HOW TO WRITE A GUIDE TO ESSAY WRITING - Compiled and arranged by Tanja S. Wisslicen To make my students' lives easier - Fastly
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HOW TO WRITE…
A GUIDE TO ESSAY WRITING
Compiled and arranged by Tanja S. Wisslicen
To make my students’ lives easier… English FWS Lörrach Upper School
Contents page
How to write essays 2
How to write a summary 2
How to write an informal letter 3
How to write a formal letter 4
How to write a comment 6
How to write a discussion 7
How to write a report / newspaper article 7
How to write a characterization 8
How to write an interior monologue 9
How to write a speech 10
How to write an argumentative essay discussing a quotation or statement 11
How to write a comparative essay 12
How (and Why) Do I Write in Literary Present Tense? 13
How to write a description and interpretation of a cartoon 14
How to write an analysis of a given extract / text 16
How to write an analysis of a poem 16
Stylistic devices for poems and text analysis 18
Rhetoric and Stylistic Devices 19
Cheat Sheet for Essays and Compositions 27
Connectives and other Useful Phrases for Writing Essays and Compositions 27
Say, say, say… Alternatives to: say 29
Idioms to Use in Essays 31
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How to write essays
1. Read the essay question carefully and make sure you understand it.
2. Write down your ideas.
3. Structure your ideas and make a draft.
4. Write your essay, using the following organization / structure:
a.) Introduction: Often it makes sense to refer to the essay question.
b.) Main part: structure your main part from the weakest to the strongest argument. Always keep in mind -
> Each new aspect requires a new paragraph!
c.) Conclusion: Sum up the outcome / solution to the essay question. You can add your own opinion here.
Make sure your conclusion is substantial and you use a good final sentence.
Use connectives to link your paragraphs!
______________________________________________________________________________________________
How to write a summary
The purpose of a summary is to express the main ideas of a given text (article, letter, excerpt of a book…) in
a compact way, leaving out unnecessary details (numbers, names etc.), interpretation and your own opinion.
It is not allowed to copy sentences or expressions from the original text. The summary should be one fifth
to one third as long as the original text.
1. Read through the given text. Highlight and look up unknown words. In a different colour highlight the
important aspects.
2. Go through the text and summarize paragraph by paragraph in your own words in your draft.
3. Write your summary using the following organization / structure:
a.) Introduction: Mention the name of the article, book etc. and the author and if known where and when
the article, book etc. was published. Furthermore, you should include what the main topic / purpose of the
text is, what the main idea of the author was.
b.) Main part: Now you should organize your draft, sometimes you cannot / should not stick to the order of
the aspects in the original text, as you leave out parts. Do not forget to make useful paragraphs and link them
using connectives.
c.) Conclusion: In the conclusion you sum up in one or two sentences the main idea of the given text, i.e.
what did the author want to say above all. Make sure your conclusion is substantial.
Use the present tense when talking about the text or the author’s intentions. If the text deals with events
that happened in the past you are allowed to use the past tense.
You have to use connectives to link your paragraphs!
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How to write an informal letter
An informal letter is a letter that is written in a personal fashion. You can write them to relatives or friends,
but also really to anyone with whom you have a non-professional relationship with, although this doesn't
exclude business partners or workers with whom you're friendly with either. An informal letter consists of
the following aspects:
• address • text / body / content
• date • closing / end
• opening • signature
Address
Your personal address should be located at the top right corner of the page, since you do not always know if
someone has your address in case they want to reply.
Example of a British address:
• Name of person
• Street name and number: 33 Downing Street
• Postal code, city: NP 194 Oxford
• State or Province: Oxfordshire
• Country: United Kingdom
Date
In a number of countries, people will insert the city where the letter is being written from. The English,
however, do no such thing. The date is usually located below your own address. Simply leave one line below
open, and insert the date. The month, day and year are the normal thing to mention. (Do not forget that in
English, the months are spelled with capital letters.)
Example:
English letter: 22 November, 2011 American letter: November 22, 2011
Body
The contents of your letter should be written in a personal and friendly tone. However, it's important to
adjust your use of language to the person you are writing to. A good way of assessing how you should write
is to think about how you would interact with each other in real life. Also, the English and the Americans are
fond of exchanging social niceties. For example, they like asking a few polite questions "How are you?" or
"How was your holiday?" for example. In general, they are not as direct as most Europeans.
Often you will be asked to put yourself in the position of a character of a book or film and write a letter on
his/ her behalf. In this case, you have to think about how this character would express him-/ herself and who
the recipient of the letter is, meaning, how would the character write to this person.
• In the first paragraph of your body, you should state your reason for writing.
• In the second and following paragraphs, expand on what you mentioned in the first paragraph.
• In the final paragraphs, you can make some concluding remarks.
When writing for a character, read the assignment carefully and make sure you fulfilled the task
completely.
Opening
How do you address someone in English? This is fairly straightforward, and it is usually not as important as
would be with a business or formal letter. However, there are still a few things that you should know about
in terms of addressing someone properly in an informal letter.
• First of all, in England there is no fullstop after "Mr," but in American letters there is one.
• Secondly, women are addressed as "Mrs." if they are married, and with "Ms." if they are not.
Examples:
To use „Dear“ to address someone is always a proper, polite and appropriate way.
"Dear Richard," Never forget the comma!
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Sample Opening Sentences
Your opening should be casual, and not as stiff as they would be in business letters.
You always have to start with a capital letter, despite the comma after Dear...,
Examples:
• How are you? • I hope you are doing well
• How is life treating you? • I hope everything is well on the ranch
• How are the kids?
Ending
Closing sentences examples:
• I am looking forward to seeing you. • See you soon.
• I can't wait to see you soon. • Send my love to. . .
• I can't wait to hear from you. • I hope you are doing well.
