Multi-tiered, disrupted crust of a sheet lava Cow from the Diveghat Formation of Deccan Traps: Implications on emplacement mechanisms
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J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:154 Indian Academy of Sciences
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-020-01418-9 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789(
).,-volV)
Multi-tiered, disrupted crust of a sheet lava Cow
from the Diveghat Formation of Deccan Traps:
Implications on emplacement mechanisms
GAURI DOLE1,* , SHILPA PATIL-PILLAI1 and VIVEK S KALE2
1
Departmentof Environmental Science, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411 007, India.
2
Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management, Pune 411 052, India.
*Corresponding author. e-mail: g˙dole@yahoo.com
MS received 22 October 2019; revised 8 April 2020; accepted 12 April 2020
The crust is a vesicular layer that caps the compact core of sheet lava Cows. We describe for the Brst time,
a crust composed of multiple layers (each distinguished by a chilled glassy rind) from the Diveghat
Formation in the western Deccan Volcanic Province. The multiple layers of crust developed over a single
compact core of a single sheet lava Cow, are shown to have been sequentially deformed in multiple phases.
This is interpreted to have resulted from the endogenous emplacement of lava in successive pulses (rather
than as a continuous stream) during the extrusion of the sheet lava Cow. This model has several
implications on the mechanism of emplacement of sheet Cows in continental Cood basalt provinces.
Keywords. Deccan traps; pulsed emplacement; sheet Cow.
1. Introduction and thickness were implied to have come out
individually as a single large volume pulse. The
The basaltic lava Cows from the Deccan Volcanic mechanism that enabled their long-distance dis-
Province (DVP) were traditionally classiBed into persal across many hundreds of km2 without losing
(i) compound pahoehoe Cows, (ii) simple Cows, and the Cuidity of the lava is ambiguous.
(iii) a’a Cows (Deshmukh 1988; GSI 2001). Bondre Lava Cow Belds (comprising of multiple mono-
et al. (2004) concluded that most of the basaltic genetic lava Cows and lobes) in continental Cood
lava Cows in the DVP belong to either the com- basalt provinces, including the DVP are largely
pound pahoehoe type or the simple type. Kale comparable to pahoehoe lavas (Self et al. 1998;
(2020) renamed them as lobate and sheet Cows, Keszthelyi et al. 1999), displaying three internal
respectively primarily to focus on the geometry and layers, from top to bottom, namely the crust, the
avoid confusion regarding the mode of emplace- core and the base. A thin reddened tachylitic rind
ment created by the use of the terms ‘compound’ representing chilled margin envelopes the smaller
and ‘simple’. The compound Cows were interpreted lava lobes and represents the outermost part of the
to have been emplaced as numerous, relatively crust. The crust is generally rich in vesicles of
small batches of lava that stacked one above the spherical to irregular shapes and is richer in glass
other. The simple Cows with larger aerial spread contents than the rest of the lava Cow. The
Supplementary materials pertaining to this article are available on the Journal of Earth Science Website (http://www.ias.ac.in/
Journals/Journal˙of˙Earth˙System˙Science)
154 Page 2 of 9 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:154 significant proportion of glass in the crust results in the vesicular crust embedded in a vesicular, a tuAaceous appearance to the crust in the tuAaceous matrix. Lateral variations from one weathered exposures. Bands of vesicle concentra- morphological type into another have been tion (called horizontal vesicle zones – HVZ) maybe recorded within a single lava Cow (Brown et al. present in the lava Cows with a thick crust, with 2011; Duraiswami et al. 2014; Sen 2017), but all domed vesicles at the transition of core and crust. of these describe the crust of the lava Cow to be a The crust grades downwards into a compact core of single cooling unit. relatively coarser grained basalt with a higher With this background, we describe the unusual crystallinity than the crust or base. The core fre- character of the crust of a sheet Cow in the Kur- quently displays columnar jointing. Horizontal kumbh section east of Pune (Bgure 1A). Multiple vesicle veins at multiple levels, vesicle cylinders in crustal layers, discernible from each other by chil- the lower part may occur in the vesicle-poor core. led glassy rinds, are stacked one above the other Pipe-vesicles