The Impact of the COVID 19 Pandemic on the Anxiety of Adolescents in Québec
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Child & Youth Care Forum
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09655-9
ORIGINAL PAPER
The Impact of the COVID‑19 Pandemic on the Anxiety
of Adolescents in Québec
Julie Lane1 · Danyka Therriault1 · Audrey Dupuis1 · Patrick Gosselin2 ·
Jonathan Smith3 · Saliha Ziam4 · Mathieu Roy5 · Pasquale Roberge5 · Marti Drapeau6 ·
Pascale Morin7 · Felix Berrigan7 · Isabelle Thibault8 · Magali Dufour9
Accepted: 24 September 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021
Abstract
Background Several studies conducted since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic
have shown its harmful effects on young people’s mental health. In Québec and Canada,
few studies have focussed on adolescents, and even fewer of these studies have examined
this subject using a methodology that involved comparisons of data obtained before and
during the pandemic, which is the purpose of this study.
Objective The objective of this study is to determine the impact of the COVID-19 pan-
demic on the anxiety of secondary 1 and 2 students in Québec, using data obtained before
and during the pandemic.
Method Participants were 2990 French Canadian students in secondary 1 (grade 7) and
secondary 2 (grade 8) in Québec. Two independent samples completed the questionnaires,
one sample before the pandemic (fall 2019) and one sample during the pandemic (fall
2020). Their answers were subjected to descriptive analysis and multivariate analysis of
variance.
Results Results show that the pandemic has had variable impacts on the student’s men-
tal health, with some of them reporting negative effects on their lives, others reporting no
effect, and some reporting positive effect. However, the students surveyed during the pan-
demic generally reported more symptoms of generalized anxiety, and higher levels of test
anxiety, fear of judgment and perfectionism than the ones surveyed before the pandemic.
Conclusions The discussion puts forward possible explanations for the results obtained,
which contribute to a better understanding of young adolescents’ experience during the
COVID-19 pandemic. It also discusses the importance of developing interventions for ado-
lescents affected by this pandemic.
Keywords Anxiety · Adolescence · COVID-19 pandemic
* Danyka Therriault
danyka.therriault@usherbrooke.ca
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
13
Vol.:(0123456789)Child & Youth Care Forum Introduction The COVID‑19 Pandemic in Québec and Canada The year 2020 was marked by the COVID-19 pandemic. Québec declared a health emer- gency on March 13, leading to the closure of all schools across the province. Shortly after, between March 15 and 21, organised sports were put on hold and all gatherings were banned (Institut Nationale de Santé Publique [INSPQ], 2021). In the following summer, there was a partial loosening of some public health measures, although stricter measures were once again put in place when students returned to school in the fall. In January 2021, in response to the increase in the number of COVID-19 cases, the Government of Québec announced a second lockdown, but authorized students to return to class after the holidays, full-time for secondary 1 and 2 students (7th and 8th grade equivalent). These measures were then modulated according to the pandemic’s evolution by region. Pandemics and the associated quarantines can have substantial and wide-ranging con- sequences on the individuals, that can endure over time. High levels of stress can emerge given the sudden and important changes in people daily lives (Brooks et al., 2020). As for the COVID-19 pandemic, its consequences have been extensively documented in multiple studies and in various countries and include higher levels of psychological distress, anxi- ety, depression, sleep disorders, traumatic stress symptoms, suicidal ideation and substance abuse (Ammerman et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2020; Newby et al., 2020; Qiu et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). That said, relatively few studies have been conducted with adolescents in Canada, and more specifically in Québec. Given the heterogeneous nature of the evolu- tion of the pandemic and of the measures put in place by the governments in response, this article focuses on Canada and Québec data. In Québec and Canada, public health studies and surveys indicate that this pandemic has had significant personal implications, not to mention social and financial impacts. On the individual level, studies report a decrease in sleep time, and an increase in psychological distress, stress and anxiety, depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and alcohol and can- nabis use (Best et al., 2020; Dozois & Mental Health Research Canada, 2020; Généreux et al., 2020; INSPQ, 2020; Robillard et al., 2020). On the social level, there has been an increase in contact with immediate family members, but a decrease in contact with friends and in the quality of relationships with family and friends (Robillard et al., 2020). On the financial level, this has been a decrease in spending, but also a decrease in employment income (Robillard et al., 2020). The Impact of the Pandemic on the Mental Health of Adolescents in Québec and Canada Several sources have also suggested that the COVID-19 pandemic has had major effects on young people. Adolescence—with all that it entails—can make young people more likely to experience the negative effects of the lockdown and of other health measures associated with the pandemic. In particular, development during this period hinges on new experi- ences and social contact with peers, which have been drastically altered by the COVID- 19 pandemic (Cloutier & Drapeau, 2008). Adolescents of every age can be affected, but young adolescents could be affected in a different way, as they also deal with their recent transition from elementary school (Eccles et al., 1993; Newman & Newman, 2020). Eccles 13
Child & Youth Care Forum
and al. (1993) add that many of the problems related to adolescence emerge during the
early years as a result of the interaction between the developmental needs of adolescents
and their environment. They also highlight the importance of the educational environment
that can contribute to the developmental needs of adolescents and promote their continued
growth (Eccles et al., 1993). However, they also argue that the transition from elementary
school can lead to a bad fit between the needs of young adolescents and their environment.
Their new school environment is notably characterized by a less personal and positive rela-
tionship with teachers, fewer opportunities for decision-making in class, more emphasis on
academic performance, and more comparison with other students (Newman & Newman,
2020). As a result, young adolescents face certain particular challenges with regards to
their need for autonomy and control, for personal relationships with adults other than their
parents, and for positive status in relation to their peers. This stage-environment misfit can
have important consequences on these young adolescents’ lives (Eccles et al., 1993; New-
man & Newman, 2020), and was negatively affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and its
associated measures.
In this sense, the complete or partial closure of schools in Québec1 has (depending on
the school) been marked by inconsistencies in the level of teaching, the subjects taught, and
the presence of teachers themselves, all of which has contributed to a lack of motivation
and socialization among high school students (Bergeron, 2020; Rousseau, 2020). Congru-
ent with this, Smith et al. (2021) have suggested that a return to class after several months
of distance learning is associated with an increased interest in learning. Studies also show
that the pandemic has increased the amount of time that adolescents spend sleeping and
on social media or technology in general and decreased their level of physical activity and
time spent outdoors (Ellis et al., 2020; Moore et al., 2020). Regarding substance use, one
study reports a significant increase in the number of days on which young people use alco-
hol or cannabis but reports a significant decrease in the number of young people who vape
or use cannabis or alcohol in large quantities (Dumas et al., 2020).
