Redefining College Readiness - David T. Conley - Prepared for the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, March 2007
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Redefining
College Readiness
David T. Conley
Prepared for the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, March 2007
720 E. th Ave., Suite 20 local –– epiconline.org
Eugene, OR 70 toll free 77–7–227 contact@epiconline.org
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
An Operational Definition of College Readiness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Uses of the Expanded Conception of College Readiness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
How College Is Different from High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Current Means to Determine College Readiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Course Titles and Grade Point Averages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Performance in College Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Components in a Comprehensive Definition of College Readiness . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Key Cognitive Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Academic Knowledge and Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Academic Behaviors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Contextual Skills and Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
A Definition of College Readiness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
General Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Example Performances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Possible Ways to Measure the Dimensions of this Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Key Cognitive Strategies Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Key Content Knowledge Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Academic Behaviors Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Contextual Skills and Awareness Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Integrating the Four Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Implications of the Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Gauging College Prep Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Gauging Effects in College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
What Schools and Students Can Do to Foster College Readiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Create a Culture Focused on Intellectual Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Specify Core Knowledge and Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Provide Necessary Supports to Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Provide Necessary Supports to Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
What Students Can Do to Develop Their College Readiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
To cite this report:
Conley, D. T. (2007). Redefining college readiness. Eugene, OR: Educational Policy Improvement Center.
© 2007 David T. ConleyIntroduction
The purpose of this paper is to provide an Finally, an increasing number of studies
operational definition of college readiness have highlighted the importance of the
that differs from current representations of contextual knowledge that a student must
this concept primarily in its scope. The paper possess to be ready for college. These
suggests that, while much has been learned studies describe the need for students to
about this phenomenon, particularly during understand how to apply to college, how to
the past 20 years, few systematic attempts manage financial aid issues, and, perhaps
have been made to integrate the various most importantly, how to adjust to college
aspects or components of college readiness once they arrive. The transition to college has
that have been investigated in some depth a component of culture shock for students,
during this period of time. As a result, college one that is more severe for students from
readiness continues to be defined primarily some communities than others. Information
in terms of high school courses taken and about the culture of college helps students
grades received along with scores on national understand how to interact with professors and
tests as its primary metrics. peers in college and how to navigate college
as a social system and learning environment.
Recent research has shed light on several
key elements of college success. Most important
for this paper is the realization that a range of An Operational
cognitive and metacognitive capabilities, often Definition of College Readiness
described as “key cognitive strategies,” have
been consistently and emphatically identified College readiness can be defined
by those who teach entry-level college courses operationally as the level of preparation a
as being as important or more important than student needs in order to enroll and succeed—
any specific content knowledge taught in high without remediation—in a credit-bearing
school. Examples of key key cognitive strategies general education course at a postsecondary
include analysis, interpretation, precision and institution that offers a baccalaureate degree
accuracy, problem solving, and reasoning. or transfer to a baccalaureate program.
“Succeed” is defined as completing entry-
Close behind in importance is knowledge level courses at a level of understanding and
of specific types of content knowledge. Several proficiency that makes it possible for the
studies have led to college readiness standards student to consider taking the next course in
that specify key content knowledge associated the sequence or the next level of course in
with college success. Writing may be by far the the subject area. This conception is calibrated
single academic skill most closely associated against what our recent research has come to
with college success, but the “big ideas” of define as “best practices” entry-level courses
each content area are also very important as opposed to the stereotypical freshman
building blocks. course (Conley, Aspengren, Gallagher, & Nies,
2006a, 2006b; Conley, Aspengren, Stout, &
Similarly important are the attitudes and Veach, 2006c). If students are prepared to
behavioral attributes that students who succeed succeed in best practices courses, they will
in college must demonstrate. Among these are be able to cope with the full range of college
study skills, time management, awareness of courses they are likely to encounter.
one’s performance, persistence, and the ability
to utilize study groups. These are both specific The college-ready student envisioned by
skills and more general attitudes, but all of this definition is able to understand what is
them require high degrees of self-awareness expected in a college course, can cope with the
and intentionality on the part of students as content knowledge that is presented, and can
they enter college. take away from the course the key intellectual
Redefining College Readiness lessons and dispositions the course was large children. Almost all of the rules of the
designed to convey and develop. In addition, game that students have so carefully learned
the student is prepared to get the most out and mastered over the preceding 13 years of
of the college experience by understanding schooling are either discarded or modified
the culture and structure of postsecondary drastically. The pupil-teacher relationship
education and the ways of knowing and changes dramatically as do expectations for
intellectual norms of this academic and engagement, independent work, motivation,
social environment. The student has both the and intellectual development. All of this
mindset and disposition necessary to enable occurs at a time when many young people
this to happen. are experiencing significant independence
from family and from the role of child for the
first time. No wonder that the transition from
Uses of the Expanded Conception high school to college is one of the most
of College Readiness difficult that many people experience during
a lifetime.