that display an inverted Y geometry, over a common core. The multiple layers of the irregular shaped vesicles, and large gas cavities crust and disruption of earlier formed layers into occur profusely in the Bne-grained base of the lava slabs occurring at Kurkumbh indicate manifold Cow, leading to its recognition as the lower vesicle events of lava injection during the evolution of this zone (LVZ). InterCow horizons of variable thick- sheet Cow. Similar features have also been recorded ness and extent, separate the successive lava Cows. by us from the other parts of the DVP, around Some interCow horizons may comprise of volcano- Indore, Simrol, Khambataki and Nipani clastic tuAaceous material or pedogenic altered (Bgure 1B), but do not provide the clarity available powdery layers derived from the Cow top breccias in this exposure. They have several implications in or the chilled crust (Sayyed 2014; Srivastava et al. terms of the mode of emplacement in such sheet 2018) of the underlying lava Cow. The relative Cows, including the possibility of the proximity to thicknesses of the crust, core and LVZ varies in the eruptive vent. differing morphologies (Kale et al. 2020). These three layers have subequal thicknesses in lobate lava Cows, while sheet Cows have a significantly 2. Kurkumbh section thin LVZ that may represent less than 10% of the lava Cow thickness. In the study area, the youngest lava Cow of Karla The chilled crust that develops very rapidly Formation (Fbl) is overlain by two sheet Cows of after extrusion of the pahoehoe-type lava Cows Diveghat Formation (Fp1 and Fp2). These three acts as an encasing insulator, enabling the molten Cows have been traced laterally for more than 50 lava inside it to retain its temperature and Cu- km towards the west (see Bgure 8c of Duraiswami idity during its lateral spreading on the surface et al. 2014), but appear to thin-out towards the (Keszthelyi and Denlinger 1996; Self et al. 1998; east. The two formations are separated by a 2–2.5 Keszthelyi et al. 2006) and eventually results in m thick, brick red coloured clayey interCow hori- the layered internal structure. This mechanism of zon (Bgure 1C), which is persistent with variable lava emplacement internally (within the encasing thickness all along the contact. crust), termed as endogenous emplacement, can This E–W stretching Karla–Diveghat contact theoretically explain how the basaltic lava sheets (also called Bushe–Poladpur contact based on can spread across large areas away from the vent chemical stratigraphy, Patil et al. 2020) can be (Kale et al. 2020). During its lateral spreading, traced across a distance of more than 50 km south due to the strain on the crust (due to the moving, of Pune at an elevation of 590 ± 10 m above mean molten lava underlying it, as well as that imposed sea level. The Karla (Bushe) Formation has a dis- by the escaping vapour phases), the crust may tinct Sr87/Sr86 signature that distinguishes it from become bloated (=inCated lavas: Bondre et al. the Diveghat (Poladpur) Formation (Khadri et al. 2000), dome up yielding tumuli (Duraiswami 1999; Jay and Widdowson 2008). The Bushe– et al. 2001) or hummocky surfaces in case of low Poladpur contact was speculated to correspond strain rates. For higher strain rates, the lava with the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary by crust may be cracked (=slabby Cows: Duraiswami Richards et al. (2015) and Patil et al. (2020), while et al. 2003) or broken up into a rubbly top (Du- Dole et al. (2016) amongst others, expressed doubts raiswami et al. 2008) with a Cow-top breccia regarding the validity of this conclusion. Besides composed of unsorted, sub-angular fragments of the dissimilar chemical signatures, this contact
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:154 Page 3 of 9 154 Figure 1. (A) Geological map of the Kurkumbh area depicting the exposures of successive formations from the Deccan Traps (Sahyadri Group) after GSI (2001). Note that the Upper Ratangarh, Indrayani, Karla and Diveghat Formations broadly correspond with the Thakurwadi, Khandala, Bushe and Poladpur (chemostratigraphic) formations (Kale et al. 2019). The second Cow (Fp2) in the Diveghat Formation displays disrupted crusts at multiple locations, of which two that are easily accessible are marked (by a cross in circle) in the map, (B) Depicts the location of this area and other sections of interest in the Deccan Volcanic Province, and (C) is the composite log of the lava sequence exposed along the contact between the Karla and Diveghat Formations. The disrupted crust of Fp2 is described in this paper.
