"The Logic of Riddles" - Elli Köngäs Maranda (1932-1982)
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Elli Köngäs Maranda (1932-1982)
Centre interuniversitaire d’Études sur les Lettres, les Arts et les Traditions (CÉLAT)
Faculté des Lettres, Université Laval
(1971)
“The Logic
of Riddles”
Un document produit en version numérique par Jean-Marie Tremblay, bénévole,
professeur de sociologie au Cégep de Chicoutimi
Courriel: jean-marie_tremblay@uqac.ca
Site web pédagogique : http://www.uqac.ca/jmt-sociologue/
Dans le cadre de la collection: "Les classiques des sciences sociales"
Site web: http://www.uqac.ca/Classiques_des_sciences_sociales/
Une collection développée en collaboration avec la Bibliothèque
Paul-Émile-Boulet de l'Université du Québec à Chicoutimi
Site web: http://bibliotheque.uqac.ca/Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 2
Cette édition électronique a été réalisée par Jean-Marie Tremblay, bénévole, pro-
fesseur de sociologie au Cégep de Chicoutimi à partir de l’article de :
Elli Köngäs Maranda (1932-1982)
Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University
“The Logic of Riddles”
Un article publié dans l’ouvrage sous la direction de Pierre Maran-
da et Elli Köngäs Maranda, Structural Analysis of Oral Tradition,
pp. 189-232. Philadelphia: University of Pensylvania Press, 1971, 324
pp.
[Autorisation formelle accordée, le 6 juillet 2005, par M. Pierre Maranda de
diffuser ses travaux ainsi que tous ceux de sa défunte épouse, Mme Elli Köngäs
Maranda.]
Courriel pmaranda@videotron.ca
Polices de caractères utilisée :
Pour le texte: Times New Roman, 14 points.
Pour les citations : Times New Roman 12 points.
Pour les notes de bas de page : Times New Roman, 12 points.
Édition électronique réalisée avec le traitement de textes
Microsoft Word 2004 pour Macintosh.
Mise en page sur papier format
LETTRE (US letter), 8.5’’ x 11’’)
Édition complétée le 21 juillet 2005 à Chicoutimi, Ville de Saguenay,
province de Québec.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 3
Elli Köngäs Maranda (1932-1982)
Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University
“The Logic of Riddles”
Un article publié dans l’ouvrage sous la direction de Pierre Maran-
da et Elli Köngäs Maranda, Structural Analysis of Oral Tradition,
pp. 189-232. Philadelphia: University of Pensylvania Press, 1971, 324
pp.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 4
Contents
MATERIALS
METHOD
The Unit of Analysis
Reciprocity of Action and Binary Cognitive Structures
Analogy, Metaphor, and Metonymy
Aspects of Analysis
ELEMENTARY RIDDLE STRUCTURES
SIMPLE RIDDLE STRUCTURE
COMPOUND RIDDLE STRUCTURES
REVERSAL IN RIDDLES
OTHER EXAMPLES OF REVERSAL
PRODUCTIVE METAPHORS
Old Woman with Eyes
Old Woman with Teeth, Mouth
Old Woman with Head
Old Woman with Lap
Another Complementary Pair
Man Goes into the Forest
A Student in Every House
Sets Connected in Riddles
PARADOX
STRING RIDDLES
MORE A THAN A
STYLISTIC CHARACTERISTICS
Alliteration
The Relation of Image and Answer
Examples of Stylistic Analysis
CONCLUSION
REFERENCESElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 5
Elli Köngäs Maranda
Radclifle Institute, Harvard University
“The Logic of Riddles”
Un article publié dans l'ouvrage sous la direction de Pierre Maranda et Elli Köngäs Maranda,
Structural Analysis of Oral Tradition, pp. 189-232. Philadelphia : The University of Pensylvania
Press, 1971, 324 pp.
"... the elements in a structure need not be physically separate,
first existing alone and then brought into combination. They
must only be conceptually distinguishable..."
