Light brown apple moth's arrival in California worries commodity groups
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New pests and diseases
t
Light brown apple moth’s arrival in California
worries commodity groups
Natasha Wright, Florida Dept. of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Bugwood.org
by Lucia G. Varela, Marshall W. Johnson,
Larry Strand, Cheryl A. Wilen and Carolyn Pickel
Light brown apple moth is an exotic
pest that was confirmed in California
in March 2007. It is a tortricid leaf-
roller moth native to Australia, which
has a broad range of plant hosts with
the capacity to cause damage across
a wide array of crops, natural areas
and ornamental plants. California and
federal agencies have issued quaran-
tine orders affecting production and
retail nurseries, and potentially fruit
The light brown apple moth, a tortricid leafroller, is extremely variable and
and vegetable exports. It is found difficult to identify visually. The insect’s reproductive organs must be examined in
order to obtain a positive identification.
thus far primarily in nurseries near
urban areas. Eradication efforts are tions of Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, clover, plantain and many other plants
under way to prevent its spread into Monterey, San Francisco, San Mateo, (Brockerhoff et al. 2002; Buchanan 1977).
Santa Clara, Santa Cruz and Solano In California, larvae identified as pos-
California crop areas and throughout
counties are currently subject to quar- sible light brown apple moth have been
the United States. antine (CDFA 2007d). According to cur- found in apples, strawberries and grapes
rent California Department of Food and in commercial fields. The most common
IN March 2007, the U.S. Department
of Agriculture’s Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)
Agriculture (CDFA) regulations, a county
is quarantined if specimens representing
more than one life stage of the moth or
hosts in nurseries and the landscape
have been Prunus spp. and California
wax myrtle (Myrica californica). However,
confirmed the presence of light brown a mated female are confirmed within a an extensive survey of possible hosts
apple moth (LBAM) (Epiphyas postvittana) 3-mile radius (USDA APHIS 2007b). has not been conducted, so these initial
in California, based on specimens from The light brown apple moth is a tor- findings may not be representative of
Alameda and Contra Costa counties. As tricid leafroller moth native to Australia. the types of plants likely to be infested
of December 2007, a total of 15,594 male It is now established in New Zealand, in California. Light brown apple moth
moths caught in pheromone traps had New Caledonia, the British Isles and is polyphagous (able to feed on many
been confirmed as light brown apple Hawaii (Danthanarayana 1975; Suckling plants). It may encounter and infest ad-
moth. The largest numbers of moths et al. 1998). It has a broad range of plant ditional hosts with which it has not been
are being trapped in southern Santa hosts, including herbaceous plants, land- previously associated.
Cruz and northern Monterey counties. scape trees, ornamental shrubs, fruit California and U.S. federal agencies
The second highest area of capture in- and certain vegetable crops (Rogers et have issued orders restricting intra- and
cludes contiguous portions of northwest al. 2003; Wearing et al. 1991). It is known interstate shipments of plant material
Alameda, western Contra Costa and to feed on 250 plant species in over 50 from quarantine counties (CDFA 2007d;
San Francisco counties. Less than 1% of families, but prefers plants in the aster USDA APHIS 2007a). At present, produc-
the captures are from mostly single trap (Asteraceae), legume (Fabaceae), knot- tion and retail nurseries are the indus-
catches in Los Angeles, Marin, Napa, weed (Polygonaceae) and rose (Rosaceae) tries most affected by these regulations.
San Luis Obispo, San Mateo, Santa Bar- families (CDFA 2007a). Equally important are the current or
bara, Santa Clara, Solano and Sonoma Elsewhere, light brown apple moth potential trade restrictions on fruits and
counties (CDFA 2007c). Although light has been reported as a pest on apple, vegetables imposed by importing coun-
brown apple moth has been present in pear, peach, apricot, citrus, persim- tries (CFIA 2007; CDFA 2007b).
Hawaii since the late 1800s, this is the mon, avocado, walnut, grape, kiwifruit,
first time this pest has been detected in strawberry, cane berries and cole crops. Identification and description
the continental United States. It may also infest oak, willow, poplar, Positive identification of light brown
Although light brown apple moth has cottonwood, alder, pine, eucalyptus, apple moth can be made with certainty
been confirmed in 14 counties, only por- rose, camellia, jasmine, chrysanthemum, only by examining the adult moth’s re-
http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • April–June 2008 57
Jack Kelly Clark
productive organs (Dugdale et al. 2005;
Zimmerman 1978). Growers who wish
to obtain positive identification of a sus-
pect insect should bring the live larvae,
if possible still inside the webbed nest
of rolled-up leaves, to their agricultural
commissioner’s office.