Few studies from Québec and Canada have focussed solely on adolescents, but one
of the main effects of the pandemic on the mental health of adolescents appears to be an
increase in anxiety. Several studies have reported an increase in anxiety among young peo-
ple during the COVID-19 pandemic (Ellis et al., 2020; Tardif-Grenier et al., 2021). Even
before the pandemic, anxiety was on the rise among Québec teens. A survey completed by
the Institut de la statistique du Québec (2018) found that 17% of high school students in
2016–2017 had an anxiety disorder diagnosed by a healthcare professional, compared to
9% in 2010–2011. This survey also found that anxiety is more prevalent in girls (22.9%)
than in boys (11.8%), and that anxiety increases as students advance into the upper grade
levels, although it decreases slightly between secondary 4 (grade 10) and 5 (grade 11).
Anxiety has major effects on young people’s lives, as it is associated to an increase in the
risk of developing depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and drug or alcohol abuse, and
a decrease in the ability to concentrate and in academic performance, adaptability, and
social skills (Dumas, 2013; Turgeon & Gosselin, 2015).
This section summarizes some of the work done specifically on anxiety in young people
amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Québec and Canada, divided in two categories: scientific
1
Few scientific articles have been published to date on the effects of COVID-19 on Canadians. As such,
the data reported in this section are drawn from scientific articles, as well as from conference presentations
or newspaper articles reporting comments made by healthcare researchers or professionals.
13Child & Youth Care Forum studies, and surveys and polls. The scientific studies were peer-reviewed and used stand- ardized measures, which surveys and polls did not. Scientific studies The Tardif-Grenier et al. study (2021) sought to determine the sociodemographic charac- teristics, habits during lockdown, and sources of support associated with the level of anx- ious or depressive symptoms in adolescents in Québec. The participants were 895 ado- lescents (74% female, 26% male) aged 12 to 17 (M = 14.73 years). They were invited to complete an online questionnaire through social media and by various partners in the prov- ince’s education and social services networks. The scales used were the French version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (Morin et al., 2011) to measure the presence and severity of symptoms of depression; the French version of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders-Revised (Martin & Gosselin, 2012), to measure the symptoms of anxiety; and a questionnaire on sociodemographic characteristics (age, family composition, academic performance), habits during lockdown (schedule, sleep, use of tech- nology, sports, schoolwork, and new hobbies), and sources of support (parents who work outside the home, parental support, teacher support). Results showed that girls reported more anxious and depressive symptoms than boys. Results also showed that students from an “intact” family (i.e., living with two parents) report higher levels of anxiety, as do those who spend less time on their cellphones. Students who report doing schoolwork, start- ing a new hobby, or having parents who work outside the home indicate lower levels of depressive symptoms. Students who report playing sports indicate higher levels of positive emotions. The Ellis et al. study (2020) sought to determine the relationship between psychologi- cal adjustment and the stress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic in Canadian ado- lescents. The participants were 316 adolescents (76.4% female, 21.9% male, 1.2% other) aged 14 to 18 (M = 16.68 years) who completed an online questionnaire. The questionnaire included the Brief Symptom Inventory (Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1983) to measure depres- sion; the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (Hays & DiMatteo, 1987) to measure loneliness; and the Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire (Godin, 2011) to document leisure and exercise. The researchers also investigated stress associated with COVID-19, the use of social media, and daily activities. The authors define this stress as the fear of COVID- 19 spreading, of being infected with COVID-19, and of the impact of health measures on school and social life. Results showed that overall, 43.1% of participants reported a high level of stress related to the COVID-19 pandemic, while 54.2% reported moderate stress, and 2.7% no stress. The participants reported a very high level of stress associated with the impact of the pandemic on their school year (71.7%), on their contact with friends (40.5%), and on family finances (36.2%). The authors also found that girls reported more depres- sive symptoms and stress associated with COVID-19 than boys. The level of stress associ- ated with COVID-19 also correlated positively with loneliness, the presence of depressive symptoms, time spent online with friends, watching the news, doing schoolwork, and on social media. The Hawke et al. study (2020) also sought to examine mental health and substance use in Canadian adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. The participants were 622 adolescents or young adults (62.5% female, 32.8% male, 4.6% other) aged 14 to 28 (M = 20.8 years). They were divided into two categories: a clinical sample (n = 276) and a population-based sample (n = 346). They were invited to complete an online questionnaire 13
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through their previous enrollment in studies led by the researchers. The instruments used
were the CoRonavIruS Health Impact Survey (Merikangas et al., 2020), to retrospectively
measure the emotional and behavioural response of young people to the pandemic; the
Brief COPE (Carver, 1997), to measure adaptive strategies put in place; and the GAIN-SS
(Dennis et al., 2006), to measure internalized or externalized issues related to substance
use and violence. A questionnaire designed by the study investigators on strategies used by
young people to maintain their well-being, and on the disruptions experienced in different
spheres of their life was also used. Results showed a deterioration in the mental health of
the participants, in particular among those in the population-based sample. The partici-
pants’ main concerns were related to the risk of a family member contracting COVID-19,
interruptions to school or work, and their mental health. The participants also cited some
positive impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, the most important being spending time with
friends online, spending time with their pet, pursuing hobbies, and spending time with
their family online.
Surveys and Polls
Several surveys and polls were also conducted among young people in Québec and Canada
during the COVID-19 pandemic (Généreux et al., 2021; Maximum City, 2020, 2021). The
Généreux et al. survey (2021) was conducted among 16,500 adolescents or young adults
(57% female; 43% male) aged 12 to 25, who filled out an online survey. Results showed
that three times as many high school students who reported fair or poor mental health in
January 2021, compared to January 2020 (30% versus 11%). The researchers point out
that this deterioration in mental health extends from secondary 1 (grade 7) to secondary
5 (grade 11) and appears to increase as the students advance through the grade levels. The
results also indicated that many high school students reported symptoms compatible with
generalized anxiety disorder or major depression, namely 35% in secondary 1 (grade 7)
and 2 (grade 8), and 50% in secondary 3 (grade 9) to 5 (grade 11). Looking more closely
at secondary 1 and 2, the results indicated an increase in symptoms compatible with gen-
eralized anxiety disorder between secondary 1 (23%) and 2 (27%), as well as an increase
in symptoms compatible with major depression (from 27 to 34%). Among the factors that
negatively impacted the respondents’ mental health, the authors report (1) the reduction in
social, sports, and cultural activities, (2) the increase in screen time, and (3) the increase
in online learning. This last point is more applicable to secondary 3 to 5 students, who had
online classes 50% of the time, unlike secondary 1 and 2 students, who typically had no
online classes.