• I am looking forward to hearing from you, I • Give my regards to. . .
hope to be hearing from you soon.
Signature
In terms of signing off, the choice is yours and you have a lot of freedom here. Here are some examples:
• Best wishes, • Best regards,
• Best, • Lots of love,
• Kindly, • Love,
• Kind regards,
After the comma, in the next line, you sign with your first name, respectively the character's first name.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How to write a formal letter
In English there are a number of conventions that should be used when writing a formal or business letter.
Furthermore, you try to write as simply and as clearly as possible, and not to make the letter longer than
necessary. Remember not to use informal language.
Address
Your personal address should be located at the top right corner of the page, since you do not always know if
someone has your address in case they want to reply.
Example of a British address:
• Name of person
• Name of company (if necessary)
• Street name and number: 33 Downing Street
• Postal code, city: NP 194 Oxford
• State or Province: Oxfordshire
• Country: United Kingdom
Date
In a number of countries, people will insert the city where the letter is being written from. The English,
however, do no such thing. The date is usually located below your own address. Simply leave one line below
open and insert the date. The month, day and year are the normal thing to mention. (Do not forget that in
English, the months are spelled with capital letters.)
Example:
English letter: 22 November, 2011 American letter: November 22, 2011
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Salutation or greeting
1. Dear Sir or Madam,
If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use this. It is always advisable to try to find
out a name.
2. Dear Mr Jenkins,
If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.) and the surname only. If you are writing
to a woman and do not know if she uses Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which is for married and single
women.
• First of all, in England there is no fullstop after "Mr," but in American letters there is one.
• Secondly, women are addressed as "Mrs." if they are married, and with "Ms." if they are not.
Sample Opening Sentences
You always have to start with a capital letter, despite the comma after Dear...,
Examples:
• With reference to your letter of 8 June, I ... ...
• I am writing to enquire about ... • Thank you for your letter regarding ...
• After having seen your advertisement in ... , I • Thank you for your letter/e-mail about ...
would like ... • In reply to your letter of 8 May, ...
• After having received your address from ... , I
Body
The contents of your letter should be written in an impersonal and very polite tone. You will achieve this by
using could and would.
• In the first paragraph of your body, you should state your reason for writing.
• In the second paragraph, only if necesssary, expand on what you mentioned in the first paragraph.
• In the final paragraphs, you can make suggestions, apologies or hint at future correspondence
Ending
Why do we need a closing line in a business letter?
- to make a reference to a future event
- to repeat an apology
- to offer help
Closing sentences examples:
• If you require any further information, feel • Should you need any further information,
free to contact me. please do not hesitate to contact me.
• I am looking forward to your reply. • Once again, I apologise for any inconvenience.
• I look forward to hearing from you. • We hope that we may continue to rely on your
• I look forward to seeing you. valued custom.
• Please advise as necessary. • I would appreciate your immediate attention
• We look forward to a successful working to this matter.
relationship in the future.
Signature
1) Yours Faithfully
If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way.
2) Yours Sincerely
If you know the name of the person, end the letter this way.
3) Your signature
Sign with your full name, in the next line
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How to write a comment
A comment should always reflect your own opinion.
There are three types of comment:
1. Pros and Cons – Often also referred to as a discussion.
Example: Comment on / Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of globalization.
2. support or criticism only
Example: “Globalization is the key to the future”. Do you agree with this statement? Comment.
3. first-second-third
Example: Explain why globalization is the key to the future.
→ logical structure: Each paragraph develops a single argument. The first sentence of the paragraph
should be the topic sentence. The other sentences present additional information and examples.
Structure of a Comment on a Text:
1. Paragraph: Reference to the text: What does the author support or not support?
2. Paragraph: arguments, which might support the author’s view: Why does the author think/ not think..?
3. Paragraph: arguments against the statement: Why is the idea unrealistic and examples.
4. Paragraph: One’s own opinion: What do you think about the matter? Are you for or against the
statement? Why?
5. Paragraph: Conclusion: Short summary of all points supporting your opinion.
Connectors:
Starting: Useful phrases:
First of all; To start with; Firstly In my opinion/view…
Adding: To my mind,…
In addition; Also; Moreover I am of the opinion that…
Summarising: I hold the view that…
To sum up; all in all; in short My own view of the matter is that…
Drawing Conclusions: I am sure/convinced that…
For this reason; Therefore; As a result It seems to me that…
Contrasting: Personally, I firmly believe that…
In contrast to; as opposed to; in comparison Surely,…
Making concessions: Obviously…
However; yet; admittedly Clearly,…
Emphasising: Undoubtedly,…
Above all; especially; most importantly Surprisingly,…
Indicating a topic (change): interestingly,…
With regard to; as regards; in terms of strangely enough,…
Giving examples: luckily,…
For example; for instance; such as..
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How to write a discussion
We are writing a discussion to show different views e.g. disadvantages and advantages concerning a certain
topic. In a well- balanced discussion, the reader understands the topic a lot better and good arguments were
given for and against the topic / statement.
1. Read through the essay question and make sure you understand it.
2. Make a draft writing down pro and con arguments, using a grid.
3. Make up your mind, whether you are for or against the topic.
Example: Spending the holidays on the seaside – what can be better? Discuss.
Yes – you agree.
No- you disagree with the statement.
Write your discussion using the following organization / structure:
a.) Introduction: Refer to the essay question and state if you are for or against it.
Example: Spending the holidays on the seaside is a very good way to relax away from every day-life. The following essay
will show that there is no better way to have a holiday.
b.) Main part: If you agree with the essay question, you should start with two arguments against the topic
and end with two arguments for the topic. If you disagree it is the other way around: You do that, because
you want to convince the reader of your opinion.
c.) Conclusion: In the conclusion, you sum up the solution to the essay question. Use a good final sentence.