154 Page 4 of 9 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:154
marks a distinct change in the morphology of the Supplementary Data #1. The LVZ has a thin
lava Cows (Chatterjee and Dash 2017), from the chilled glassy rind at its base, separating it from
lobate type (with hummocky lobes) to the sheet the Cow-top breccia of Cow Fp1. The 15–20 cm
Cows (earlier described as simple Cows). This sug- thick base of Fp2 has pipe vesicles, irregular vesicles
gests that there was a change in the eruptive style and 2–4 cm sized, sililca and zeolite lined vesicular
across the Karla–Diveghat boundary. cavities. The core accounts for more than 60% of
Fp1 and Fp2 are the oldest Cows from the the Cow thickness. It is a dark mesocrystalline,
Diveghat Formation. The contact between Fp1 and compact basalt with a porphyritic texture and has
Fp2 is represented by a Cow-top breccia containing an average vesicularity of less than 20%. Vesicle
angular to irregular shaped, unsorted fragments of cylinders, horizontal vesicle veins and large domed
the crust of Fp1 embedded in a poorly sorted vesicles (Blled with secondary minerals) are present
tuAaceous, vesicular matrix. The crust of the lava in the core. Colonnade jointing is observed at pla-
Cow Fp2 exposed in the road-cuts on either side of ces within the core. It is followed upwards by a
the highway NH9 near Kurkumbh (Bgure 1A) is grayish buA coloured vesicular crust that varies in
unique in that it displays a multi-layered, dis- thickness from about 1 m to over 6 m, with a sharp
rupted nature hitherto unknown from the crusts of contact.
other sheet Cows. This *500 m wide and *6 m Unlike other vesicular crusts of inCated sheet
thick section provides a clear picture of the com- (=slabby or rubbly pahoehoe) lava Cows from the
plexities that exist within this disrupted crust of a DVP (Kale 2020), the crust of Fp2 is internally
large sheet Cow. The same characters are also layered and can be seen to consist of multiple lay-
observed in a quarry face further west of this road ers (Uc1–Uc3 in Bgure 2) stacked one above the
cutting, and continue across a wider area but are other. Each of these layers of aphanitic tuAaceous
rendered diffuse by weathering. About 25 km west and vesicular basalts are capped by a slab
of this location, in the Bhuleshwar Ghat section, a (Cs1–Cs3) having a sharp, thin glassy rind (with
typical Cow-top breccia is encountered capping Fp2. red or grey colour). The lower margins of these
crustal layers may be diffuse or rest on the chilled
2.1 Nature of Fp2 rind of an underlying crustal slab. These layers and
their capping slabs display varying thickness
The sheet Cow Fp2 is *20 m thick and displays a (0.3–1.5 m) and a pinch-and-swell geometry. As
typical tripartite internal structure comprising of evident in the exposure (Bgure 2 and Supplemen-
base (=LVZ), compact core and crust. The petro- tary Data), these layers have been disrupted by
logical characters of this Cow are enumerated in the splitting up into discontinuous fragments or being
Figure 2. Multi-tiered disrupted and deformed layers (Uc) and their capping slabs (Cs) displaying rotation, inclination and
displacement. Other features like squeeze-ups (marked as Su) and domed tumuli having axial clefts (e.g., on the right of the
squeeze-up cutting across Cs2) are also observed within the individual slabs. The slab on extreme right of the photo representing
the continuation of Cs2 displays brecciation (Br).J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:154 Page 5 of 9 154
brecciated, or by upwarping and doming into a crustal layer by underplating. In the Brst two
folded appearance. Neither have a multi-tiered options, brittle deformation and brecciation of the
crust over a unique core of the same lava Cow; nor earlier consolidated layer resulted. Thermo-
has such quasi-ductile deformation with brittle mechanical stresses caused by temperature gradients
cracking been recorded from the Deccan Traps within the cooling lava; progressive changes in the
previously. suspended crystal fractions or degassing (Costa
et al. 2009; Diniega et al. 2013; Chevrel et al. 2018)
2.2 Deformation of upper crust of Fp2 could be responsible for such movements. Fresh
inCux of endogenously emplaced lava as well could
The multiple vesicular layers and their capping augment such stresses leading to the observed
slabs in the crust of Fp2 appear to represent the deformation in successive layers of the crust of Fp2.