The report prepared by Maximum City (2020) aimed to identify the behaviours, feel-
ings, and opinions of Canadian children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The participants were 616 children and adolescents aged 9 to 15, and their parents or legal
guardians, who filled out an online survey in spring 2020. The results are divided into four
main sections: (1) feelings and emotions, (2) activities, (3) school and learning, (4) people
and relationships. With respect to feelings and emotions, the participants reported feeling
more bored (34%) and anxious (27%), but also calmer (29%) and happier (24%). Although
77% of participants felt like they were missing out on important life events or moments,
26% felt that the COVID-19 pandemic had had some positive effects on their lives, such
as more time with family and more time to pursue their interests. With respect to activi-
ties, the participants reported spending more time using technology (83%), sleeping more
(51%), and spending less time being physically active (53%). With respect to school and
13Child & Youth Care Forum
learning, the participants reported spending less time on schoolwork (53%), and 32% found
schoolwork less stressful, while 30% found it to be more stressful. With respect to people
and relationships, the participants felt like the amount of time they were spending with
family was just right (71%), but that they were not spending enough time with their friends
(38%). A follow-up suervey done in fall 2020 showed that students who participated in
school online or both online and in person, or who were homeschooled, reported more
boredom, fatigue, loneliness, sadness, and worries compared to those who attended school
in person. However, they reported feeling less frustrated, as well as calmer and more in
control (Maximum City, 2021).
As a whole, these studies, surveys, and polls show that the COVID-19 pandemic had
major effects on adolescents in Québec and Canada. Among the reported consequences,
some stand out, including an increase in anxious and depressive symptoms (Ellis et al.,
2020; Généreux et al., 2021; Tardif-Grenier et al., 2021). The studies also showed that girls
report higher levels of anxiety and depression than boys (Ellis et al., 2020; Tardif-Grenier
et al., 2021), and that anxiety seems to increase as the students advance through the grade
levels (Généreux et al., 2021). Other associated factors include worries about the school
year, worries about family finances, worries about COVID-19, lack of contact with friends,
reduction of sports and cultural activities, increased time spent on social media and in
online classes, in watching the news, as well as an increase in depressive symptoms (Ellis
et al., 2020; Hawke et al., 2020). However, the studies also show that for some adolescents,
the COVID-19 pandemic had positive effects, such as more time spent with family, time to
pursue their interests and play sports (Hawke et al., 2020; Maximum City, 2020; Tardif-
Grenier et al., 2021).
The Agility of Studies and Surveys Amid the Pandemic and Their Biases
These studies and survey show agility, as their authors were able to quickly take steps to
identify the impacts of the pandemic and the lockdown on youth, with the goal of influ-
encing mental health policies and services. This agility was seen in various places around
the world, as the pandemic complicated the process of evidence-informed decision-mak-
ing (EIDM), not to mention studies and syntheses surrounding EIDM (Munn et al., 2020).
Because of the virus’s extremely rapid spread, the enormous burden of morbidity and mor-
tality, and the major implications for health system resources (Roche et al., 2020), impor-
tant decisions had to be made in haste. This situation has greatly encouraged decision-
makers to rely on evidence (Munn et al., 2020) in order to reduce the risk of transmission
and limit mortality. Researchers were very responsive, and many adjustments to research
protocols in order to quickly collect and provide rapid access to data.
However, some biases can be observed, which may have influenced the results
obtained. The Goldberg typology (2000) presents two broad categories of bias: selec-
tion bias and measurement bias.2 It is important to be aware of these biases in order
to interpret the results of those studies and to try to limit these biases in further stud-
ies. In studies, surveys, polls, and media coverage on the topic, certain methodological
2
Selection bias is defined as a bias that can lead to “the subjects actually observed in the survey not consti-
tuting a group that is representative of the study populations” [TRANSLATION] (Goldberg, 2000, p. 153).
A measurement bias is defined as the set of “systematic errors that can be introduced during the measure-
ment of the phenomena considered in the subjects enrolled in the study” [TRANSLATION] (Goldberg,
2000, p. 156).
13Child & Youth Care Forum
choices raise questions in terms of limits or bias. Thus, a limit can be observed in
relation to social-media recruiting, which can attract individuals with specific profiles,
thereby biasing the results. Recruiting a sample of volunteers online can also contrib-
ute to the risk of bias because, despite the advantages of this recruitment method, it
also raises questions about the representativeness of the sample and the quality of the
responses obtained (Frippiat & Marquis, 2010). Moreover, some of the sources con-
sulted used non-standardized instruments for their data collection, which may have
introduced a measurement bias. It also appears that only one survey used a methodol-
ogy that compares data obtained before and during the pandemic. While this does not
represent a bias in and of itself, it does limit the conclusions that can be drawn regard-
ing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of young people.
The studies also appear to focus on older adolescents, rather than those between the
ages of 12 and 14. Only two of the surveys and polls included data from students aged
14 and under. The Généreux et al. survey (2021) focused on young people aged 12 to
17 and showed that psychological distress increases as students advance through the
grade levels. The report prepared by Maximum City (2020) focuses on young people
age 9 to 15. Older students are not included, since the authors assumed that they are
likely to have different experiences, in particular, regarding paid work and planning for
post-secondary studies. The authors report no difference between the data collected
from participants aged 14 and under and from those over the age of 14. This popu-
lation seems to be under studied, despite the particularities in their situation, having
recently transitioned from elementary to high school (Eccles et al., 1993).
Therefore, the specific objectives of this article are to: (1) Document the impact
of the COVID-19 lockdown on the well-being and mental health of secondary 1 and
2 students in Québec; (2) Document the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on vari-
ous dimensions related to the anxiety felt by these students, by comparing data col-
lected before and during the COVID-19 pandemic from two independent samples,
while examining the moderating effect of the adolescent’s gender and grade level. On
an empirical basis, our hypotheses are as follow: (1) The COVID-19 pandemic and its
associated measures will have a negative effect on anxiety and depressive symptoms of
secondary 1 and 2 students; (2) Girls will report higher levels of anxiety and depres-
sive symptoms than boys; (3) Secondary 2 students will report higher levels of anxiety
and depressive symptoms than secondary 1 students.