Structure / Organization:
Introduction 1st pargraph
1st argument not in accordance with your opinion – stronger argument 2nd pargraph
2nd argument not in accordance with your opinion – weaker argument 3rd pargraph
1st argument in accordance with your opinion – weaker argument 4th pargraph
2nd argument in accordance with your opinion – stronger argument 5th pargraph
Conclusion 6th pargraph
Use the present tense!
Use neutral language!
You have to use connectives to link your paragraphs!
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How to write a report / newspaper article
A newspaper story deals with a current event (“hot news”). Its main aim is to inform objectively about what
happened. Newspapers are read by people who want information about something that has happened. They
want details quickly, so reports have to be easy to read and have a snappy presentation style. However, the
way of presenting the news and the selection of details may to some extent reveal the journalist’s attitude.
1. Begin by asking yourself the “5Ws” (sometimes “6Ws”):
-Who - who was involved? -Why - why did it happen?
-What - what happened? -When - when did it happen?
-Where - where did it happen? -How - how did it happen?
…and put the answers in your draft.
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2. Structure your newspaper article as follows:
- a headline to catch the reader's attention
- a sub headline gives an overview of what happened answering at least one of the W questions
- the following paragraphs provide answers to the remaining W questions
- the paragraphs should be short and punchy, giving information in a clear and concise way
- use the past tense because the report refers to an event which has already taken place
3. Keep in mind that a newspaper article is structured differently from other essays. The most important
facts should be at the beginning and the less important details at the end of it.
4. Do you have to write the article for a high-quality newspaper or for a tabloid / gazette? You have to use a
sensational style if the article is for the latter.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
How to write a characterization
A characterization should help to understand a text or film through the analysis of one of the text's or film's
characters. Its aim is to collect all aspects of a character in one piece of writing.
Before Writing:
Sort the information according to the following categories:
1. Outward Appearance 4. Social Situation
age job/occupation
physical appearance/ physique social rank
looks social relationships
clothing family
style of character's movements financial situation
social background (e.g. origin (urban or rural)
2. Outward Behaviour family background (social class)
peculiar behaviour culture (home country/ region)
language usage & speech pattern
habits 5. Psychological Behaviour
interests
3. Behaviour Patterns feelings/emotions
manners way of thinking
social etiquette attitudes
hobbies relationship towards money/ love/ violence etc.
I Introduction
title, author, (publishing year), text type, genre, name of character & position in the story (relation to
protagonist or similar), very short account of the storyline (one or two sentences), if possible: background
information (historical context or similar)
II Main Part
- outward appearance
- peculiar outward behaviour (arrange to rising importance)
- social situation (actions and talk of the person, motivations and aims, conflicts with others)
- psychological behavior (here you can add the description of of an exemplary situation where
the character shows typical behavior/ key character traits)
- sum up the main character traits that you derive from the given information and describe the
character using appropriate adjectives
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III Conclusion
- importance of the character for the story/ function of the character
- evaluation of the character to your own standards (good/ bad, nice/ mean, likeable/
unappealing, etc.)
Useful Advice
- use the present tense
- use direct and indirect quotations
- support your structure by using paragraphs (for each new aspect, you need a new paragraph)
- do not use all information you can get, but select information that helps you understand the
character and supports your arguments/ interpretation
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How to write an interior monologue
An interior monologue is the expression of a character's thoughts, feelings, and impressions in a narrative. So, before
you start writing an interior monologue, you have to put yourself into the position of the character. Usually you know
about the character traits of the person who is holding the interior monologue. You have to use them: a brave person
would not put their decisions into question for example, whereas an insecure person would also ask a lot of questions
in the monologue and the insecurity would have to be reflected in your interior monologue. You have to try to feel and
think like the character and most importantly use the same register of language.
An interior monologue is always written in first person: I
Read through the essay question and make sure you understand it. The essay question is very important, as it usually
gives you instructions about the interior monologue. The situation of the interior monologue is often chosen before
important decisions, after or before troubling events or emotionally strong moments.
Make a draft writing down what happened before and after the moment of the interior monologue to give you an
overview of the situation. Then write down which feelings the character has at the moment.
Example: confused, upset, doesn’t know what to do, hurt…..
If there was a troubling event before the interior monologue, you can make the character experiencing parts of it again.
Make sure, though, that it stays an interior monologue and you do not end up retelling whole parts of the book!
You can also look into the future and tell the reader about plans the character might have.
You do not need an introduction but try to find a good beginning thought of your character. You could e.g. start with
the place where the character is at the moment: Now I am lying here in bed and cannot do anything about it anymore. What a
mess…
As you are writing down thoughts of a (usually) emotionally moved person, you are allowed to write in a confusing
way, but be careful not to overdo it, the reader has to be able to follow your train of thoughts!
Use a lot of adjectives and emotional expressions, also colloquial language is allowed, but only if the character would
talk (think) like this!
Make sure to use the correct tenses: for actual feelings – present tenses, for past events – past tenses, for future events –
future respectively conditional tenses
End with a decision or an emotionally strong last thought.
Example: Yes, tomorrow I am going to tell her the truth.
You need paragraphs to structure the monologue!
Often you will need if-sentences to express what could have happened if the character had acted differently, or what
could happen if the character acts in a certain way.
If I go to England, I will visit my uncle.
If I went to England, I would visit my uncle.
If I had gone to England, I would have visited my uncle.
Read through your finished monologue again and then read the essay question. Did you answer it and put all the
demanded aspects in your monologue?
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How to write a speech
Getting started: the nature of speeches
In contrast to written texts – where the author does not face his readership and their reaction – a speech
usually brings the speaker and his audience into immediate contact. To choose the appropriate subject
matter, tone and wording of a speech, the speaker must consider the following questions:
• What is the role of the speaker? • Who is being addressed? Who is the
• What is the topic of the speech? audience?