This definition can facilitate several
important actions. First and foremost, it can Because college is truly different
be used to judge the current system widely in from high school, college readiness is
place to gauge college readiness. The paper will fundamentally different than high school
conclude that although measures exist currently competence. Detailed analyses of college
or are in the process of being developed to courses reveal that although a college course
generate high quality information in all of the may have the same name as a high school
component areas of the definition, no system course, college instructors pace their courses
exists or is being developed to integrate the more rapidly, emphasize different aspects
information and, more importantly, shape high of material taught, and have very different
school preparation programs so that they do a goals for their courses than do high school
better and more intentional job of developing instructors (Conley et al., 2006c). Students
student capabilities in all of these areas. fresh out of high school may think a college
course is very much like a similarly named
The pursuit of such a goal should lead to the high school class taken previously only to
consideration of new or refined measures and find out that expectations are fundamentally
metrics to gauge college readiness with greater different. The college instructor is more
precision and across a wider range of variables likely to emphasize a series of key thinking
and learning contexts and to provide better skills that students, for the most part, do
information to high school students about not develop extensively in high school. They
their college readiness at key points in high expect students to make inferences, interpret
school. Ideally and in addition, the definition results, analyze conflicting explanations
can also be used as a conceptual framework to of phenomena, support arguments with
design observational tools to assess the degree evidence, solve complex problems that have
to which any particular high school program of no obvious answer, reach conclusions, offer
instruction contains all the necessary elements explanations, conduct research, engage in
to prepare students for college. In short, a more the give-and-take of ideas, and generally
robust, inclusive definition of college readiness think deeply about what they are being
can help shape student behaviors and high taught (National Research Council, 2002).
school practices in ways that lead to more
students entering college ready to succeed. Research findings describe college courses
that require students to read eight to ten
books in the same time that a high school class
How College Is requires only one or two (Standards for Success,
Different from High School 2003). In these college classes, students write
College is different from high school in multiple papers in short periods of time. These
many important ways, some obvious, some papers must be well reasoned, well organized,
not so obvious. College is the first place where and well documented with evidence from
we expect young people to be adults, not credible sources (National Survey of Student
Redefining College ReadinessEngagement, 2003, 2004, 2006). By contrast, faculty is the first-term freshman who is
high school students may write one or two failing the course, shows up at office hours
research papers, at the most, during high near the end of the term, and requests “extra
school, and may take weeks or months to do so. credit” in order to be able to pass. College
Increasingly, college courses in all subject areas instructors are often mystified by such
require well developed writing skills, research requests. The students are equally mystified by
capabilities, and what have been commonly the instructor reaction, since this strategy has
described as thinking skills. worked very well for the student throughout
high school. In other words, the cultural
According to the National Survey of and social expectations about learning and
Student Engagement (2006) the vast majority performance that students encounter tend to
of first-year college students are actively be vastly different as well.
engaged in small groups and are expected
to work with others inside and outside class In short, the differences in expectations
on complex problems and projects. They between high school and college are manifold
are then expected to make presentations and significant. Students must be prepared to
and to explain what they have learned. In use quite a different array of learning strategies
these courses, students are expected to and coping skills to be successful in college
be independent, self-reliant learners who than those developed and honed in high
recognize when they are having problems school. Current measures of college readiness
and know when and how to seek help from do not necessarily capture well these many
professors, students, or other sources. dimensions of readiness.
At the same time, college faculty An important question to ask, based on
consistently report that freshman students this assessment of the nature of college,
need to be spending nearly twice the time is: How well do current measures gauge
they indicate spending currently to prepare for student readiness along these and other
class (National Survey of Student Engagement, related important dimensions necessary for
2006). These students do not enter college with college success? The next section describes
a work ethic that prepares them for instructor the current means of determining college
expectations or course requirements. College readiness and some of the limitations of those
freshmen who are most successful are those approaches. This is followed by a section
who come prepared to work at the levels that first defines a more comprehensive
faculty members expect. Those who do not are notion of what it means to be college-ready
much less likely to progress beyond entry-level and then details each of its facets. Next, the
courses, as witnessed by the high failure rates paper presents briefly some ways in which
“The nature and quality of the courses students
take are ultimately what matters and few real
measures of course quality exist currently.”
in these courses and the significant proportion these facets might be measured and how
of college students who drop out during the a more integrated approach to measuring
freshman year. college readiness might benefit students.
Finally, the paper considers the changes
Finally, the relationship between teacher necessary from high schools, colleges, and
and student can be much different than in students for this new approach to be put
high school. An oft-cited example by college into practice.
Redefining College Readiness Current Means to
Determine College Readiness
While it is beyond the scope of this paper to curriculum is the greatest pre-collegiate
present a full critique of current conceptions and indicator of bachelor’s degree completion,
constructions of college readiness, it is worthwhile and the impact is even greater for black
to consider briefly some of the limitations of the and Hispanic students than white students.
current key measures, most notably among them This, however, leads toward a course title
course titles, grade-point averages, and tests, as based definition of college readiness.
well as a related measure, performance in entry- Simply increasing the prescribed courses
level general education courses subsequent students take may not be sufficient,
to admission. This brief overview is presented particularly for students who attend high
to accentuate the need for a more robust and schools with low academic standards and
comprehensive definition of college readiness, expectations. The nature and quality of
one that leads to new tools, methods, and indices the courses students take are ultimately
that will help students understand how ready what matters (ACT, 2005b), and few real
for college they are and will help high schools measures of course quality exist currently.
make systematic improvements to increase the A key necessary component that could
number of college-ready students who graduate address issues of course quality would be a
each year. Each of the major measures and their set of criteria that specify the performances
limitations is discussed briefly in turn. necessary to receive a high school diploma.