Methodology
The data were collected as part of the evaluation of the HORS-PISTE program, an
initiative of the RBC Centre for Academic Expertise in Mental Health (Université de
Sherbrooke). The objective of this program is to lessen the risk factors related to anxi-
ety and to strengthen the protection factors through the promotion of mental health and
the development of psychosocial skills. As part of the process to evaluate the imple-
mentation and effects of this prevention program, participants are asked to complete an
evaluation protocol consisting of a series of standardized questionnaires, once during a
pre-test, and again during a post-test. The data used for this study come from the pre-
tests in 2019–2020 and 2020–2021.
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Participants and Procedures
The data were collected at two points in time, from two separate samples. The initial data
collection took place before the COVID-19 pandemic, between October and December
2019. Participants included 1,610 students (48.9% female, 49.3% male) in secondary 1
(grade 7) and 2 (grade 8), with an average age of 12.66 years (SD = 0.84). These students
were in 12 high schools located throughout three major regions of Québec (Estrie, Monté-
régie, and Mauricie-Centre-du-Québec). The second data collection took place during the
COVID-19 pandemic, between October and December 2020. Participants included 1,380
students (49.8% female, 49.9% male) in secondary 1 (grade 7) and 2 (grade 8), with an
average age of 12.59 years (SD = 0.74). These students came from 11 high schools located
throughout three major regions of Québec (Estrie, Montérégie, and Mauricie-Centre-du-
Québec). In both samples, about 85% of students reported that their parents were born in
Canada, which suggests that few participants are first- or second-generation immigrants.
The data were collected in the classroom, using a paper or online questionnaire (at the
school’s discretion), under the supervision of a teacher or staff member. 70% of the sample
completed the written form. To ensure a standardized procedure, teachers and staff mem-
bers were given instructions about how to administer the questionnaires. Parental consent
was obtained for students under 14, while those 14 could consent for themselves when
filling out the questionnaires. The participants did not receive any financial compensation.
The evaluation protocol and the student recruitment process were used to try to reduce
some of the measurement and selection biases mentioned earlier. This study was approved
by Université de Sherbrooke’s education and social sciences ethics committee.
Scales
The student evaluation protocol comprised several measurement instruments. In keeping
with the objective to document the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on the well-being
and mental health of secondary 1 and 2 students in Québec, a question was added during
the fall 2020 data collection to measure the effects of the COVID-19 lockdown. Each par-
ticipant was asked to select the statement, from among the following, that best describes
their perception of the effect that the pandemic-related lockdown had on their well-being
and mental health: “Positively affected my well-being and mental health”, “Did not affect
my well-being or mental health”, and “Negatively affected my well-being and mental
health”.
In keeping with the objective to document the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
various dimensions related to the anxiety felt by these students, by comparing data col-
lected before and during the COVID-19 pandemic from two independent samples, while
examining the moderating effect of the adolescent’s gender and grade level, several meas-
urement instruments were used to document the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
various dimensions related to anxiety. Some of these instruments served to document the
students’ symptoms of anxiety and their effects, while others were used to measure vari-
ables related to anxiety, such as fear of being judged, perfectionism, self-esteem. feelings
of depression, problematic internet use, etc.
Symptoms of anxiety associated with various disorders (panic disorder, generalized
anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, obsessive–compul-
sive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder) were measured using subscales from the
13Child & Youth Care Forum
French version of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders Revised (Martin & Gos-
selin, 2012; Muris et al., 1998). This questionnaire includes a total of nine subscales rated
using a three-point scale (0 = almost never, 1 = sometimes, 2 = often). In this study, six of
the nine scales were used: panic disorder, which includes 7 items (“When I feel frightened,
it is hard to breathe”); generalized anxiety disorder, which includes 7 items (“I worry about
things working out for me”); separation anxiety disorder, which includes 7 items (“I worry
about sleeping alone”); social anxiety disorder, consisting of 4 items (“I feel nervous with
people I don’t know well”); obsessive–compulsive disorder, which includes 5 items (“I
want things to be in order or neatly arranged”); and post-traumatic stress disorder, which
includes 4 items (“I have flashbacks about something bad that happened to me”). This scale
has good convergent and divergent validity (Monga et al., 2000). The French version of the
tool also has good psychometric properties, in particular in terms of convergent and crite-
rion validity, and reliability (Martin & Gosselin, 2012). The Cronbach’s alphas obtained
in this study indicate satisfactory internal consistency for most of the scales used (panic
disorder: α = 0.84 (2019)/0.83 (2020); generalized anxiety disorder: α = 0.84 (2019)/0.83
(2020); separation anxiety disorder: α = 0.68 (2019)/0.69 (2020); social anxiety disorder:
α = 0.78 (2019)/0.83 (2020); obsessive–compulsive disorder: α = 0.48 (2019)/0.51 (2020);
and post-traumatic stress disorder: α = 0.78 (2019)/0.76 (2020)).3
Test anxiety was measured using the French version of the Test Anxiety Inventory—
Short form (Taylor & Deane, 2002). This tool, comprised of five items (“During tests I feel
very tense”), is used to measure the state of mind of adolescents and post-secondary stu-
dents during tests. For each item, the respondent must indicate, on a four-point Likert scale
(1 = almost never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, 4 = almost always), the degree to which each
statement applies to them. This short version has good validity and reliability (Taylor &
Deane, 2002). For this study, the Cronbach’s alpha obtained indicate good internal consist-
ency (α = 0.82 (2019)/0.85 (2020)).
Fear of being judged by others was measured using the French version of the Fear of
Negative Evaluation scale (Monfette et al., 2006; Watson & Friend, 1969). This question-
naire is comprised of 12 items (e.g., “I am afraid others will criticize me”) which are scored
using a Likert scale from 1 (does not describe me at all) to 5 (describes me extremely
well). The psychometric properties of the French version were evaluated with adolescents;
the scale has good internal consistency. In this study, a committee of three experts and a
research assistant evaluated the relevance of the items with respect to the presumed under-
standing of the young people; this led to the removal of 5 items that were deemed prob-
lematic. The version used in this study is therefore comprised of seven items and has good
internal consistency (α = 0.85 (2019)/0.86 (2020)).
Perfectionism was measured using the abridged French version of the Child-Adolescent
Perfectionism Scale (Dourez & Hénot, 2013; Flett et al., 2000). Only one scale, measuring
self-oriented perfectionism, was used in this study, for a total of seven items (“I try to be
perfect in everything I do”) evaluated on a Likert scale (1 = not at all true of me to 5 = very
true of me). The Cronbach’s alpha obtained for this scale in this study indicates good inter-
nal consistency (α = 0.88 (2019)/0.86 (2020)).