crusts that would develop as independent lava
lobes, if seen individually. If each of these layers is
interpreted as an independent lobe (as commonly
3. Emplacement mechanism
observed in the compound pahoehoe Cows), it is
difBcult to explain their aDliation to the common
The mechanisms of formation of vesicular crusts on
core. The doming and axial cracking that is nor-
endogenously emplaced lava Cows is well docu-
mally observed within the crusts of inCated
mented (Keszthelyi and Denlinger 1996; Self et al.
pahoehoe lava Cows or hummocky Cows (Bondre
1998; Keszthelyi et al. 1999; Duraiswami et al. 2008,
et al. 2000; Duraiswami et al. 2003) cannot be used
2014; Applegarth et al. 2010; Anderson et al. 2012).
to explain the deformation suffered by these layers
What is abnormal is that more than one layer of
of the crust of Fp2.
the crust has developed on a common core of Fp2,
With an aim of trying to understand this defor-
and that some of these layers are mutilated.
mation, we used scaled photographs to analyze the
A thin chilled rind develops immediately after
sequence of crust-forming and deformation events
the lava is extruded on the surface. This consoli-
in different parts of the exposure (Supplementary
dated skin acts as an insulating layer preventing
Data #2). This analysis demonstrates that the
further heat and vapour loss, enabling the lava to
upper crust of Fp2 is a collage of several layers of
retain its Cuidity to spread laterally and thicken
the lava crust that consolidated sequentially at
vertically (Bgure 3a). Such endogenous emplace-
different times. They represent small Cuxes of
ment of lava causes the inCation of the crust (in a
vapour-laden lava that cooled and solidiBed inde-
quasi-ductile mode), development of tumuli and
pendent of each other. Every fresh Cux of endoge-
hummocky surfaces result in progressive succes-
nously emplaced lava disrupted the earlier formed
sion. Once the lava comes to a stand-still (due to
layer (including its uppermost chilled layer into
cessation of fresh inCux), the hot molten lava
disconnected slabs). The doming, and cracking of
encased within the crust consolidates as the core,
axial clefts seen in some of the slabs (e.g., Bgure 2;
resulting in the three-layered structure of lower
Supplementary Bgure SD6a, b) show that the
vesicular zone, core and crust in sheet Cows
mechanism of their development must have been
(Keszthelyi et al. 1999; Kale 2020). Progressive
similar to that recorded from the crusts of inCated
cooling leads to thickening of the crust by under-
lavas (Anderson et al. 1999; Bondre et al. 2000).
plating with the unreleased vapour remaining
Emplacement of hyalopilitic dykelets with a
trapped in the vesicles. A single continuous upper
reduced crystallinity as compared to the crustal
vesicular crust is normally recorded in such cases.
layers in discordant as well as concordant attitudes
We interpret this as a consequence of polyphase or
added to this deformation. Such dykelets and the
pulsed emplacement of lava (Anderson et al. 1999).
squeeze-ups suggest that while some part of the
A fresh inCux of lava emplaced endogenously within
crust was solidiBed; other parts remained semi-
such a semi-consolidated lobe restarts the sequence
consolidated and capable of being emplaced in a
of crustal layer formation all over again
ductile manner. This remnant viscous lava was
(Bgure 3b–d). Such Cuctuations in the Cux of lava
either (a) forcefully injected into spaces within or
and consequent internal stresses may result from
across the earlier formed solid crust forming the
(Hon et al. 1994; Harris et al. 2007; Tarquini 2017):
dykelets, or (b) accumulated below the consoli-
dated layer leading to the doming of the latter, or • Changes in the supply rate of the lava at the
(c) passively added to the thickness of the solidiBed eruptive ediBce itself.154 Page 6 of 9 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:154 Figure 3. Schematic model explaining the episodic development of upper crustal layers (Uc1–Uc3) and their disruption by endogenous emplacement of successive Cux of lavas. See text for descriptions.