• On what occasion is the speech given? • What kind of language (register) would be
• With what intention is the speech made? adequate?
The structure of speeches
A speech contains three parts: the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
The three parts: Ideas and advice Useful phrases
Introduction: In the introduction you establish contact with your audience; you want to grab their
attention. You can create a positive atmosphere by making a funny or interesting remark. Then you
refer to the topic of your speech, your audience and the occasion.
1. Greet the audience politely. Thank Ladies and gentlemen, …
them for the invitation. State your It is an honour for me to be here today … / to speak to
topic and its importance. you about …
I feel greatly honoured by your invitation.
2. Catch your listeners’ attention with, e.g. As some of you might know, since my early childhood I
• a provocative statement or question have taken a special interest in …
• a surprising fact of trend You might all remember XY who said many years ago,
• a new discovery “…”
• an eye-opening experience We are here today …
• an anecdote, joke or quotation Today, I would like to tell you a little about…
In this time of great (uncertainty.…), it is especially
3. State your aim. (Outline the structure of your important / significant to…
speech.) Hence, … /Thus I would like to introduce you to … ,
before I explain to you how … . I will then conclude by
highlighting / drawing to your attention the facts
about … / emphasising how
Main part: Depending on the topic and purpose of your speech, you can keep your listeners’ attention
by …
1. developing your ideas step by step, either in In my opinion / view, …
• chronological or topical order, To my mind, …
• from the least to the most important idea I am of the opinion that …
• alternating arguments for or against an idea I hold the view that …
• according to cause and effect, My own view of the matter / the problem is that …
• problem and solution, First of all, people should be aware of the fact that …
• or advantage or disadvantage First, … / Second … / Third …
In addition, one mustn’t forget that …
Furthermore, … / Moreover, … / Besides, …
2. backing up your ideas with background info. In contrast to …, it mustn’t be overlooked that …
Above all, …
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3. giving examples to support your statements. With regard to …, …
However, … / …, however, … / …, though, …
4. dividing your speech into clear units For example, …
(paragraphs). I am sure / convinced that …
It seems to me that …
5. linking the parts of your speech. Personally, I firmly believe that …
One the one hand …. , on the other …
6. repeating and emphasise important points. Surely, everybody will be happy about …
Obviously, nobody expects …
Clearly, it is necessary that …
Undoubtedly, the risk of … should not be
underestimated.
Surprisingly, not many people know that …
Interestingly, experts have predicted that …
Strangely / Oddly enough, it has been claimed that …
Luckily, nobody expects that ...
Conclusion: In the conclusion you repeat the main points and refer to the audience again.
1. Come to a convincing end, e.g. with one Let me conclude with the words of … who once said
of the following … that…
• a short summary I am hoping for … Thank you for listening / for your
• a quotation attention.
• a call for action All my evidence points to one direction: ….
• a look into the future Looking at all the facts and figures, I have to draw the
• a rhetorical question conclusion that …
• a promise All in all, we could say that …
• an appeal To sum up, there is no doubt that …
• In conclusion, … / To conclude, …
2. Finish your speech clearly. What it all boils down to is the following: …
Let us all work together to …
____________________________________________________________________________________
How to write an argumentative essay discussing a quotation or statement
Discussing means to give your own opinion about a statement, quotation or topic, while looking at it from
different perspectives.
Introduction (explaining the statement / quotation & asking the question you want to discuss)
A good introduction -puts the object of discussion into a current or personal context
-defines keywords
-gives thesis and counter-thesis or asks the question, which needs to be discussed
thesis: is your own position to the statement / quotation
counter-thesis: is the position, which is in direct contradiction to the thesis
Example:
thesis: It's good for teenagers to live in the country;
counter-thesis: It's not good for teenagers to live in the country
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Main part (balanced discussion, mostly structured in thesis and counter-thesis)
Hourglass-pattern:
In the main part, to give a balanced discussion, you give first all the arguments which speak for the position
you are against (counter-thesis). Then you state all the arguments in favour of the position you want to take
(thesis).
It's efficient to start with the strongest counterargument and end with the strongest argument for your
position.
Conclusion (own opinion / result of discussion)
In the conclusion you answer the questions: “What is my decision?” “Why did I come to this decision?” and
maybe “How can the problem be solved?”
It states clearly your result to the arguments of the main part.
Often you have to refer the statement to a book or film. In this cases, write examples from the book / film in
your draft you can relate to the statement / quotation and order them from the weakest to the strongest
argument. Two elaborate, well-explained examples are usually better than three examples. Make sure the
reader can follow your train of thoughts.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
How to write a comparative essay
The purpose of a compare and contrast essay is to analyse the differences and/or the similarities of two
distinct subjects. Usually you will be asked to compare two given texts, two characters in a book, two literary
works, a book and film…
1. Read the essay question carefully and make sure you understand it.
2. In your draft make a table writing down differences and similarities of the two … you have to compare.
3. Write your essay, using the following organization / structure:
a.) Introduction: Refer to the essay question, point out why it is useful to compare these two…
b.) Main part: for your main part find differences and similarities you can compare. Compare direct aspects
in one paragraph. (In the book as well as the film, the main character struggles with her place in society. We can see
this in the scene in which….)
Start with the weakest argument and end with the strongest argument. Try to find a way to coherently link
the single arguments. These words can help you :
on the other hand – whereas – compared to – in addition – similarly – correspondingly – just as- as well as- likewise –
same as – at the same time- however – even though – unlike – on the contrary – in contrast – although – unlike –
conversely – meanwhile
Always keep in mind -> Each new aspect requires a new paragraph!
c.) Conclusion: Sum up the outcome / solution to the essay question. You can add your own opinion here.
