
following standard NWGIC wine production
protocols. Grape must samples for analysis
were taken after destemming and crushing.
Must samples were further destructed and
homogenised using an UltraTurrax T25 high
speed grinder and stored at -20 °C.
Fungal ergosterol measurement
Fungal ergosterol was extracted from
Figure 4. The photometric analyser (Cube reader) reading the
approximately 20 g homogenised grape
LFD placed on a reading frame (white), the score is displayed
must. Extracted ergosterol was quantified on the screen.
on a Waters 600 HPLC. A series of diluted
ergosterol standards (Sigma-Aldrich) was
used to generate the calibration curve for
quantification (Steel et al. 2020).
D-gluconic acid and fungal antigen
measurement
Homogenised grape must (10 mL) was
centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 minutes
to obtain clear grape juice for D-gluconic
acid and fungal antigen measurement.
D-gluconic acid was measured with three
different commercial enzyme-based assay
test kits. Botrytis antigens were assayed
using a commercially available fungal
antigen detection LFD (Mologic, UK)
(Figure 4 to Figure 6) embedded with the
BC12.CA4 monoclonal antibody specific
Figure 5. LFDs after testing showing the detection line (Dt) and
to B. cinerea. The LFDs were read with a control line (Ctr). The 'Blank' column represents testing buffer
photometric analyser (Cube reader) and a only, where 1-3 = healthy grape without infection, 4-6 = low
score (based on the colour intensity of the level infection, 7-9 = medium-low level infection and 10-12 =
detection line) was recorded. medium level infection.
Figure 6. The LFD workflow setup. The tip of each strip is immersed in diluted grape juice (150 µL) for ten
minutes before the score is read.
12 | Compiled by Darren Fahey – NSW DPI Development Officer – ViticultureQuantitative PCR and LAMP assay Discussion
Total genomic DNA from approximately 1 g Accurately measuring Botrytis infection levels in
(wet weight) of homogenised grape must was grape bunches before harvesting has been long
extracted using a rapid extraction kit from sought after in the wine industry. In this study,
Geneworks before undergoing qPCR and measuring ergosterol, Botrytis antigens and
LAMP analysis. The primers and probes used specific fungal genetic material in grape must
for TaqMan qPCR were suggested by Suarez et showed a significant correlation with Botrytis
al. (2005) and the primer pairs for LAMP were infection level.
designed by Tomlinson et al. (2010). A series However, not all the techniques are suitable
dilution of a synthesised DNA fragment based for in-field estimates of Botrytis contamination
on targeted amplification regions was used as in the vineyard or grape receiving area of the
the standard for quantification. The TaqMan winery. Using HPLC and qPCR to measure
qPCR was carried out in a Roto-gene-6000 ergosterol and genetic material respectively
real time PCR thermocycler (Corbett Research, takes days. However, using the LFD kit to detect
AU) and the LAMP assays were carried out in a Botrytis antigens only takes minutes. Hence
Genie II isothermal cycler (Optigene, UK). the detection of Botrytis antigens using a
commercially available kit is the most promising
Results technique in the field at the moment.
Laboratory infected grape bunches sorted into
References
the four contamination levels based on visual
Steel CC, Schwarz LJ, Qiu Y, Schueuermann C,
classification were analysed using several Blackman JW, Clark AC and Schmidtke LM. 2020.
quantification methods (Table 1). The fungal Thresholds for Botrytis bunch rot contamination of
ergosterol concentration of the grape positively Chardonnay grapes based on the measurement of
correlated with the visual classification. the fungal sterol, ergosterol. Australian Journal of
Antigen detection and qPCR also successfully Grape and Wine Research, 26: 79–89.
distinguished different infection levels. Suarez MB, Walsh K, Boonham N, O’Neill T, Pearson
S and Barker I. 2005. Development of real-time
Although the LAMP assay was specific for PCR (TaqMan) assays for the detection and
Botrytis, it failed to distinguish different quantification of Botrytis cinerea in plants. Plant
infection levels. The enzyme-based assay kits Physiology and Biochemistry, 43: 890–899.
for D-gluconic acid either failed to distinguish Tomlinson JA, Dickinson MJ and Boonham N. 2010.
clean grape samples from infected grape Detection of Botrytis cinerea by loop-mediated
samples, or failed to categorise them according isothermal amplification. Letters in Applied
to infection levels. Microbiology, 51: 650–657.
Table 1. Measurements of fungal contamination from grape bunches with different methods.