3
According to the markers proposed by Hinton et al. (2014), a Cronbach’s alpha less than 0.50 indicates
low internal consistency, an alpha greater than or equal to 0.50 and less than 0.70 indicates moderate inter-
nal consistency, an alpha greater than or equal to 0.70 and less than 0.90 indicates good internal consist-
ency, and an alpha greater than 0.90 indicates excellent internal consistency.
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Self-esteem was measured using the French version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
(Vallières & Vallerand, 1990). This tool, comprised of ten items (“On the whole, I am satis-
fied with myself”), was used to measure the adolescent’s perception of their own value. For
each statement, the adolescent had to indicate their level of agreement on a 4-point Likert
scale (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree). Again, the Cronbach’s alpha obtained for
this tool indicated excellent internal validity (α = 0.89 (2019)/0.90 (2020)).
Feelings of depression were measured using the short French version of the Chil-
dren’s Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1985). This questionnaire is comprised of 10 items
(“Things bother me once in a while”), each presented as three statements that best describe
the respondent’s situation in the previous two weeks. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha
obtained indicated good internal consistency (α = 0.84 (2019)/0.82 (2020)).
Problematic internet use was measured using the French version of the Compulsive
Internet Use Scale (Meerkerk et al., 2009). Nine items were used in this study. These
items were proposed by a researcher specialized in this field. On a six-point Likert scale
(1 = never to 5 = very often; 6 = not applicable), the respondent had to indicate to what
extent each item (“I am short of sleep because of the internet”) applies to them. This nine-
item version demonstrated good internal consistency in this study (α = 0.84 (2019)/0.85
(2020)).
The Cognitions reliées à l’anxiété généralisée pour enfants questionnaire (CAG; Gos-
selin, 2007) was used to measure intolerance to uncertainty, negative attitude when faced
with problems, and cognitive avoidance. This questionnaire is comprised of 16 items (e.g.,
“When something scares me, I force myself to think about happy things”) evaluated on a
Likert scale (1 = not at all to 3 = a lot). In this study, the Cronbach’s alphas indicated satis-
factory internal consistency (α = 0.66 to 0.82 (2019)/0.70 to 0.81 (2020)).
The impact of anxiety on the lives of adolescents was measured using the Child/Adoles-
cent Anxiety Impact Scale (Langley et al., 2004). This self-reported tool, comprised of 27
items, is used to measure the impact of anxiety symptoms on a child’s psychosocial adjust-
ment. It evaluates the impact on three major dimensions: school activities, social activities,
and family and home activities. In this study, only the total score was used because of the
strong correlations observed between these three scales. For each item, based on a four-
point Likert scale (0 = not at all to 3 = a lot), the adolescent had to rate their degree of diffi-
culty in accomplishing each activity (“Getting to school on time”) because of their anxiety
symptoms over the past month. In the samples used for this study, the tool’s internal con-
sistency was excellent (α = 0.94 (2019)/α = 0.94 (2020)).
Data analysis
All statistical analyses were completed using IBM’s SPSS (Statistical Package for
Social Sciences) software v.25 (2017). First, descriptive statistics were calculated for
the question on the effect of the lockdown on well-being and mental health, to which
the participants in the fall 2020 cohort were asked to respond. Second, descriptive sta-
tistics for all other variables of interest were calculated for the fall 2019 cohort and then
for the 2020 cohort. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was completed to
examine the differences between the 2019 and 2020 data. A total of 15 variables were
included in the analysis: panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, separation anxi-
ety disorder, social anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, test-related anxiety,
fear of judgment by others, perfectionism, feelings of depression, self-esteem, prob-
lematic internet use, intolerance to uncertainty, negative attitude faced with problems,
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Table 1 Descriptive statistics—Effect of the lockdown on students’ well-being and mental health
Effect of lockdown Boys % Girls % Total %
Positively affected my well-being and mental health Sec. 1 12.2 Sec. 1 15.8 Sec. 1 13.8
Sec. 2 16.5 Sec. 2 13.5 Sec. 2 13.8
Total 13.8 Total 15.0 Total 14.4
Did not affect my well-being or mental health Sec. 1 72.2 Sec. 1 60.9 Sec. 1 66.4
Sec. 2 62.7 Sec. 2 50.4 Sec. 2 55.6
Total 68.6 Total 56.7 Total 62.1
Negatively affected my well-being and mental health Sec. 1 15.6 Sec. 1 23.4 Sec. 1 19.7
Sec. 2 20.8 Sec. 2 36.1 Sec. 2 29.4
Total 17.6 Total 28.3 Total 23.5
cognitive avoidance, and impact of anxiety on activities. The obsessive–compulsive dis-
order scale was not included in the analyses because of the poor internal consistency of
the scale. The year of data collection, grade level, and gender effects were included as
main effects, as were the year*grade level and year*gender interaction effects, in order
to examine the moderating effect of the adolescent’s grade and gender on the differences
observed between the two measurement points. When year*grade level or year*gender
interaction effects were observed, ANOVAs were done to understand the moderating
effect observed. The Wilks’ lambda test was used to confirm that significant differences
were observed between the groups.
Results
The objectives were to: (1) Document the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on the
well-being and mental health of secondary 1 and 2 students in Québec; (2) Document
the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on various dimensions related to the anxiety
felt by these students, by comparing data collected before and during the COVID-19
pandemic from two independent samples, while examining the moderating effect of the
adolescents’ gender and grade level.
Impact of the COVID‑19 Lockdown
The data analysis indicates that in fall 2020, 14.4% of participants reported that the
lockdown had a positive effect on their well-being and mental health, compared to
23.5% who reported a negative effect. The other participants (62.1%) reported that the
lockdown had no effect on their well-being or mental health. If we compare the results
between secondary 1 (grade 7) and secondary 2 (grade 8) students (see Table 1), we
see that more secondary 2 students reported that the lockdown negatively affected their
well-being and mental health compared to secondary 1 students (29.4% vs. 19.7%).
More girls than boys (28.3% vs. 17.6%) were also likely to report that the lockdown
negatively affected their well-being and mental health.