Since the 1980s, states have centered their
reform efforts around the development of
Course Titles and statewide standards and assessments. Yet
Grade Point Averages most of these standards setting activities
end at the 10th grade. Few states have
The most common approach is to define undertaken to define 12th grade high school
college readiness in terms of high school course standards and the curriculum necessary to
taking patterns, including the titles, perceived attain those standards.
challenge level, and the number of units
required for graduation, combined with the While course requirements for the high
grades students receive in those courses. What school diploma have increased in a number
this widely held definition assumes or presumes of states, they have yet to produce significant
is that the number of courses that high school improvements in student performance in
students take, and the units and names assigned college (Achieve, 2004). For instance, since 1987
to them, are accurate, comprehensive proxies many states have increased their mathematics
for college-level success (Callan, Finney, Kirst, and science requirements (National Science
Usdan, & Venezia, 2006). Generally, these course Board, 2004), but measures of college
titles must be approved by college admissions graduation have not shown increases (ACT,
offices, in an uneasy but highly choreographed 2002, 2005a; Callan et al., 2006), nor have NAEP
interplay between high schools and colleges. The scores improved significantly (National Center
net effect is to produce course titles that appear for Educational Statistics, 2007). This lack of
standardized on transcripts, but that promote improved college success rates, even in the
a lack of “alignment between what is required face of increasingly demanding high school
to get into college vs. what’s needed to stay in graduation requirements, demonstrates how
college and succeed as an adult.” (Wagner, 2006) difficult it will be to achieve greater college
success by simply having students take more
Adelman (2006) employed transcript prescribed courses without understanding
analysis to reach the conclusion that what is being learned in those courses.
completing a challenging high school
Redefining College ReadinessIn fact, the mean grade point average of tests define college readiness by establishing
high school students has steadily increased even benchmarks empirically or through “cut scores.”
as measures of college success have fluctuated For example, ACT has defined college readiness
or worsened (Woodruff, 2004). A study of high by establishing College Readiness Benchmarks
school transcripts undertaken by ACT researchers representing the minimum ACT test scores
(Ziomek & Svec, 1995) found compelling evidence required for students to have a high probability
of grade inflation. More recently, data from of success in corresponding credit-bearing first-
transcript analyses performed as a component of year college courses. The Benchmarks reflect
the National Assessment of Educational Progress the ACT scores students need to earn to have
(NAEP) determined that 2005 high school at least a 75% or greater chance of obtaining a
graduates had an overall grade point average of course grade of “C” or better (ACT, 2005a). This
2.98. This represented a .30 GPA increase, from is not a direct measure of necessary content
2.68 in 1990 (Ziomek & Svec, 1995). In other words, knowledge and thinking skills, but a gauge of
a “B” average in high school now may reflect probability.
knowledge and skills equivalent to something
more like a “C” average thirty years ago. This is All states have adopted some form of
particularly problematic because many colleges high school examination in English, math
have raised their GPA requirements over the and science for a variety of reasons including
same period of time (Breland et al., 2000). requirements in the federal No Child Left
Behind Act. Research conducted by Standards
Rather than leading to an improvement for Success, published in the 2003 report
in student readiness for college, this appears Mixed Messages (Conley, 2003), found that
simply to have resulted in the compression of most state standards-based high school tests
grades at the upper end of the scale. This has were not well aligned with postsecondary
led to any number of attempts to compensate learning. These tests are perhaps good
for the compression, primarily through the measures of basic academic skills, but not
weighting of particular courses. The UC system, necessarily of the knowledge and capabilities
for example, weights Advanced Placement® needed for college success.
(AP®) and honors courses, so that many UC
applicants now demonstrate GPAs that exceed As a result, the scores students receive
4.0. Individual high schools adopt their own on state tests may not be good indicators of
weighting criteria, leading to myriad ways to college readiness, but students may believe
compute a grade point average. According to that passage of the state test is just such
Hawkins & Clinedinst (2006) many colleges are an indicator. Recent data from the National
weighting high school GPAs to combat this Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
problem. It’s not just the UC system that gives suggest a fundamental disconnect between
higher weight to college prep courses; 49% of trends and scores on state tests and on NAEP
colleges and universities are doing it. Many less tests, which has triggered a federal study of
selective colleges and universities are choosing state definitions of “proficiency” (Cavanagh,
this weighting strategy over increasing GPA 2006). When performance on state tests is
requirements. Breland et al. (2000) found that compared to NAEP performance, significant
GPA requirements have increased more in differences exist from state to state, and
private than public colleges over the last 10 students can show improvement on state
years, which accounts for most of the effect tests and not corresponding improvement
they saw in increased GPA requirements in on NAEP. In other words, it is very difficult to
higher education institutions. know what successful performance on a state
test really means.