Light brown apple moth closely
resembles other native California
The leafroller’s mature larva feeds on hundreds of different plants and agricultural crops. tortricids such as orange tortrix
(Argyrotaenia franciscana) and garden
A, B, by David Williams, State of Victoria Department of Primary Industries; C, D, F, G, I, J by Jack Kelly Clark; E, H by Brad Oliver, Monterey County Agricultural Commissioner’s office
A B tortrix (Clepsis peritana). Adults hold
their wings over their abdomens in a bell
shape when at rest, and have protrud-
ing mouthparts that resemble a snout.
The antennae are simple, not featherlike.
Adult size may vary during the season,
with larger individuals present during
cool, wet months and smaller individu-
als present during warm, dry months
C D (Danthanarayana 1976).
Wings. The length of the forewing
(front wing, the most obvious wing
when the moth is at rest) in the female
is 0.27 to 0.5 inch (7 to 13 millime-
ters) and in the male approximately
0.23 to 0.4 inch (6 to 10 millimeters)
(see photos A, B). There is consider-
able variation in the color patterns
E Scale F of the wings, especially on the males
5mm (Bradley 1973). The basal half (closest
to the head) of the male forewing may
be light brown to pale yellow, while
the distal half (farthest from the head)
is reddish-brown (see photos B, C). In
deeply colored forms the distal half of
the forewing may vary from reddish-
brown (see photo C) to blackish with
G H purplish mottling (see photo B), and
the basal half is sparsely speckled with
black. In some males, the two-tone
wing coloration of the forewings may
be absent. Instead they are light brown
with a slightly darker oblique mark-
ing (see photos D, E, F, G, H). While all
color patterns of the wing have been
found in males caught in California, by
I J far the most prevalent pattern has been
light brown with slightly darker oblique
marking (see photos D, E, F, G, H).
In the female, forewing color var-
ies from uniform light brown, with
almost no distinguishing markings or
with a dark spot in the center-front of
the folded wings, to the typical oblique
markings of the male, but with less
Female (A) and male (B) light brown apple moths. The wing-color pattern of
light brown apple moth males (C–I) in pheromone traps can be highly variable. contrast between the basal and distal
Males have a costal fold (arrow) on the forewing (J). halves (see photo A). The hindwings
58 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 2
HortResearch, New Zealand
(back wing) of both sexes are pale mine if the specimens are possibly light
brown to grey, either uniform in color brown apple moth. However, absolute
or mottled with wavy dark-brown certainty is not possible because there
markings (see photo I). are still many California tortricid lar-
Males have an extension of the “for- vae whose morphological characters or
ward” outer edge of the forewing called DNA have not been studied.
the costal fold (see photo J), which runs Pupae. The pupa is found in a thin-
from the base of the wing to two-fifths walled silken cocoon, often between
of the length of the wing edge. This is an two leaves webbed together. It turns
expanded part of the wing that folds up from green to brown as it matures and
over the front edge of the wing as a flap. is dark reddish-brown and 0.4 to 0.6
Females do not have this costal fold. inch (10 to 15 millimeters) long. Pupae Eggs of the light brown apple moth are
Eggs. The eggs are pale yellow to of all tortricids are very similar in ap- typically deposited on the upper surface of
light green, broadly oval and flat with a pearance (Danthanarayana 1975). host leaves in masses of 20 to 50.
pebbled surface. They are laid slightly
overlapping each other like fish scales. Life cycle of a pest
The egg mass is covered with a green- Light brown apple moth is found in slow larval development considerably
ish transparent coating. An egg mass southeastern Australia; it was intro- (Geier and Briese 1980). Thus, the pest
may contain from 2 to 170 eggs, but duced on the western coast, but does overwinters as second to fourth instar
typically has 20 to 50 eggs. A female not survive well at high temperatures larvae that feed on herbaceous plants,
may lay multiple egg masses, deposit- and is a more serious pest in cooler buds of deciduous trees or shrubs,
ing them on the upper surface of host areas with mild summers (Geier mummified fruit and other plant mate-
leaves and occasionally on fruit and and Springett 1976; Buchanan 1977; rial. Larvae may survive for up to
young stems. As the eggs develop, Danthanarayana et al. 1995). The pest 2 months in the winter without feeding.
they change to paler yellow-green. performs best under cool conditions Adult moths emerge after 1 to
Immediately prior to hatching, the dark (mean annual temperature of approxi- 3 weeks of pupation and mate soon
head of the developing caterpillar is mately 56°F) with moderate rainfall after emergence. They stay sheltered in
visible (Danthanarayana 1983). (approximately 29 inches annually) andthe foliage during the day, resting on
Larvae. The newly hatched larva is moderate-high relative humidity (ap- leaf undersides. Moths fly 2 to 3 hours
pale yellow-green, 0.06 to 0.08 inch proximately 70%). Hot, dry conditions after sunset and before daybreak. The
(1.5 to 2 millimeters) long and has a may reduce populations significantly, light brown apple moth is capable of
dark brown head. There are five to six and it is unknown whether the insect flying only short distances to find a
larval instars (stages). Mature larvae will be able to establish in locationssuitable plant host (Suckling et al. 1994).