Make sure your conclusion is substantial and you use a good final sentence. Make sure you answered the
essay question.
Use the Present Tense!
You have to use connectives to link your paragraphs!
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How (and Why) Do I Write in Literary Present Tense?
Literary works, paintings, films, and other artistic creations are assumed to exist in an eternal present.
Therefore, when you write about writers or artists as they express themselves in their work, use the present
tense.
The Basic Rule: You should use the past tense when discussing historical events, and you should use the
literary present when discussing fictional events.
1. When commenting on what a writer says, use the present tense.
Example: Dunn begins his work with a view into the lives and motivations of the very first settlers.
Example: Through this anecdote, Richter illustrates common misconceptions about native religion and
shows why missionary attempts were less than successful.
2. When describing an author’s work, however, use the past tense.
Example: In 1966, Driss Chraïbi published La Civilisation, ma Mère!
3. When you are writing about a certain historical event (even the creation of a literary or artistic work), use
the past tense.
Examples: Henry Fielding wrote in the eighteenth century.
Picasso produced a series of sculptures.
4. When discussing events in a book or story, always use the present tense, unless there is a shift in the time
frame within the world of the text.
Example: Evelyn then rips into the carefully wrapped package and finds the greatest gift she has ever
received. Her eyes fill with tears as she gazes at the jewel, but Philip does not know that
these tears are the results of more than surprised joy. Evelyn is suffering from guilt as she
compares this present to the shoddy gift that she bought* for her beau.
* “bought” is in past tense because the buying of the present occurred before the described set of events.
Here are some additional examples of literary present tense:
In Michelangelo's painting, Christ judges the world.
Johnson's characters journey to Cairo.
Plato argues without much conviction.
Paul writes about the hardships he has endured.
5. Sometimes a sentence must employ both present and past tense.
Examples: The first part of the poem, which she completed in 1804, describes the effects of isolation
from society. Aeschylus' drama is concerned with what happens to Orestes after he has
killed his mother.
Remember: It is important to stay consistent. Moving between verb tenses can be confusing for your reader.
Examine your changes of tense very carefully and make sure there is a logical reason for them.
Style Tip: If you need to shift tense more than three times in a single sentence, consider breaking up the
sentence into a couple of shorter sentences to maintain reading ease.
www.vanderbilt.edu/writing Page 2 of 2 Revised 8/10/2007
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How to write a description and interpretation of a cartoon
1. Description at visual level
1. Like a summary, you should start your description with an appropriate introduction that may contain the following
information (if available): artist, title, date and place of publication, theme, what kind of picture it is (painting, cartoon,
etc.). Think of a reader who has never seen this particular picture and can't look at it while listening to/ reading your
description
2. First of all, just describe what you can see in the picture. As in a summary, you should leave out any personal views
or interpretations. The interpretation of the picture's "message" or your personal opinion concerning the picture must
not be mixed with the description.
3. Describe the picture systematically (e.g. from left to right, from foreground to background etc.). Do not jump from
one detail to another. Distinguish between main pictorial elements and less important details.
2. Understanding the topic
The visual elements in a cartoon are symbols of something else. Think of current news and events or topics that are/were
widely discussed at the time when the cartoon is/was published. What do the elements in the picture stand for? What
people, facts and political or social events does the cartoon refer to?
3. The caption and/or text in the cartoon
Some cartoons work mostly on the visual level, some have a title or speech bubbles which put words in the mouths of
people in the picture. How are these elements related? What is the logical link between the text or title and the drawing?
Often there is an ironic twist and you will not be able to understand the cartoon without the caption - the drawing on
its own would point to a totally different meaning. The caption is frequently used as a punch line which contains a kind
of joke. Very often, it contains a play on words or has a double meaning.
4. Interpretation
Now paraphrase what the cartoonist wants to say in your own words. What is the message of the cartoon? What is its
intended effect?
5. Your reaction and comment
1. Describe your reaction to the cartoon.
2. Explain why the cartoon is funny (or not).
3. Do you think this particular cartoon is well done?
4. Do you agree or disagree with its view?
In this last step you can discuss the cartoon and its topic comprehensively. This is the moment when you can do what
you may have held back because you were told not to comment directly but work with the cartoon in a more systematic
way.
More tips:
- Try to find a compromise between a) giving a really detailed description and b) confusing the reader with too many
details and c) describing the picture in such a vague and general fashion that one can't possibly imagine what it shows.
- When you want to say what the people in the picture are doing or wearing use the present continuous. You use the
simple present tense for things that do not change or that are habits.
- Remember that in English the word order in statements is S-P-O, and adverbials of place are normally found at the
end of the sentence - or, if you want to stress the adverbial of place, put it at the beginning; e.g., "On the right we can
see a policeman."
- Please do not use "there is", "there are" in your description all the time - this tends to get very boring and monotonous.
Try to vary the sentence structures in your text.
14 English FWS Lörrach Upper School
Useful words and phrases to help you describing and interpreting cartoons:
DESCRIPTION
• The cartoon by … , published in …, shows / presents / deals with / is about ….
• In the foreground / background / centre … can be seen.
• At the top / at the bottom / on the right / in the bottom left-hand side corner
• The cartoon consists of / contains / shows/ illustrates / highlights /
• The cartoon is subdivided into . . . pictorial elements
• The single aspect that particularly catches the eye of the spectator is the …
• The focus of attention of this cartoon is …
• What strikes the eye is . . .
• facial expression
• gesture/posture
• The characters’ gestures / postures / facial expressions denote / express ….
• The characters are different in size
• The figure on the right faces the viewer / is shown in profile / addresses the viewer
INTERPRETATION
• The . . . stands for / represents / symbolizes . . .