Tests This creates serious problems when high
schools focus on getting students to pass
Beyond using high school course titles to state tests. When students do finally pass the
define college readiness, a more direct approach state exam, their program of study may be
is to test a set of knowledge that students hopelessly out of sequence with what it takes
are presumed to need to know to succeed to be college eligible. One possible means to
in college entry-level courses. Admissions help address this disconnect would be second-
Redefining College Readiness generation assessment systems that connect indicate that 40% of admitted and enrolled
high school tests with outcomes beyond high students take at least one remedial course (National
school (Conley, 2006) and, in the process, Center for Education Statistics, 2004), reducing
provide students with solid information on dramatically their probability of graduating and
how ready they were and what they needed costing up to an estimated $1 billion per year (ACT,
to do to be college-ready based on their state 2005b). The California State University system,
high school exam score. which draws its students from the top third of high
school graduates in the state and which tracks
Colleges also rely on Advanced Placement remediation rates more precisely, finds that 46% of
test scores as a potential measure of college all first-year students require remedial education
readiness because these courses are one of the in both English and mathematics (Ali & Jenkins,
few places in the high school curriculum where 2002). The rates at community colleges are likely
some assumptions might be made about what much higher, leading to multi-tier remediation
a student who takes a class has learned. This is programs at some institutions where student skill
because each AP course has a set of curricular levels are so low they must take more than one
and resource requirements and, often more remedial course in a subject area before reaching a
importantly, because many students take the credit-bearing course.
corresponding AP exams after they take the course.
This causes teachers to align course content with Having to enroll in remedial courses
the curricular and exam specifications. increases the time it takes students to complete
their degrees and is associated with a decrease
Even AP courses are being questioned by in the likelihood they will graduate (Adelman,
some colleges and universities. Although the 1999; National Center for Education Statistics,
reasons why colleges question AP are complex, 2004). Nationally, only 17% of those students
one contributing issue is that some high schools who must take a remedial reading class receive
have adopted the practice of offering an AP a bachelor’s degree or higher; of those taking
course in which none of the students take the two remedial classes (other than reading), only
AP exam, while others have taken to posting AP 20% receive such a degree or higher (National
courses to student transcripts in subject areas Center for Education Statistics, 2004).
for which no AP exam, and therefore, no true
AP course exists. These issues with AP courses Children from low-income families are
demonstrate how even an externally-referenced particularly vulnerable to a system that does
program such as AP can be co-opted to serve the not send clear signals to students on how
purpose of inflating the academic credentials ready they are for college. They are the most
of students without necessarily contributing to dependent on the schools to prepare them
the students’ college readiness. properly for college success because they are
often the first in their families to attend college.
These families can only gauge how ready for
Performance in College Courses college success their children are based on
An obvious but frequently overlooked fact the measures used by the schools. They are
is that the final arbiter of college readiness among the most likely to end up in remedial
is student performance in college courses. education.
Students who must enroll in remedial courses Only 60% of these youth can expect to
or who fail entry-level courses find it much graduate from high school, only one in three will
more difficult to graduate from college. enroll in college, and only one in seven will earn
a bachelor’s degree (Bedsworth, Colby, & Doctor,
Remedial Education 2006; Conley, 2005). Those students who do
succeed in earning a college degree are taking
The high proportion of students who are longer to do so now than 20 years ago (ACT, 2002).
identified as needing remedial or developmental These figures suggest a circuitous path to attaining
education is frequently cited as evidence of the a degree, and that many, perhaps most, of those
limitations of current admissions measures. who go on to college are not fully prepared for
While the precise number of students requiring what will be expected of them, particularly in the
remediation is difficult to ascertain, federal statistics area of how colleges operate (Adelman, 1999;
Redefining College Readiness“While the precise number of students requiring remediation is difficult to
ascertain, federal statistics indicate that 40% of admitted and enrolled
students take at least one remedial course, reducing dramatically their
probability of graduating and costing up to an estimated $1 billion per year.”
Horn, 2004; Venezia, Kirst, & Antonio, 2004). Just some of these courses approach 50 percent, and
as important, this suggests that the high school while some argue this is the fault of poor college
program of preparation is not adequately geared teaching, others argue that this failure rate can
toward expecting these students to be prepared be explained equally by poor study habits, a
for college admission or success. These students lack of understanding of the expectations of
are subjected to considerably lower expectations college instructors, and deficiencies in content
and demands in courses with titles that satisfy the knowledge and thinking skills.
needs of college admissions offices but do little
to align with the actual content knowledge and Defining what it takes to succeed in these
intellectual skill levels freshman college students entry-level courses is a key component in
need to survive in the general education courses determining what it means to be college-
that they normally take first (Achieve, 2004; ready. “College readiness standards” can send
Adelman, 1999). clearer messages to high schools regarding
course content and to states about their high
Remediation statistics reveal the tip of school level standards and assessments. These
the iceberg. Many institutions allow students standards are not geared to what should or
to choose not to take remedial courses even does occur in high schools as much as to what
if the student is identified as needing such a will be expected of students in college.
course. Placement methods vary tremendously
from institution to institution and are often No less than a half-dozen such sets of
rudimentary in nature, identifying only those standards exist currently at the national and
students with the most serious deficiencies. state levels. They largely concur on what
These factors in combination result in many students need to know and be able to do to be
students, particularly students from low- ready for college. All are focused expectations
income families and firstgeneration college attendant with entry-level college courses.
attendees, struggling during the first year
The Standards for Success project, sponsored
of college, resulting for many students in
by the Association of American Universities,
an increase in time-to-degree-completion.
developed a comprehensive set of readiness
According to federal statistics, just over half of
standards in six subject areas (Conley, 2003a).
students seeking bachelor’s degrees beginning
These statements outline the knowledge, skill,
in 1995-96 had attained that degree from that
and key cognitive strategies necessary for success
institution six years later (National Center for
in research universities. Washington, D.C.-based
Education Statistics, 2003).