13Table 2 Descriptive statistics, 2019–2020
Secondary 1 Secondary 2 Total
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
13
Variables Year M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Panic disorder 2019 0.20 0.31 0.41 0.45 0.31 0.40 0.15 0.28 0.43 0.46 0.28 0.40 0.19 0.30 0.41 0.46 0.30 0.40
2020 0.19 0.31 0.37 0.44 0.28 0.39 0.15 0.25 0.43 0.45 0.30 0.39 0.17 0.29 0.40 0.44 0.29 0.39
Generalized anxiety disorder 2019 0.69 0.48 1.01 0.51 0.86 0.52 0.62 0.47 1.00 0.52 0.79 0.53 0.67 0.48 1.01 0.51 0.84 0.52
2020 0.71 0.47 0.98 0.54 0.84 0.52 0.72 0.46 1.10 0.51 0.92 0.52 0.71 0.46 1.03 0.53 0.87 0.52
Separation anxiety disorder 2019 0.47 0.34 0.62 0.36 0.55 0.36 0.37 0.30 0.50 0.34 0.43 0.32 0.44 0.33 0.59 0.36 0.52 0.35
2020 0.47 0.31 0.61 0.41 0.54 0.37 0.40 0.28 0.55 0.39 0.48 0.35 0.44 0.30 0.58 0.40 0.51 0.36
Social anxiety disorder 2019 0.84 0.52 0.93 0.53 0.89 0.53 0.74 0.54 0.99 0.57 0.85 0.57 0.81 0.53 0.94 0.54 0.88 0.54
2020 0.85 0.54 0.91 0.59 0.87 0.57 0.80 0.53 1.00 0.58 0.91 0.56 0.83 0.54 0.95 0.59 0.89 0.57
PTSD 2019 0.59 0.52 0.77 0.58 0.68 0.56 0.43 0.44 0.69 0.59 0.55 0.53 0.54 0.50 0.75 0.58 0.64 0.55
2020 0.53 0.50 0.70 0.56 0.61 0.53 0.50 0.50 0.71 0.57 0.61 0.55 0.52 0.50 0.71 0.57 0.61 0.54
Test-related anxiety 2019 1.97 0.74 2.24 0.73 2.11 0.75 1.91 0.69 2.26 0.76 2.07 0.74 1.95 0.72 2.25 0.74 2.10 0.75
2020 1.90 0.67 2.33 0.85 2.10 0.79 2.02 0.73 2.45 0.86 2.25 0.83 1.94 0.70 2.38 0.85 2.16 0.81
Fear of judgment 2019 2.38 0.89 2.87 0.97 2.63 0.96 2.21 0.85 2.90 1.00 2.52 0.98 2.32 0.88 2.88 0.98 2.60 0.97
2020 2.36 0.80 2.78 0.99 2.56 0.92 2.32 0.85 2.94 0.95 2.64 0.95 2.34 0.82 2.85 0.97 2.59 0.93
Perfectionism 2019 2.37 0.74 2.38 0.76 2.37 0.75 2.33 0.77 2.57 0.86 2.44 0.82 2.36 0.75 2.43 0.79 2.39 0.77
2020 2.41 0.70 2.36 0.72 2.39 0.71 2.52 0.82 2.64 0.82 2.58 0.82 2.45 0.75 2.48 0.78 2.47 0.76
Feelings of depression 2019 0.34 0.31 0.49 0.40 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.58 0.44 0.45 0.40 0.34 0.31 0.52 0.41 0.43 0.38
2020 0.33 0.28 0.45 0.37 0.38 0.33 0.35 0.33 0.50 0.37 0.43 0.36 0.34 0.30 0.47 0.37 0.40 0.34
Internet use 2019 2.19 0.73 2.21 0.76 2.20 0.75 2.20 0.74 2.35 0.85 2.27 0.80 2.19 0.73 2.25 0.79 2.22 0.76
2020 2.21 0.73 2.17 0.77 2.19 0.75 2.36 0.74 2.33 0.78 2.35 0.76 2.27 0.74 2.24 0.78 2.26 0.76
Self-esteem 2019 3.19 0.60 2.97 0.65 3.08 0.63 3.21 0.57 2.86 0.69 3.05 0.65 3.20 0.59 2.94 0.66 3.07 0.64
2020 3.22 0.54 3.04 0.68 3.13 0.61 3.15 0.64 2.86 0.72 3.00 0.70 3.19 0.58 2.96 0.70 3.08 0.65
Intolerance to uncertainty 2019 1.73 0.50 1.83 0.50 1.79 0.51 1.73 0.48 1.85 0.50 1.79 0.49 1.73 0.50 1.84 0.50 1.79 0.50
Child & Youth Care Forum
2020 1.70 0.48 1.80 0.55 1.75 0.52 1.76 0.50 1.90 0.52 1.84 0.52 1.73 0.49 1.84 0.54 1.78 0.52Table 2 (continued)
Secondary 1 Secondary 2 Total
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
Variables Year M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Negative attitude faced with problems 2019 1.68 0.52 1.82 0.51 1.75 0.52 1.64 0.52 1.84 0.51 1.73 0.53 1.67 0.52 1.82 0.51 1.75 0.52
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2020 1.66 0.53 1.79 0.52 1.72 0.53 1.71 0.49 1.88 0.54 1.80 0.52 1.68 0.51 1.83 0.53 1.75 0.53
Cognitive avoidance 2019 1.84 0.49 2.01 0.45 1.93 0.48 1.75 0.48 1.97 0.47 1.85 0.49 1.81 0.48 2.00 0.45 1.91 0.48
2020 1.80 0.48 1.94 0.46 1.87 0.48 1.79 0.49 2.02 0.46 1.91 0.49 1.80 0.49 1.98 0.46 1.89 0.48
Impact–Activities 2019 0.79 0.64 0.77 0.57 0.78 0.60 0.64 0.56 0.84 0.61 0.73 0.59 0.73 0.62 0.79 0.58 0.76 0.60
2020 0.81 0.66 0.79 0.61 0.80 0.64 0.82 0.68 0.84 0.54 0.83 0.61 0.81 0.67 0.81 0.58 0.81 0.63
1313
Table 3 Correlations matrix for variables of interest
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)
(1) Panic disorder – 0.57 0.39 0.30 0.54 0.47 0.46 0.35 0.50 0.29 − 0.44 0.33 0.48 0.42 0.30
(2) Generalized anxiety 0.57 – 0.50 0.41 0.56 0.62 0.71 0.47 0.55 0.36 − 0.56 0.49 0.64 0.53 0.33
(3) Separation anxiety 0.36 0.47 – 0.35 0.49 0.37 0.34 0.27 0.23 0.19 − 0.22 0.40 0.38 0.46 0.28
(4) Social anxiety 0.25 0.37 0.28 – 0.26 0.27 0.39 0.16 0.25 0.22 − 0.28 0.39 0.33 0.34 0.26
(5) PTSD 0.53 0.53 0.46 0.19 – 0.43 0.46 0.34 0.44 0.30 − 0.40 0.36 0.48 0.53 0.29
(6) Test-related anxiety 0.50 0.61 0.38 0.29 0.41 – 0.50 0.40 0.39 0.30 − 0.42 0.35 0.49 0.46 0.38
(7) Fear of judgment 0.45 0.68 0.33 0.40 0.42 0.47 – 0.44 0.59 0.33 − 0.53 0.39 0.53 0.46 0.33
(8) Perfectionism 0.33 0.43 0.20 0.12 0.33 0.36 0.37 – 0.42 0.34 − 0.42 0.34 0.41 0.32 0.32
(9) Feelings of depression 0.50 0.54 0.25 0.26 0.44 0.44 0.59 0.40 – 0.41 − 0.71 0.31 0.48 0.30 0.35
(10) Internet use 0.25 0.31 0.15 0.20 0.26 0.27 0.34 0.30 0.38 – − 0.43 0.30 0.41 0.30 0.29
(11) Self-esteem − 0.43 − 0.52 − 0.21 − 0.28 − 0.40 − 0.44 − 0.53 − 0.43 − 0.71 − 0.44 – − 0.33 − 0.52 − 0.32 − 0.35
(12) Intolerance of uncertainty 0.34 0.50 0.39 0.41 0.32 0.40 0.44 0.31 0.29 0.29 − 0.31 – 0.52 0.48 0.29