range from 0.4 to 0.7 inch (10 to 18 milli- such as the Central Valley and inland Most moths fly no farther than 330 feet
meters). The head is light yellow-brown deserts of California. (100 meters), but some may fly as far as
and the prothoracic shield (segment A degree-day model (which predicts 2,000 feet (600 meters). Males disperse
behind the head) is light greenish- the moth’s growth and development farther than females. Adults are less
brown with no dark markings. The according to mean temperatures over likely to leave areas with high-quality
body is medium green with a darker time) indicates that there would most hosts. Adult life span is 2 to 3 weeks,
green central stripe that may continue likely be two generations a year in with longevity influenced by host plant
to the prothoracic shield; larvae may California’s Central and North Coast and temperature.
also have darker longitudinal stripes areas, and three or four generations a Females begin to lay eggs 2 to 3 days
after emerging, depositing eggs at night.
If light brown apple moth is found in fruit-production They prefer to deposit their eggs on
counties, the inability to export fruit to some countries smooth leaf surfaces, and usually lay a
total of 120 to 500 eggs, but can lay up to
may cause severe economic hardship.
1,500 eggs (Danthanarayana 1975). An
on both sides. The hairs on the body are year in the Central Valley and Southern egg takes from 5 to more than 30 days to
whitish. The thoracic legs are the same California. The lower and upper devel- hatch, depending on temperature.
color as the head, but paler, and are opmental thresholds for light brown ap- Larvae emerge from eggs after 1 to
also unmarked. Larvae have a greenish ple moth are 45°F and 88°F, respectively 2 weeks. Although egg masses may in-
anal comb with seven teeth — a comb- (Danthanarayana 1975). Completion of clude 20 to 50 eggs, the resulting larvae
shaped structure at the tail end of the the entire life cycle requires 620 degree- disperse widely, each creating a nest
larva. An overwintering larva may have days above 45°F. In Australia, New on a separate leaf. When a larva finds
a darker head and prothoracic shield Zealand and the British Isles, genera- a feeding site, it forms a silken shelter
(Danthanarayana 1975, 1983). Larvae tions overlap. Light brown apple moth near the midrib on the leaf underside
can be screened using morphological does not have a winter resting stage and begins to feed. Second and later
characters and DNA analysis to deter- (diapause). Cold winter temperatures stages feed on two to several leaves
http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • April–June 2008 59
Photos: HortResearch, New Zealand
Apple Apple leaf
inadvertently moved during the trans-
port of nursery stock. Currently the
brunt of the economic cost is borne by
the nursery industry in the most in-
fested counties.
If light brown apple moth contin-
ues to spread, several vegetable and
fruit crops may be affected such as
apples, pears, caneberries and pep-
pers. California growers already deal
with one or more leafroller pest species
on most of these crops. Management
practices are available for suppressing
leafrollers, and the same approaches
would be used against light brown
apple moth. However, the primary
concern is the trade restrictions im-
posed by importing countries. Mexico
and Canada already have restrictions
on the importation of crops and plants
Originally from southern Australia, the light brown apple moth can feed on and damage
a broad range of crops such as, above, apple. If the pest becomes established in California
from the infested areas of California.
the most important impact to growers will likely be trade restrictions on crop exports. China has begun the information gath-
ering that frequently leads to trade
webbed together, a leaf webbed to a interior of a pome fruit through the ca- restrictions. Many countries such as
fruit, or in the center of a fruit cluster. lyx. They can cause internal damage to Chile, Korea, Peru and South Africa
The larvae feed within these shelters, stone fruits as well. list light brown apple moth as a quar-
and they may feed on fruit when it Minor feeding damage can take antine pest and may require certifica-
touches a leaf. Larvae on fruit are most the form of pinpricks, or “stings,” on tion attesting that commodities such as
likely to be found near the calyx, the the fruit surface. In grapes, larvae pome fruits, grapes, citrus and stone
residual basal flower parts. When dis- can cause extensive loss of flowers or fruits are pest-free. If light brown ap-
turbed they wiggle violently, suspend newly set berries in the spring. Later ple moth is found in fruit-production
themselves from a silken thread and in the season, grapes can be severely counties, the inability to export fruit
drop to the ground, where they feed on damaged by larvae feeding among to some countries may cause severe
groundcover hosts. Larval development the berries, allowing plant pathogens economic hardship to some sectors of
can take from 3 to 8 weeks, depending causing mold to enter (Buchanan 1977; California’s agricultural industry.