Achieve, Inc., sponsored by state governors,
organized the American Diploma Project. Its goal
General Education was to develop standards that reflected both
college and work readiness in mathematics and
Student performance in general education
English (Achieve, 2004). Both the College Board
courses has long been an issue in postsecondary
and ACT have published their own versions
education, where these courses come to serve as
of college readiness standards and criteria. In
the real arbiter of admission. These “gateway”
addition, several states, most notable among
courses restrict access to majors and also tend
them Washington state, have published or are in
to “weed out” students who are incapable of
the process of developing sets of college readiness
succeeding in them. When students struggle
standards or “definitions” that connect to state
in entry-level courses, it extends their time to
high school academic standards (Transition Math
degree completion, a hidden cost of inadequate
Project, 2005).
or inappropriate preparation. Failure rates in
Redefining College Readiness Components in a Comprehensive
Definition of College Readiness
College readiness is a multi-faceted What the model argues for is a more
concept comprising numerous variables that comprehensive look at what it means to be
include factors both internal and external to college-ready, a perspective that emphasizes
the school environment. In order to provide the interconnectedness of all of the facets
a functional representation of the key facets contained in the model. This is the key point
of college readiness, the model presented of this definition, that all facets of college
below organizes the key areas necessary readiness must be identified and eventually
for college readiness into four concentric measured if more students are to be made
levels. These four areas of college readiness college-ready.
knowledge and skills emerge from a review of
the literature and are those that can be most
directly influenced by schools. Key Cognitive Strategies
In practice, these various facets are not The success of a well-prepared college
mutually exclusive or perfectly nested as student is built upon a foundation of key key
portrayed in the model. They interact with cognitive strategies that enable students to
one another extensively. For example, a lack of learn content from a range of disciplines.
college knowledge often affects the decisions Unfortunately, the development of key key
students make regarding the specific content cognitive strategies in high school is often
knowledge they choose to study and master. overshadowed by an instructional focus on
Or a lack of attention to academic behaviors is de-contextualized content and facts necessary
one of the most frequent causes of problems to pass exit examinations or simply to keep
for first-year students, whether they possess students busy and classrooms quiet.
the necessary content knowledge and key For the most part, state high-stakes
cognitive strategies. standardized tests require students to
recall or recognize fragmented and isolated
Figure 1: Facets of College Readiness bits of information. Those that do contain
performance tasks are severely limited in the
time the tasks can take and their breadth or
depth. The tests rarely require students to
apply their learning and almost never require
students to exhibit proficiency in higher
forms of cognition (Marzano, Pickering, &
McTighe, 1993).
Several studies of college faculty members
nationwide, regardless of the selectivity of the
university, expressed near-universal agreement
that most students arrive unprepared for the
intellectual demands and expectations of
postsecondary (Conley, 2003a). For example,
one study found that faculty reported that
the primary areas in which first-year students
needed further development were critical
thinking and problem solving (Lundell, Higbee,
Hipp, & Copeland, 2004).
Redefining College ReadinessThe term “key cognitive strategies” is presented or conclusion that is reached,
was selected for this model to describe the but asks why things are so.
intelligent behaviors necessary for college
readiness and to emphasize that these Analysis: The student identifies and evaluates
behaviors need to be developed over a period data, material, and sources for quality of
of time such that they become ways of thinking, content, validity, credibility, and relevance.
habits in how intellectual activities are pursued. The student compares and contrasts sources
In other words, key cognitive strategies are and findings and generates summaries and
patterns of intellectual behavior that lead to explanations of source materials.
the development of cognitive strategies and
Reasoning, argumentation, proof: The student
capabilities necessary for college-level work.
constructs well-reasoned arguments or
The term key cognitive strategies invokes a
proofs to explain phenomena or issues;
more disciplined approach to thinking than
utilizes recognized forms of reasoning to
terms such as “dispositions” or “thinking
construct an argument and defend a point
skills.” The term indicates intentional and
of view or conclusion; accepts critiques of
practiced behaviors that become a habitual
or challenges to assertions; and addresses
way of working toward more thoughtful and
critiques and challenges by providing
intelligent action (Costa & Kallick, 2000).
a logical explanation or refutation, or
“Understanding and mastering key content knowledge
is achieved through the exercise of broader cognitive
skills embodied within the key cognitive strategies.”