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:154 Page 7 of 9 154
• Local storing or retreating of lava, due to partial In the three-layered internal structure of the
consolidation or loss of traction. basaltic lava Cows from CFB provinces (e.g.,
• Sudden escape of a part of the incoming Cux Keszthelyi et al. 1999, 2006), the crust is described as
through cracks in the crust leading to newer lobe the upper vesicular basalt that extends across the
development or further lateral spreading of the Cow exposure with a domed (inCated) or hummocky
sheet lava. geometry or as a Cow-top breccia (fragmented
• Sudden vapour loss resulting in rapid cooling of tuAaceous layer). The former results from continu-
the remnant lava and loss of its mobility. ous radiative cooling of the stagnated lava; while the
latter is a product of turbulent stresses generated
Either of them or a combination of more than
due to differential movements between the solidiBed
one of them results in the observed evolution of
crust and the underlying semi-consolidated core. We
the multi-layered stack and their deformation in
point out that the disrupted multi-layered crustal
the crust of Fp2 (Bgure 3d). The disruption of the
evolution recorded in the Kurkumbh exposures may
layers of the crust (Uc1–Uc3) into slabs (Cs1, Cs2,
represent an intervening stage between these two
etc.) and their deformation by thermo-mechanical
end-members. Exposures of the Cow Fp2 occurring
stresses is a result of this sequence of events. Such
about 25 km west of the present area of study display
an evolution need not place the crustal layers in a
the presence of Cow-top breccia at its top
chronological order of superposition either, lead-
(Duraiswami et al. 2014; Chatterjee and Dash 2017).
ing to the complex interrelations observed in the
These observations, recorded for the Brst time
Kurkumbh exposure.
from the Deccan Traps, demonstrate that it is
The possibility of such pulsed endogenous
possible to envisage an intermediate stage between
emplacement is more likely to occur close to the
the hummocky (or tumuli) sheet Cows and the
eruptive ediBce rather than at a large distance from it.
typical sheet Cows with a Cow-top breccia. Besides
The presence of angular bicuspate and tricuspate glass
testifying to multiple pulses of endogenous (below
shards, the banding and a crude Cow structure (see
an early chilled crust) lava emplacement for such
Supplementary Data #1) observed in the tuAaceous
sheet Cows, our observations conBrm for the Brst
parts of the crust of Fp2 further support this possibility.
time that progressive lateral transitions are a pro-
We therefore infer that such deformed multi-tiered
duct of the locally evolved stresses resulting from
crustal layers of Fp2 around Kurkumbh are indicative
the disparity between rheology of solidiBed vesicu-
of the proximity to the eruptive ediBce, as earlier
lar crustal slabs and the semi-consolidated vapour-
postulated in this area by Khadri et al. (1999). The
laden lava being transmitted laterally below them.
exact location of such a vent awaits further data, but
Field observations and the recording of the detailed
its proximity can be speculated upon.
internal structures have made this possible. The
documentation of such details is essential in the
days to come as it will provide better insights into
4. Conclusions the existing knowledge of the emplacement mech-
anisms of large sheet Cows that are traceable across
The disrupted crust of the basaltic lava Fp2 several tens of kilometers in the DVP.
described here, primarily reiterates the endogenous
emplacement enabling the spread of sheet Cows
postulated earlier (Self et al. 1998; Kale et al.
2020). The deformation of the multi-phased layers Acknowledgements
in crust of this Cow shows that the emplacement
occurred in pulses rather than at a steady-state Devdutt Upasani, Nikita Zankar and Ruchi
rate. In conjunction with other petrological char- Chilamwar assisted during the Beld studies. Steve
acters, the deformation suggests its proximity to Self is thanked for discussions in the Beld and on
the eruptive vent that yielded this lava Cow that the manuscript. GD and SPP acknowledge the
spread across a large area of several hundreds of Bnancial support by DST (WOS-A) scheme (nos.
square kilometers. We conclude that pulsed SR/WOS-A/EA-42/2016 (G) and SR/WOS-A/
emplacement and serial development of crustal EA-40/2016 (G) respectively). We thank the
layers was responsible for the observed complex anonymous reviewer(s) and Saibal Gupta for con-
interrelations between multiple disrupted crustal structive suggestions that led to the improvement
slabs of a single lava Cow. of manuscript.154 Page 8 of 9 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:154
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