• The cartoonist’s message is underlined by …
• The cartoon shows / describes /expresses … / reveals / draws attention to
• It carries a political / satirical / ironical / amusing message (in that) …
• The cartoonist exaggerates / satirizes / ridicules / criticizes / attacks /makes fun of
• The cartoon contains a critical comment on . . .
• The purpose / message of the cartoon is …
• Compared to … , the … / In comparison to …, the …
• A similarity between … and … can be found in …
• The fact that … suggests the cartoonist’s intention to stress (…) the significance of
• There is a difference between . . . and …, in that the former … , while the latter …
• The cartoonist ridicules / makes fun of / criticises / draws attention to the fact that ...
• He presents / shows sb. or sth. (un)favourably
• He exaggerates single traits / features of … by …
• He reduces everything to …
• By stressing / emphasizing … , the cartoonist …
• The cartoonist underlines his ideas by a caption / punch line / symbols
15 English FWS Lörrach Upper School
How to write an analysis of a given extract /text
1. Read the extract carefully, underline unknown words.
2. Look up the unknown words and understand the extract.
3. Make a draft. Write down noticeable features of the text, e.g. style of language (sophisticated, colloquial,
slang…), usage of short, long, complicated sentences, sentence-structures, usage of many adverbs, verbs,
nouns, usage of stylistic devices (personifications, metaphors, alliterations, foreboding, symbols….), direct/
indirect speech, brackets ( ), questions, ellipses…
4. Write your essay, using the following organization / structure:
a.) Introduction: naming of title and author, locating of the extract (if necessary).
b.) What does the author say? Describe the content of the extract.
c.) How does the author say it? Is the author very passionate, neutral, describing, unclear...? Is he / she using a
lot of nouns/adjectives/verbal construction /long or short sentences, symbols, metaphors…
d.) Why does the author say it? Read between the lines! What are the inclinations of the author, hidden
statements, what effect does the use of language have on the reader. Interpreting of the symbols, metaphors
etc.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
How to write an analysis of a poem
1. Read the poem at least twice and try to understand the main idea(s) of it.
2. Look up unknown words.
3. Make a draft. Write down noticeable features (Eigenschaften) of the poem, e.g. usage of stylistic devices
(personifications, metaphors, alliterations, foreboding, symbols)
4. Write your essay, using the following organization / structure:
a.) Introduction: Naming of title and author, when was the poem written or published? What is the poem about?
b.) Main part:
What does the author say?
Describe the content of the poem. What is the message, for who did the author write the poem? If necessary you have
to write about the verses /stanzas individually, depending on the structure and content(s).
Structure of the poem.
How many verses are there?
Is there a rhyme scheme (Reimschema)? If so, which one?
Is the author’s language very passionate, neutral, describing, unclear... Is he/she using a lot of nouns/adjectives/verbal
constructions /long or short sentences?
Which stylistic devices does the author use? (Metaphors, personifications, alliterations, assonances, irony…)
Why does the author say it? Read between the lines! What are the inclinations (Absichten) of the author, hidden statements
(Aussage) what effect does the use of language have on the reader. Interpreting of the symbols, metaphors etc.
5. Conclusion (Schluss, Fazit)
What is the overall message, outcome (Ergebnis) of the single interpretations? You can include your own opinion. Do
you like the poem? Did the poem have a special meaning (political, personal) at the time it was written? Is the poem
still up-to-date?
16 English FWS Lörrach Upper School
The following questions can help you with your analysis:
➢ Who is speaking? Some lyrical I or the poet himself?
➢ Who is addressed (angesprochen)?
➢ What kind of situation is presented?
➢ What are motifs / what is the theme of the poem?
➢ What is the poet´s main intention (Absicht)?
➢ What is the prevailing (vorherrschend) atmosphere?
➢ What is the predominant (vorherrschend) tone of the poem?
Useful Expressions for Your Interpretation
➢ The poem consists of / comprises (bestehen aus) three stanzas/ verses.
➢ The first stanza is composed of four lines / The number of lines varies (variieren) greatly.
➢ The poem has a rather complex / simple sentence structure.
➢ It can be divided (teilen) into … parts. / It is not divided into stanzas.
➢ In the … part of the poem, the sentence is not complete.
➢ The different stanzas are unequal (ungleich) in length.
➢ The subject of the poem is …/ It deals with … / treats (behandeln) the theme of …
➢ The person speaking is …/ seems to be …
➢ The motif of … appears (erscheinen) for the first time in stanza …
➢ The poet addresses … / His (main) intention is to …
➢ The poet narrates (erzählen)… / describes … / depicts … / develops the idea of …/
➢ He / She reflects on … / expresses …
➢ The tone in the poem is critical / ironical / melancholic / humorous / matter-of-fact / enthusiastic / detached
(abgehoben, abgeklärt) / sad …
➢ Therefore the general mood (Stimmung) of the poem is rather (ziemlich) …
➢ The repetition of the word … adds to … / helps to … / contributes to (zu etw. beitragen) convey (erzeugen) a
feeling of …
➢ Generally speaking, the vocabulary is colloquial (umgangssprachlich) / simple / elevated (gehoben) / abstract /
concrete / difficult to understand / vague (wage) / ambiguous (zweideutig)
➢ Mainly the poet uses words from everyday language.
➢ What the poet´s intention probably was: appeal to (etw. ansprechen) the reader´s imagination (Vorstellungskraft) /
emotions/ sense of beauty / stir (anrühren) the reader´s social concern (Sorge) / sympathy for …/ compassion
(Mitleid, Mitgefühl) with …
➢ The poet conveys his message to the reader / listener by …
➢ The poet gives his opinion on … in an indirect way.
➢ The poem has a highly symbolic meaning, namely …
➢ The poem is not supposed to be taken literally (wörtlich)
➢ The style of the poem is simple/ complex/ vivid (lebendig)/ elaborate (aufwändig)/ ornate (überladen)
➢ These features are quite typical / characteristic of …
➢ The poet uses various stylistic devices / stylistic means among which … are predominant.