(13) Negative attitude 0.48 0.62 0.37 0.33 0.44 0.53 0.53 0.40 0.46 0.37 − 0.47 0.56 – 0.57 0.34
(14) Cognitive avoidance 0.42 0.56 0.44 0.32 0.51 0.47 0.46 0.32 0.32 0.29 − 0.30 0.53 0.58 – 0.27
(15) Impact–Activities 0.26 0.32 0.27 0.22 0.29 0.34 0.23 0.28 0.30 0.22 − 0.30 0.23 0.32 0.25 –
Note Correlations for the 2019 sample are presented above the diagonal while those for the 2020 sample are presented below the diagonal. All correlations were significant
(p < 0.001)
Child & Youth Care ForumTable 4 Comparison of 2019 and 2020 data—MANOVA
Child & Youth Care Forum
Year Grade level Gender Year*Grade level Year*Gender
F η2 F η2 F η2 F η2 F η2
Panic disorder 0.01 0.000 0.06 0.000 140.59*** 0.085 0.11 0.000 0.12 0.000
Generalized anxiety disorder 8.54** 0.006 5.64** 0.004 188.88*** 0.111 3.40 0.002 0.42 0.000
Separation anxiety disorder 4.42* 0.003 16.22*** 0.011 85.52*** 0.053 2.05 0.001 0.15 0.000
Social anxiety disorder 2.12 0.001 0.53 0.000 23.36*** 0.015 0.25 0.000 1.01 0.001
PTSD 1.20 0.001 1.25 0.001 55.08*** 0.035 3.79 0.002 0.60 0.000
Test-related anxiety 7.53** 0.005 8.69** 0.006 101.08*** 0.062 5.03* 0.003 2.94 0.002
Fear of judgment 4.03* 0.003 8.76** 0.006 124.93*** 0.076 3.09 0.002 0.23 0.000
Perfectionism 4.92* 0.003 36.36*** 0.023 4.67* 0.003 2.19 0.001 0.49 0.000
Feelings of depression 1.36 0.001 32.21*** 0.021 86.44*** 0.054 0.45 0.000 0.26 0.000
Internet use 3.54 0.002 15.42*** 0.010 0.01 0.000 3.42 0.002 1.58 0.001
Self-esteem 1.92 0.001 15.40*** 0.010 62.96*** 0.040 1.14 0.001 0.52 0.000
Intolerance to uncertainty 0.44 0.000 6.32* 0.004 61.86*** 0.039 0.93 0.001 0.73 0.000
Negative attitude faced with problems 1.77 0.001 8.87** 0.006 36.94*** 0.024 1.76 0.001 1.01 0.001
Cognitive avoidance 1.01 0.001 0.08 0.000 71.98*** 0.045 3.45 0.002 0.49 0.000
Impact –Activities 13.50*** 0.009 2.85 0.002 1.15 0.001 5.05* 0.003 3.51 0.002
Note * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001
13Child & Youth Care Forum
Comparison of Data Before and During the COVID‑19 Pandemic
The descriptive statistics for each of the variables of interest and the correlations matrix are
presented in Tables 2 and 3.
The results of the MANOVA are presented in Table 4. First, the results of the Wilks’
lambda multivariate test show a significant effect of the year variable (F = 1.77; p < 0.034;
η2 = 0.017). The examination of univariate effects shows several significant differences
between the data collected in fall 2019 and those collected in fall 2020. First, the results
indicate that, compared to students surveyed before the pandemic (fall 2019), those sur-
veyed during the pandemic (fall 2020) reported significantly more symptoms of generalized
anxiety (F = 8.54, p = 0.004), and higher levels of test anxiety (F = 7.53 p = 0.006), fear of
judgment by others (F = 4.03 p = 0.045) and perfectionism (F = 4.92, p = 0.027). Students
surveyed in 2020 also reported significantly higher levels of interference of the anxiety in
their activities (F = 13.50 p < 0.001). Finally, the results show that the students surveyed
in 2020 reported slightly fewer symptoms of separation anxiety (F = 4.42 p = 0.036) com-
pared to those surveyed in 2019. However, the effects observed are very small (η2 < 0.009).
Finally, no significant difference was observed between the 2019 and 2020 data for the
symptoms of panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, feelings
of depression, internet use, self-esteem, intolerance to uncertainty, negative attitude faced
with problems, and cognitive avoidance (p > 0.05).
The results of the Wilks’ lambda multivariate test show that the year*grade level inter-
action effect and the year*gender interaction effect were not significant (F = 0.89; p = 0.574
/ F = 1.07; p = 0378).
Discussion
The results of our study allow us to qualify the impacts of the COVID-19 lockdown on
students by focusing on the pandemic’s highly variable effects on them. While some stu-
dents reported that the lockdown negatively affected their well-being and mental health,
most reported no effect, and some reported a positive effect on their well-being and men-
tal health. Therefore, we can conclude that the lockdown affected the students to varying
degrees. These variable effects might be explained by various moderators. Indeed, some
studies that have looked at the effects of natural disasters on young people’s mental health
have shown that certain pre-disaster aspects can moderate this effect, notably the quality
of the parent–child relationship, the parental behaviors (Costa et al., 2009) or pre-existing
anxiety symptoms (Weems et al., 2012). The study by Weems et al., (2012) also suggests
that effect of disasters on young people’s anxiety symptoms could be explained, at least
in part, by TV viewing, which could be a plausible hypothesis in the context of the highly
mediatized COVID-19 pandemic.