The specific key cognitive strategies by acknowledging the accuracy of the
referenced in this paper are those shown to critique or challenge.
be closely related to college success. They
Interpretation: The student analyzes
include the following as the most important
competing and conflicting descriptions
manifestations of this way of thinking:
of an event or issue to determine the
Intellectual openness: The student possesses strengths and flaws in each description
curiosity and a thirst for deeper and any commonalities among or
understanding, questions the views of distinctions between them; synthesizes
others when those views are not logically the results of an analysis of competing
supported, accepts constructive criticism, or conflicting descriptions of an event
and changes personal views if warranted or issue or phenomenon into a coherent
by the evidence. Such openmindedness explanation; states the interpretation that
helps students understand the ways in is most likely correct or is most reasonable,
which knowledge is constructed, broadens based on the available evidence; and
personal perspectives and helps students presents orally or in writing an extended
deal with the novelty and ambiguity often description, summary, and evaluation of
encountered in the study of new subjects varied perspectives and conflicting points
and new materials. of view on a topic or issue.
Inquisitiveness: The student engages in active Precision and accuracy: The student knows
inquiry and dialogue about subject matter what type of precision is appropriate to
and research questions and seeks evidence the task and the subject area, is able to
to defend arguments, explanations, or increase precision and accuracy through
lines of reasoning. The student does not successive approximations generated
simply accept as given any assertion that from a task or process that is repeated,
Redefining College Readiness and uses precision appropriately to reach A more complete exposition is contained in
correct conclusions in the context of the Understanding University Success, produced
task or subject area at hand. by Standards for Success through a three-year
study in which more than 400 faculty and
Problem solving: The student develops and staff members from 20 research universities
applies multiple strategies to solve routine participated in extensive meetings and reviews
problems, generate strategies to solve non- to identify what students must do to succeed in
routine problems, and applies methods entry-level courses at their institutions (Conley,
of problem solving to complex problems 2003a). These findings have been confirmed in
requiring method-based problem solving. subsequent studies.
These key cognitive strategies are broadly
representative of the foundational elements This overview begins with two academic
that underlie various “ways of knowing.” skill areas that have repeatedly been identified
as being centrally important to college success:
These are at the heart of the intellectual writing and research. This is followed by brief
endeavor of the university. They are necessary narrative descriptions of content from a number
to discern truth and meaning as well as to of core academic areas.
pursue them. They are at the heart of how
postsecondary faculty members think, and how
they think about their subject areas. Without the Overarching Academic Skills
capability to think in these ways, the entering Writing: Writing is the means by which
college student either struggles mightily until students are evaluated at least to some
these habits begin to develop or misses out on degree in nearly every postsecondary
the largest portion of what college has to offer, course. Expository, descriptive, and
which is how to think about the world. persuasive writing are particularly
important types of writing in college.
Academic Knowledge and Skills Students are expected to write a lot in
college and to do so in relatively short
Successful academic preparation for periods of time. Students need to know
college is grounded in two important how to pre-write, how to edit, and how
dimensions—key cognitive strategies to re-write a piece before it is submitted
and content knowledge. Understanding and, often, after it has been submitted
and mastering key content knowledge is once and feedback has been provided.
achieved through the exercise of broader College writing requires students to
cognitive skills embodied within the key present arguments clearly, substantiate
cognitive strategies. With this relationship in each point, and utilize the basics of a
mind, it is entirely proper and worthwhile to style manual when constructing a paper.
consider some of the general areas in which College-level writing is largely free of
students need strong grounding in content grammatical, spelling, and usage errors.
that is foundational to the understanding
Research: College courses increasingly require
of academic disciplines. The case for the
importance of challenging content as the students to be able to identify and utilize
framework for developing thinking skills appropriate strategies and methodologies
and key cognitive strategies has been made to explore and answer problems and to
elsewhere and will not be repeated in depth conduct research on a range of questions.
here (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). To do so, students must be able to
evaluate the appropriateness of a variety
In order to illustrate the academic of source material and then synthesize
knowledge and skills necessary for college and incorporate the material into a paper
success, a brief discussion of the key structures, or report. They must also be able to
concepts, and knowledge of core academic access a variety of types of information
subjects is presented below. This presentation from a range of locations, formats, and
is not a substitute for a comprehensive listing source environments.
of essential academic knowledge and skills.
Redefining College ReadinessCore Academic Subjects Knowledge and addition to utilizing all the steps in the
Skills scientific method, students learn what it
means to think like a scientist. This includes
English: The knowledge and skills developed in the communication conventions followed by
entry-level English courses enable students scientists, the way that empirical evidence
to engage texts critically and create well is used to draw conclusions, and how such
written, organized, and supported work conclusions are then subject to challenge and
products in both oral and written formats. interpretation. Students come to appreciate
The foundations of English include reading that scientific knowledge is both constant
comprehension and literature, writing and changing at any given moment, and
and editing, information gathering, and that the evolution of scientific knowledge
analysis, critiques and connections. To be does not mean that previous knowledge
ready to succeed in such courses, students was necessarily “wrong.” Students grasp
need to build vocabulary and word analysis that scientists think in terms of models and
skills, including roots and derivations. systems as ways to comprehend complex
These are the building blocks of advanced phenomena. This helps them make sense
literacy. Similarly, students need to utilize out of the flow of ideas and concepts they
techniques such as strategic reading that encounter in entry-level college courses
will help them read and understand a wide and the overall structure of the scientific
range of non-fiction and technical texts. discipline they are studying. In their
Knowing how to slow down to understand science courses, students master core
key points, when to re-read a passage, and concepts, principles, laws, and vocabulary
how to underline key terms and concepts of the scientific discipline being studied.