Infection level
Clean Low Medium-Low Medium Disease research
Vis (%) 0 2 5 10
erg (mg/kg) 0.76 ± 0.08 0.93 ± 0.18 1.27 ± 0.11 1.91 ± 0.22
LFD Not detected 112 ± 5.20 144 ± 9.85 179 ± 1.73
qPCR (copies/µL) Not detected 2836 ± 656 5595 ± 325 9636 ± 2411
LAMP (sec) Not detected 766 ± 32 778 ± 51 745 ± 99
Konelab (mg/L) 52.61 ± 7.18 39.87 ± 0.75 48.43 ± 11.10 57.31 ± 14.21
Megazyme (mg/L) 61.93 ± 7.80 161.81 ± 2.42 158.38 ± 2.78 166.82 ± 5.70
Vinessential (mg/L) Not detected 5.33 ± 0.58 5.00 ± 3.61 3.33 ± 1.53
Notes: Vis (%) = infection percentage based on visual classification; erg (mg/kg) = fungal ergosterol weight (mg) per
kilogram grape must (wet weight) determined by HPLC; LFD = readings of the fungal antigen lateral flow device scored
with a photometric analyser (Cube reader); qPCR (copies/µL) = number of copies of the targeted DNA fragment per µL
grape must determined by TaqMan quantitative PCR; LAMP (sec) = detection time in seconds by isothermal Loop Mediated
Amplification (LAMP) assay; Konelab (mg/L), Megazyme (mg/L), Vinessential (mg/L) = D-gluconic acid measurement
using three commercially available test kits either on the bench top or through automatic instrument.
GRAPE VINE MANAGEMENT GUIDE 2020–21 | 13Phytotoxins produced by the
Botryosphaeriaceae and their role in
grapevine trunk diseases
Emily Malone; NWGIC
Charles Sturt University PhD graduate Dr “Before my research, there was limited
Pierluigi Reveglia’s (Figure 7) research focused information about the phytotoxic metabolites
on Botryosphaeria dieback (BD), a type of produced by the species causing BD in Australia.
grapevine trunk disease (GTD) that causes
“I have isolated and then biologically and
cankers, dieback and eventually vine death;
chemically characterised different phytotoxins
severely affecting the long-term sustainability of
produced by BD pathogens from vineyards in
vineyards.
South Australia and NSW.”
At least 27 species of the Botryosphaeriaceae
The research also involved studying the role of
are associated with BD worldwide, although
these phytotoxic metabolites in the virulence
only 11 species have been reported in Australian
and symptom expression by conducting
vineyards.
experiments on artificially-infected and
Dr Reveglia said his research through the NWGIC naturally-infected grapevine plants.
studying the most widespread and virulent
This research has given us insight into the
species in Australian vineyards was a mix
role of phytotoxins, paving the way for future
between analytical chemistry, plant pathology
research to assist in field diagnosis and control
and molecular biology.
of BD in Australian vineyards.
“In Europe, BD often presents with foliar
Read his full PhD thesis here https://
symptoms. The development of these
researchoutput.Charles Sturt.edu.au/en/
symptoms is usually associated with phytotoxic
publications/isolation-and-characterisation-of-
(toxic to plants) metabolites produced by the
phytotoxins-produced-by-the-bot
pathogens,” said Dr Reveglia.
Figure 7. Dr Pierluigi Reveglia doing PCR analyses in the laboratory.
14 | Compiled by Darren Fahey – NSW DPI Development Officer – ViticultureACO CERT. NO. 13029
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Technical Enquiries 1800 804 479 enquiries.australia@bayer.comThe effects of Aspergillus rot on grapes
and wine: fumonisin production by
A. niger and A. welwitschiae associated
with Australian wine grapes
Dilhani Perera, Christopher Steel, Sandra Savocchia and Paul Prenzler;
Charles Sturt University
Introduction by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry
Aspergillus rot is one of several fungal bunch (LC-MS). Two isolates of A. niger and one isolate
rot diseases found in grapes that can result in of A. welwitschiae were assessed for fumonisin
yield losses, particularly in seasons with high production in synthetic grape juice medium
rainfall (Figure 8). Aspergillus rot is potentially (SGJM) under four temperature regimes (20 °C, 25
a concern to the wine industry as some strains °C, 30 °C and 35 °C) and three water activity (wa)
produce the mycotoxins ochratoxin A (OTA) levels (0.92, 0.95 and 0.98).
and fumonisins that are harmful to human Results
and animal health (Paterson et al. 2018). OTA
production is minimal in Australian vineyards The occurrence of fumonisin positive
(Leong et al. 2006), however there is currently no Aspergillus isolates
data on fumonisin production by black aspergilli Out of 38 Aspergillus isolates, six produced
associated with wine grapes in Australia. The aims fumonisins. These isolates were collected
of this study were to assess the ability of black from Pinot Noir, Chardonnay and Nebbiolo
aspergilli associated with Australian wine grapes grapes collected from two vineyard locations in
to produce fumonisins, thereby assessing the NSW and South Australia (Table 2).
risk associated with fumonisins for the Australian The occurrence of fumonisin positive A.
grape and wine industry. niger and A. welwitschiae in Australian
vineyards
Methods
Among the 38 isolates, four were identified as A.
Aspergillus isolates were collected from Australian niger and nine were identified as A. welwitschiae.
wine grapes and confirmed as belonging to the Three of the four A. niger isolates produced
genus Aspergillus using morphological features fumonisins. Out of the nine A. welwitschiae
(Figure 9) and molecular characterisation. isolates, only three produced fumonisins
These isolates were screened for fumonisin (Figure 10). The remaining isolates were not
production in agar medium. Fungal cultures identified to species level as none of them
were extracted and fumonisins were quantified produced fumonisins.
Figure 8. Grapes bunches infected with black aspergilli. Photo: Chris Steel.
16 | Compiled by Darren Fahey – NSW DPI Development Officer – ViticultureYou can also read