➢ His / Her style is rich in images / Imagery (Symbolik, bildliche Darstellung) plays an important role in his / her
poetry
➢ Enjambement appears / occurs in stanza three
➢ This idea is taken up again in stanza three
➢ The … is a symbol of / stands for / is supposed to be taken as a symbol of / represents/ symbolises
➢ The poet associates … with … / connects … with …the idea of …
➢ The metaphor used in line … appeals to the reader´s sense of …
➢ The second stanza contains an enumeration (Aufzählung) the poet enumerates …
➢ There are a lot of puns / plays upon words (Wortspiel) in stanza four
17 English FWS Lörrach Upper School
➢ The poet does not stick to any regular rhyme scheme
➢ The poem is based on / written in regular stanzas rhyming aa bb cc / rhyme scheme is…
➢ In the second stanza the rhyme scheme / metrical pattern is regular / irregular.
➢ In the first stanza the words … and … do not rhyme at all
➢ The first lines of each stanza are identical / the same.
➢ In order to avoid monotony the poet …
➢ There is an absolute absence of punctuation in this modern poem
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Stylistic Devices for Poems
IMAGERY
simile (Vergleich): An explicit comparison between two things which are basically quite different using words such as
like or as.
She walks like an angel. / I wandered lonely as a cloud. (Wordsworth)
metaphor (Metapher): A comparison between two things which are basically quite different without using like or as.
While a simile only says that one thing is like another, a metaphor says that one thing is another. (adj. metaphorical)
All the world’s a stage / And all the men and women merely players ... (Shakespeare)
personification (Verkörperung): A kind of metaphor in which animals, plants, inanimate (leblos) objects or abstract ideas
are represented as if they were human beings and possessed human qualities.
Justice is blind. / Necessity is the mother of invention (Not macht erfinderisch).
symbol (Symbol): Something concrete (like a person, object, image, word or event) that stands for something abstract or
invisible.
The Cross is the symbol of Christianity. The dove (Taube) symbolizes peace/is symbolic of peace.
SOUND
alliteration (Alliteration): The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of neighbouring words.
Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
rhyme (Reim): The use of words which end with the same sounds, usually at the end of lines.
Tiger! Tiger! burning bright / In the forests of the night.
STRUCTURE
anaphora (Anapher): The repetition of a word or several words at the beginning of successive (aufeinander folgend) lines,
clauses or sentences.
"To raise a happy, healthy, and hopeful child, it takes a family; it takes teachers; it takes clergy; it takes business
people; it takes community leaders; it takes those who protect our health and safety.”
parallelism (Parallelismus): The similarity of syntactical structure in neighbouring phrases, clauses, sentences or
paragraphs.
"Let every nation know that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose
any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty."
repetition (Wiederholung): A structure, word or phrase, which is used more than once.
“ I am here, I am here….”
18 English FWS Lörrach Upper School
enumeration (Aufzählung): The listing of words or phrases. It can stress a certain aspect e.g. by giving a number of
similar or synonymous adjectives to describe something.
Many workers find their labour mechanical, boring, imprisoning and repetitive.
OTHER
allusion (Anspielung): A reference to a person, work of art, event etc. Allusions require a common cultural experience
shared by the writer and the reader.
The Old Man and the Computer (allusion to The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway)
euphemism (Euphemismus): Hiding the real nature of something unpleasant by using a mild or indirect term for it.
“He has passed away.” instead of “He has died.” / “the underprivileged” instead of “the poor”
hyperbole (Hyperbel) also overstatement: Deliberate (absichtlich) exaggeration. Its purpose is to emphasize something
or to produce a humorous effect.
I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.
understatement (Untertreibung): The opposite of hyperbole; the deliberate presentation of something as being much less
important, valuable etc. than it really is.
“These figures are a bit disappointing” instead of “… are disastrous (katastrophal).”
irony (Ironie): Saying the opposite of what you actually mean. Do not use “ironic” in the vague sense of
“funny/humorous”.
Teacher: “You are absolutely the worst class I’ve ever had.” Actual meaning: “the best class”
satire (Satire): A kind of text which criticizes certain conditions, events or people by making them appear ridiculous.
Satirical texts often make use of exaggeration, irony and sarcasm.
Paradox (Paradoxon): A statement that seems to be self-contradictory (widersprüchlich) or opposed to common sense.
On closer examination it mostly reveals some truth. (adj. paradoxical )
“The child is father of the man. (Wordsworth) / It is awfully hard work doing nothing. (Oscar Wilde)”
Oxymoron (Oxymoron): A condensed (komprimiert) form of paradox in which two contradictory words (mostly
adjective and noun) are used together.
sweet sorrow / wise fool / bittersweet / “O hateful love! O loving hate!” (Romeo and Juliet )
Pun (Wortspiel): A play on words that have the same (or a similar) sound but different meanings.
At the drunkard’s funeral, four of his friends carried the bier. (bier Totenbahre vs. beer Bier)
“Is life worth living?” – “It depends on the liver.” (liver = sb. who lives vs. liver Leber)
Rhetorical question (rhetorische Frage): A question to which the answer is obvious and therefore not expected. In reality
rhetorical questions are a kind of statement.