on temperature. Pupation is completed Buchanan et al. 1991; Lo and Murrell APHIS has called together experts
inside the silken feeding shelter. The 2000). In citrus, larval feeding causes from the United States, Australia and
pupal stage lasts 1 to 3 weeks. fruit drop or halo scars around the New Zealand to form a Technical
stem end of the fruit. In crops such as Working Group to advise on steps for
Potential crop damage kiwifruit, plum, citrus and pome fruit, managing the light brown apple moth
Like other tortricid leafrollers, light the maturing fruit produces a layer of infestation in California. APHIS and
brown apple moth feeds from within corky tissue over the leafroller dam- CDFA’s current long-term goal is to
the sheltering nest it constructs. Light age. Buds of deciduous host plants are eradicate light brown apple moth from
brown apple moth has attained pest vulnerable to attack in the winter and California (see page 55). However, no
status only in southeastern Australia early spring. Conifers are damaged single control technique currently ex-
and New Zealand (Danthanarayana by larval activity such as needle ty- ists that can be effectively implemented
1995). Foliar feeding is usually con- ing, chewing of buds and boring into over an entire infested area. Eradication
sidered minor in fruit crops, though it stems. In tree nurseries, damage to ter- will require a multiphase approach.
might be of economic importance on minal buds on seedlings and saplings Eradication will focus initially on
nursery stock and of cosmetic impor- can cause multiple or crooked leaders specific localities to determine its fea-
tance on landscape ornamentals. On (Wearing et al. 1991). sibility. While eradication attempts are
fruit crops the primary concern is fruit under way, it is important to ensure
damage (Wearing et al. 1991; Lo et al. California impacts and control that light brown apple moth infesta-
2000). Larvae remove the outermost In California, light brown apple tions do not continue to increase in
layers of the fruit surface as they feed. moth has been detected on agricul- size and expand to uninfested areas.
Superficial feeding injury to the fruit tural lands mostly in production and Environmentally compatible methods
is typically caused by later immature retail nurseries located near urban of pest management are needed to
stages. Young larvae may enter the areas. Light brown apple moth may be maintain public support for the eradi-
60 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 2
cation effort and to keep light brown and Trichogramma species) and preda- as other important agricultural states
apple moth at low numbers across agri- tors (such as spiders, minute pirate (such as Arizona, Texas and Florida).
cultural, urban and natural areas. bugs, lacewings and Phytocoris bugs). Although eradication from its present
Several reduced-risk insecticides It is highly probable that some of the California distribution may seem dif-
are registered in agricultural and or- California native natural enemies will ficult and expensive, the effort is worth-
namental crops that effectively control expand their prey ranges to include while given the possible economic and
leafrollers. These include insect growth light brown apple moth eggs, larvae ecological ramifications should the
regulators, spinosyns and Bacillus thur- and pupae. Natural enemies could also species establish itself and prolifer-
ingiensis (Bailey et al. 1996) be collected in the native home of light ate throughout agricultural acreage in
In Australia, light brown apple brown apple moth and introduced into California and the United States.
moth has been managed in citrus, California. In Australia, as many as
grapes and other crop systems using 25 different parasitoid species have
mating disruption (Mo et al. 2006). been reared from light brown apple L.G. Varela is Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Advisor, UC Statewide IPM Program and UC
Light brown apple moth pheromone moths collected in the field (Charles et
Cooperative Extension (UCCE), Sonoma County;
has two key components, both of al. 1996; Geier and Briese 1980; Paull M.W. Johnson is UCCE Specialist and Entomolo-
which must be present for optimal and Austin 2006). Imported natural en- gist, Department of Entomology, UC Riverside;
control (Bellas et al. 1983; Suckling and emies require extensive host specificity L. Strand is Principal Editor, UC Statewide IPM
Clearwater 1990). Presently, mating testing, which may take several years Program; C.A. Wilen is IPM Advisor, UC Statewide
disruption is being implemented in to ensure that they are not a threat to IPM Program and UCCE, San Diego County; and
some infested areas of California. endangered endemic species. C. Pickel is IPM Advisor, UC Statewide Program
and UCCE, Sutter/Yuba Counties. The authors
There are numerous leafroller spe- Currently, light brown apple moth thank Marc Epstein, CDFA Plant Pest Diagnostics,
cies in California, and many of these is found in limited areas of California. Sacramento; Phillip Holmes, USDA/APHIS/PPQ
have effective parasitoids (such as However, it has the potential to es- Watsonville LBAM Project; and Joyce Strand, UC
Cotesia, Exochus, Macrocentrus, Nemorilla tablish widely in California as well Statewide IPM Program.
to prevent the entry of Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) Mo J, Glover M, Munro S, Beattie GAC. 2006.
References (light brown apple moth). www.inspection.gc.ca/eng- Evaluation of mating disruption for control of lightbrown
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