strategically so that only the most important Laboratory settings are the environments
points are highlighted are examples of where content knowledge and scientific
strategies that aid comprehension and key cognitive strategies converge to help
retention of key content. students think scientifically and integrate
Math: Most important for success in college learned content knowledge.
math is a thorough understanding of the Social Studies: The social sciences entail a
basic concepts, principles, and techniques range of subject areas, each with its own
of algebra. This is different than simply content base and analytic techniques and
having been exposed to these ideas. Much conventions. The courses an entry-level
of the subsequent mathematics they will college student most typically takes are in
encounter draw upon or utilize these geography, political science, economics,
principles. In addition, having learned psychology, sociology, history, and the
these elements of mathematical thinking humanities. The scientific methods that
at a deep level, they understand what are common across the social studies
it means to understand mathematical emphasize the skills of interpreting sources,
concepts deeply and are more likely to do evaluating evidence and competing claims,
so in subsequent areas of mathematical and understanding themes and the overall
study. College-ready students possess flow of events within larger frameworks or
more than a formulaic understanding organizing structures. Helping students to
of mathematics. They have the ability to be aware that the social sciences consist of
apply conceptual understandings in order certain “big ideas” (theories and concepts)
to extract a problem from a context, use that are used to order and structure all of
mathematics to solve the problem, and the detail that often overwhelms them
then interpret the solution back into the can help build mental scaffolds that lead
context. They know when and how to toward thinking like a social scientist.
estimate to determine the reasonableness
of answers and can use a calculator World Languages: The goal of second language
appropriately as a tool, not a crutch. study is to communicate effectively with
and receive communication from speakers
Science: College science courses emphasize of another language in authentic cultural
scientific thinking in all their facets. In
Redefining College Readiness contexts through the skills of listening, These are distinguished from key cognitive
speaking, reading, and writing. Learning strategies by the fact that they tend to be more
another language involves much more than completely independent of a particular content
memorizing a system of grammatical rules. area, whereas the key cognitive strategies are
It requires the learner to understand the always developed within the ways of knowing
cultures from which the language arises a particular content area. The key academic
and in which it resides, use the language behaviors consist largely of self-monitoring
to communicate accurately, and use the skills and study skills.
learner’s first language and culture as a
model for comparison with the language Self-monitoring is a form of metacognition,
and culture being learned. Second language the ability to think about how one is thinking.
proficiency can improve learning in other Examples of metacognitive skills include:
disciplines, such as English, history and art, awareness of one’s current level of mastery
and expand professional, personal, and and understanding of a subject, including key
social opportunities. Language learners misunderstandings and blind spots; the ability
need to understand the structure and to reflect on what worked and what needed
conventions of a language, but not through improvement in any particular academic task;
word-for-word translation or memorization the tendency to persist when presented with a
of de-contextualized grammatical rules. novel, difficult, or ambiguous task; the tendency
Instead, students of a language need to to identify and systematically select among and
master meaning in more holistic ways and employ a range of learning strategies; and the
in context. capability to transfer learning and strategies
from familiar settings and situations to new
The Arts: The arts refer to college subject ones (Bransford et al., 2000). Research on the
areas including art history, dance, music, thinking of effective learners has shown that
theater, and visual arts. Students ready for these individuals tend to monitor actively,
college-level work in the arts possess an regulate, evaluate, and direct their own
understanding of and appreciation for the thinking (Ritchhart, 2002).
contributions made by the most innovative
creators in the field. Students come to
understand themselves as instruments
of communication and expression who
demonstrate mastery of basic oral and
Key academic
physical expression through sound,
movement, and visual representations.
behaviors
They understand the role of the arts
as an instrument of social and political
consist largely of
expression. They formulate and present
difficult questions through their personal
self-monitoring and
artistic visions. They are able to justify
their aesthetic decisions when creating or
study skills.
performing a piece of work and know how
to make decisions regarding the proper
venue for performing or exhibiting any
creative product.
Another important area of college readiness
is student mastery of the study skills necessary
Academic Behaviors for college success. The underlying premise is
simple: academic success requires the mastery
This facet of college readiness encompasses of key skills necessary to comprehend material
a range of behaviors that reflect greater and complete academic tasks successfully, and
student self-awareness, self-monitoring, the nature of college learning in particular
and self-control of a series of processes and requires that significant amounts of time be
behaviors necessary for academic success. devoted to learning outside of class for success
Redefining College Readinessto be achieved in class. Study skills encompass cross-section of academicians and peers. These
a range of active learning strategies that go skills include the ability to collaborate and work in
far beyond reading the text and answering a team; understand the norms of the “academic”
the homework questions. Typical study- culture and how one interacts with professors
skill behaviors include time management, and others in that environment; interact with
preparing for and taking examinations, people from different backgrounds and cultures;
using information resources, taking class communicate informally; and demonstrate
notes, and communicating with teachers and leadership skills in a variety of settings.
advisors (Robbins, Lauver, Le, Davis, Langley,
& Carlstrom, 2004). An additional critical Another important area of contextual
set of study skills is the ability to participate awareness is known as “college knowledge.” This
successfully in a study group and recognize the is information, formal and informal, stated and
critical importance of study groups to success unstated, necessary for both gaining admission
in specific subjects. Examples of specific time to and navigating within the postsecondary
management techniques and habits include: system. College knowledge includes an
accurately estimating how much time it takes understanding of the following processes:
to complete all outstanding and anticipated college admissions including curricular, testing,
tasks and allocating sufficient time to complete and application requirements; college options
the tasks; using calendars and creating “to and choices, including the tiered nature of
do” lists to organize studying into productive postsecondary education; tuition costs and the
chunks of time; locating and utilizing settings financial aid system; placement requirements,
conducive to proper study; and prioritizing testing, and standards; the culture of college;
study time in relation to competing demands and the challenge level of college courses,
such as work and socializing. including increasing expectations of higher
education (Lundell et al., 2004).