Don’t we all love peace and hate war? / Shouldn’t we try to be friendlier towards each other?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Rhetorical and stylistic devices
Rhetorical devices are often used in non-fictional texts, especially in speeches. They include
• references to quotations and proverbs to lend weight to the speaker’s own words,
• unsubstantiated claims which do not leave any room for doubts or questions,
• drastic/vivid descriptions to appeal to the listeners’ emotions, to their reason and to their conscience,
• superlatives to highlight certain aspects,
• repetitions of key words as a means of emphasis and to draw the listeners’ attention to certain aspects,
• the use of key symbols, slogans and stereotypes to emphasize and illustrate the speaker’s message,
• the use of oppositions (e.g. good/bad) to highlight contrasts and to create polarity and tension,
19 English FWS Lörrach Upper School
• the use of rhetorical (i.e. not a real) questions to arouse interest and to emphasize facts,
• the use of patterns of identification and solidarity (e.g. the personal pronouns ‘we’ and ‘they’, personal appeals
to the audience, praise of certain role models and heroes) to create the illusion of a group identity and of a
mutual common goal,
• other characteristic features of style (e.g. short simple statements, numerous colloquialisms and slang
expressions; numerous poetic and erudite expressions),evaluations of the speaker’s own position (devaluation
of the opponent’s position).
Die Analyse von Stilmitteln (stylistic devices) - Arbeitsschritte:
1. Stilmittel erkennen
Mit den folgenden Überlegungen können Sie die in Bezug auf Wortwahl, Satzbau und Grammatik vom
üblichen Sprachgebrauch abweichenden Textstellen bestimmen und verwendete Stilmittel erkennen.
• Wie hört sich die Textstelle an? Liegen lautliche Besonderheiten vor? (→ devices of sound)
• Weichen Satzbau und Wortstellung (Syntax) vom normalen Sprachgebrauch ab? Liegen besondere
grammatische Strukturen vor? (→ structural devices)
• Erzeugt die Textstelle besondere Bilder, Ideen oder Assoziationen? (→ figurative devices)
• Welcher Schreibstil (style), welcher Ton oder welche Stimmung (tone) weist die Textstelle auf?
(→ devices of style and tone)
2. Stilmittel bestimmen (unter Angabe der Zeile und des Fachbegriffes)
3. Stilmittel erläutern (Analyse der vom Autor beabsichtigten Wirkung auf den Leser)
Im Folgenden finden Sie eine in die o.g. vier Bereiche gegliederte Liste der gebräuchlichsten Stilmittel:
Stilmittel Stilmittel beschreiben: Stilmittel erläutern: Beispiele
bestimmen: Definition beabsichtigte Wirkung
Fachbegriff
► devices of sound - Wie hört sich die Textstelle an? Liegen lautliche Besonderheiten vor?
alliteration Wiederholung gleicher Die Sprache wird rhytmisch, 1. for the greater good of ...; 2.
Konsonanten am Anfang die Aussage wird safety and security; 3. Peter
benachtbarter Wörter oder einprägsam. Piper picked a peck of pickled
peppers.
betonter Silben.
→ to point out key words;
→ repetition of sounds (usually to produce a rhythmic
consonants) at the beginning of effect and emphasis
neighbouring words
assonance Wiederholung gleich oder ähnlich Hervorhebung und 1. sweet dreams; 2. I feel the
(vowels) klingender Vokale / Konsonanten Rhytmus need, the need for speed. (Tom
Cruise)
20 English FWS Lörrach Upper School
……................... in betonten Silben benachbarter ………………………………
.. Wörter ……..………
consonance → the repetition of internal 1. pitter patter (p; t);
→ rhythm, accentuation
vowel / consonant sounds in 2. all mammals named Sam are
(consonants) and emphasis
neighbouring words that do not clammy (m)
end the same.
cacophony eine Reihe hart (p, t, k) oder scharf Die unangenehme Now frying pans spit, kettles
(s, sh, tch) klingender Klangwirkung unterstreicht and cats purr in the kitchen.
or (Dylan Thomas.
Konsonanten in benachbarten entsprechende Inhalte.
dissonance Wörtern.
→ disagreeable
→ rhythmic effect, emphasis effect/content
onomatopeia Wörter, aus deren Klangbild ihre Die lautmalerische Eigen- ... here a thud, there a patter.
Bedeutung hervorgeht, weil sie schaft fördert die Anschau- Doors slam, water rushes. V.
Laute imitieren, sind onomatopeic lichkeit des Gesagten. Woolf, The Waves
[-´pi:ik] .
→ expressiveness
→ imitating sounds
► structural devices - Weichen Satzbau und Wortstellung (Syntax) vom normalen Sprachgebrauch ab?
Liegen besondere grammatische Strukturen vor?
accumulation Aufzählung ähnlicher Wörter oder Durch das Aufzählen “Your room is a mess! A
Satzteile sinnverwandter Begriffe labyrinth of toys, books, shirts,
or shoes, trousers and socks.”
wird eine größere Beschrei-
enumeration bung der Aussage erreicht.
→ the listing of words or
→ to stress certain aspects
phrases, often in threes (when it
of a message
is also called a rhythmic triad)
anaphora Wörter, die sich am Anfang von Dadurch wird Aufmerk- Every child must be taught
aufeinander folgenden Satzteilen samkeit konkret auf den these principles. Every citizen
oder Sätzen wiederholen inhaltlichen Schwerpunkt must uphold them. And every
immigrant, by embracing these
des Satzes gelenkt.
→ repetition of the same word ideals, makes our country more,
or expression at the beginning of → emphatic effect not less, American .
successive sentences or clauses
chiasmus zwei Sätze oder Satzteile, die in Ein Konflikt oder ein Gegen- 1. As fast as idylls seduce
der Struktur parallel sind, aber satz wird zum Ausdruck visitors, visitors reduce idylls.
eine Umkehrung der Wörter gebracht, und so die
2. What is learned unwillingly
aufweisen . Aufmerksamkeit des Lesers is willingly forgotten.
auf die Aussage gelenkt.
3. Fair is foul, and foul is fair.
→ to stress a contrast or to (W. Shakespeare)
create an antithesis
→ reversal of parallel structures
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