Our results also help to characterize the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on various
dimensions related to anxiety, by comparing data collected before and during the COVID-
19 pandemic. In fact, the results show that no significant difference was observed between
the 2019 and 2020 data for symptoms related to several anxiety disorders (panic disorder,
separation anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder) and for
other dimensions related to anxiety (feelings of depression, internet use, self-esteem, intol-
erance to uncertainty, negative attitude faced with problems, cognitive avoidance). They
13Child & Youth Care Forum
also show that the negative impact pertains more to the differences observed in the symp-
toms of generalized anxiety, test-related anxiety, and the impact of anxiety on the young
people’s lives. How can these nuances in impacts, which do not show up in the other sur-
veys and studies, be explained?
Possible Explanations for the Effects of the COVID‑19 Pandemic on Young People
These results can likely be explained by the fact that the subjects are younger. The results
of our study show that older students appear to be more affected by the impacts of the
COVID-19 lockdown. In fact, more secondary 2 students than secondary 1 students report
that the lockdown negatively affected their well-being and mental health. These results are
in line with the survey by Généreux et al. (2021), which shows an increase in symptoms
compatible with generalized anxiety disorder and major depression as students advance
through the grade levels, including in between secondary 1 and 2. These results are also
consistent with the survey conducted by the Institut de la statistique du Québec (2018)
prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, which shows that mental health and anxiety issues
increase throughout high school, but decrease slightly between secondary 4 and 5.
The results of our study also show that girls appear to be more affected by the impacts
of the COVID-19 lockdown. In this regard, more girls than boys report that the lockdown
negatively affected their well-being and mental health. These results are consistent with
several results discussed above, which show that girls report more symptoms of stress, anx-
iety, and depression associated with COVID-19 (Ellis et al., 2020; Tardif-Grenier et al.,
2021) or severe psychological distress associated with the pandemic (Clermont, 2020),
when compared with boys. Note that the studies cited do not suggest possible explana-
tions for these differences, but that girls are typically better at recognizing the symptoms of
anxiety than boys, given their higher levels of emotional intelligence (Fernández-Berrocal
et al., 2012). However, this result could also be explained by the fact that girls place a high
value on friendships during adolescence and the social support they provide. Moreover,
a study by Ohannessian et al. (2017) found that girls would generally be more sensitive
to stressors associated with their interpersonal relationships. In this regard, the pandemic
context may have been a significant stressor in terms of social relationships for adolescents,
since they were deprived of the majority of their social contacts. Thus, it is possible that
the negative impacts were greater for girls in this context.
Although the effects of the pandemic observed in this study are not as alarming as
those reported in several recent surveys and studies, the lockdown has clearly had negative
effects on a certain proportion of students, in particular in secondary 2, and there is a press-
ing need to identify solutions to help the adolescent population to thrive and develop to
their fullest potential given the circumstances. The differences observed between the 2019
and 2020 data in terms of symptoms of generalized anxiety could be explained by the fre-
quent reversals in public health rules applicable in the various environments frequented by
adolescents, which certainly amplifies the stressors the adolescents are exposed to (Imran
et al., 2021; YoungMinds, 2020, 2021). These stressors played a role in upsetting the some-
times already delicate balance in some adolescents, who lack the inner resources to adapt
to the challenges presented by this unprecedented situation. Not surprisingly, there is a sig-
nificant difference between data collected before and during the pandemic in terms of the
impact of symptoms of anxiety on adolescents’ functioning in their school, social, and fam-
ily activities, given that all their habits have been disrupted by the pandemic. Moreover,
since the start of the 2020 school year, principals and teachers have placed strong emphasis
13Child & Youth Care Forum
on academic remediation, which likely plays a role in the difference observed in the test-
related anxiety and perfectionism seen in this study.
Practical Outcomes, Strengths, and Limitations of the Study
These nuanced results can also likely be explained, in part, by the data collection method-
ology, which is seen here as a strength, since it helps prevent certain biases, including a
selection bias. In fact, the methodology used in this study implies that all students already
enrolled in the HORS-PISTE program were invited to participate. This study avoids
recruiting volunteers solely through social media, which reduces the risk of attracting cer-
tain subjects with specific profiles and provides a sample that is more representative. It also
provides a good sample size, which tends to promote representativeness and increase the
statistical power. Moreover, since the initial research does not directly address the impact
of the COVID-19 pandemic on young people, but rather the effects of the HORS-PISTE
program, this may have reduced the risk of a subjective bias (Goldberg, 2000), where the
formulation of questions or the emphasis on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic could
influence responses in the desired direction. It is possible that participants’ responses could
be influenced by a study with a title that emphasizes the impact of the pandemic.
The methodology used also avoids certain measurement biases. All the questionnaires
used have acceptable or good psychometric qualities, leaving little room for interpretation
of the participants’ responses. Another strong point of the methodology used is that it com-
pares the data obtained during the COVID-19 pandemic with the data obtained using the
same protocol, but before the pandemic. Linking these changes to the pandemic remains a
challenge, given the observational nature of the study and the use of two distinct samples.
Nevertheless, the methodology used makes it possible to more precisely and accurately
determine the impact of the pandemic on the mental health of youth in Québec, through a
comparison with previous data obtained using the same research protocol.
As such, this study provides a nuanced portrait of the impact of the pandemic on stu-
dents in secondary 1 and 2, a population that was under studied compared to older adoles-
cents, despite the fact that their recent transition from elementary school could have created
some particularities in their situation (Eccles et al., 1993). Considering that the COVID-19
pandemic has had a major impact on the mental health of adolescents, and that it is likely
to have longer-term repercussions, it appears the results can be used to better target inter-
ventions aimed at young people in particular, given the differences established between
the groups (e.g., the difference between girls and boys). Globally, the results obtained con-
tribute to a better understanding of the reality of young people amid this unprecedented
situation.
The results of this study should be interpreted with certain limitations in mind. First,
it is important to point out the cross-sectional nature of the design. In fact, although the
data were collected at two different times, in fall 2019 and fall 2020, different students
were surveyed each time. Therefore, we cannot conclude on an increase in symptoms or the
associated risk factors. Moreover, all data were collected from the adolescents themselves,
through questionnaires. A multi-respondent and multi-method approach would have no
doubt contributed to the independence of observations and to greater validity. The fact that
85% of participants indicated that their parents were born in Canada suggests that few of
them are the children of first- or second-generation immigrants; it might have been appro-
priate to collect more information on this aspect, as immigrants’ particularities can have
an impact on their reported mental health (Szaflarski et al., 2017). Moreover, in order to
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