Contextual Skills and Awareness Admissions requirements, and timelines
in particular, are extremely complicated, and
The importance of this broad category has students often do not know or understand
only recently been highlighted as an ever-wider the importance of either until it is too late.
range of students apply to college. Contextual Specific institutions have additional special
factors encompass primarily the privileged requirements and exceptions that are not
information necessary to understand how immediately evident. Financial aid options are
college operates as a system and culture. It is this largely unknown or substantially misunderstood
lack of understanding of the context of college by many students most in need of such support.
that causes many students to become alienated, The economically well-off are more likely
frustrated, and even humiliated during the to have this knowledge than working-class
freshman year and decide that college is not the families or families whose children are the first
place for them. Examples of key context skills and generation to attend college (Conley, 2005;
awareness include a systemic understanding of Robbins et al., 2004; Venezia et al., 2004).
the postsecondary educational system combined
with specific knowledge of the norms, values, and The next section provides an operational
conventions of interactions in the college context, definition of college readiness that the
and the human relations skills necessary to cope conceptual model helps to delineate. The
within this system even if it is very different from section seeks to include specific statements
the community the student has just left. across all of the dimensions of college
readiness. These statements are presented in
This does not necessarily mean that students a form that allows them to be measured or
need to disown their cultural backgrounds, gauged. The net result would be a profile of
heritage, and traditions, only that they need college readiness that would help students
to understand the relationship between their know the degree to which they were college-
cultural assumptions and those operating in ready, and could eventually help high schools
college. Success in college is enhanced for in particular to know how well their programs
students who possess interpersonal and social of study are preparing students to be ready for
skills that enable them to interact with a diverse college success.
Redefining College Readiness A Definition of College Readiness
It is possible to compile very lengthy and understanding of how experts in the subject
detailed lists of the content knowledge students area think.
must know and the key cognitive strategies
they must possess to be college-ready. In 4. Facility with a range of key intellectual and
fact, a variety of such compilations have been cognitive skills and capabilities that can be
broadly generalized as the ability to think.
produced lately (Achieve, The Education Trust,
& Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, 2004; 5. Reading and writing skills and strategies
Conley, 2003, 2003a, 2004). In addition, others sufficient to process the full range of textual
have identified the academic behaviors and materials commonly encountered in entry-level
context knowledge students need. college courses, and to respond successfully to
the written assignments commonly required
Rather than repeat each of these previous in such courses.
lists in detail, it may be more useful to consider
a highly representative list of knowledge, skills, 6. Mastery of key concepts and ways of
and attributes a student should possess to be thinking found in one or more scientific
ready to succeed in entry-level college courses disciplines sufficient to succeed in at least
across a range of subjects and disciplines. Such one introductory-level college course that
a list attempts to capture “keystone” skills, could conceivably lead toward a major that
ones that can only be demonstrated if a set of requires additional scientific knowledge
subordinate and prerequisite knowledge and and expertise.
skills are in place. The list is not intended to be all-
7. Comfort with a range of numeric concepts
inclusive, but to suggest to the informed reader and principles sufficient to take at least one
the types of indicators that would be necessary introductory level college course that could
to gauge the more comprehensive notion of conceivably lead toward a major that requires
college readiness presented in this paper. additional proficiency in mathematics.
8. Ability to accept critical feedback including
General Characteristics critiques of written work submitted or an
argument presented in class.
Students who possess sufficient mastery
of key cognitive strategies, key content 9. Ability to assess objectively one’s level of
knowledge, academic behaviors, and competence in a subject and to devise plans
contextual knowledge would be defined as to complete course requirements in a timely
being college-ready to the degree to which fashion and with a high degree of quality.
they could demonstrate the following:
10. Ability to study independently and with a
1. Consistent intellectual growth and study group on a complex assignment requiring
development over four years of high school extensive out-of-class preparation that extends
resulting from the study of increasingly over a reasonably long period of time.
challenging, engaging, coherent academic
content. 11. Ability to interact successfully with a wide
range of faculty, staff, and students, including
2. Deep understanding of and facility applying among them many who come from different
key foundational ideas and concepts from the backgrounds and hold points of view different
core academic subjects. from the student’s.
3. A strong grounding in the knowledge base 12. Understanding of the values and norms
that underlies the key concepts of the core of colleges, and within them, disciplinary
academic disciplines as evidenced by the ability subjects as the organizing structures for
to use the knowledge to solve novel problems intellectual communities that pursue
within a subject area, and to demonstrate an common understandings and fundamental
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