Susanne Langer (1937 :47)
MATERIALS
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This is a study of Finnish riddles. Finland was selected because
Finnish is the writer's mother tongue, which she has also studied for a
lengthy time from different linguistic angles, and because familiarity
with the language becomes the more important the higher the styliza-
tion of a folkloric genre. It was also hoped that problems of cultural
context might be minimized, if not eliminated, by the writer's studies
of Finnish ethnography and folklore, field trips to several communi-
ties, and being a native to the culture. However, the materials are from
a printed volume (Haavio and Hautala 1946). This corpus of 3,500
items is trusted-for several valid reasons-to be representative of the
collections in the folklore archives of the Finnish Literature Society.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 6
First, the entire number of recorded riddles in the archives is only
10,000 (Hautala 1957 : 28), which is low compared to the total collec-
tions of 1,400,000 items. Secondly, the editors of the volume, both in
turn long-time directors of the archives, and both experienced field
collectors, possess the highest competence available. And, finally, the
ratio of the published materials to the entire collection is so high that-
since every third riddle is published-the unpublished collections may
be presumed to consist of mainly identical variants ; and the authors
also explicitly state their purpose : to provide a many-sided selection
(Haavio and Hautala 1946 : XVII).
A different problem is, however, whether the archival collection it-
self is a random representation of Finnish riddles. The reason why it
may be is the great number and social variety of the collectors who
have contributed to the archives, so that the individual biases will
have cancelled each other out to a certain extent. After all, "thousands
of citizens throughout the land-clergymen, school teachers, petty offi-
cials, business men, college students, and in particular, the common
people proper, such as craftsmen, farmers and laborers, together with
their wives-have taken part" in the collecting, in addition to the regu-
larly trained specialists (Hautala 1957 : 5).
In passing, the remark can be made that to really know the impact
of a given folkloric item one should observe both its variations, and
the frequency with which it is used even by one carrier of tradition.
Despite Durkheim's contrary opinion, an individual act may become a
social fact if the society tolerates the act. A beginning towards atten-
tion to frequency is Thompson's attempt to provide figures on the
popularity of tale types in different countries (Aarne and Thompson
1961) ; another promise is found in several recent computer ap-
proaches (Colby 1966a, b ; P. Maranda 1967a, b). Such attempts are
still hampered by the scarcity of field data.
It should be evident that variants of folkloric items must be care-
fully recorded, (Lévi-Strauss 1955 : 58), for variety is as revealing as
unanimity. In the publication, classification, and analysis of riddles,
variants have presented problems. Some writers have faced them
(Hart 1964 : 28-29), others still arbitrarily select one variant as "true."Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 7
For the work on which this paper is based, variation has presented
a major challenge. I am now convinced that the study of different
variants of one or a few basic riddles (cf. Chomsky's "kernel sen-
tences" 1965 : 17) will provide an understanding of riddle structures ;
once one has studied the transformations of a basic riddle, he has
gained information of the mechanisms which underlie the "building"
of riddles. Suggestions regarding these mechanisms will follow. Nev-
ertheless, a natural limitation of library materials is that there is only
internal evidence to tell when a recording was not carefully made.
That is, at present I am fully convinced that riddles are one of the
most strictly regular poetic forms ; I also am convinced that structural
analysis as outlined in this paper will tell when a variant is "incom-
plete" or "twisted," but I cannot examine these hypotheses without the
presence of active carriers of tradition.
The issue of "variants" in this sense is sharply different from the
old issue of "Urform" or protoform. (Aarne 1916, 1917, 1918-20 ; cf.
Hautala 1946, Siukonen 1952). When, in the following, words like
"basic" or "elementary" are used, they do not imply notions of chro-
nology, but refer to the relative simplicity of structures. Also, every
complex form does not necessarily presuppose a forgotten, or uncol-
lected elementary form ; for, as in language, enough simple and com-
plex forms exist at all times to provide models for new items of vary-
ing complexity. As a corollary to this, when I speak of transforma-
tions, I am not advocating that the sequence of transformations shows
the time sequence in which these transformations took place ; indeed,
many transformations are reversible, as will be shown (cf. also Lévi-
Strauss 1967 : 302-307).
METHOD
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A series of assumptions and decisions underlies the method used
here. First, on the basis of empirical observation, I wish to state that a
definition of the riddle is not necessary for the identification of theElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 8
genre, for distinguishing this class of phenomena from others, despite
such claims by Georges and Dundes (1963) and Scott (1965). In fact,
any a priori definition would be theoretically mistaken, since what we
want to study is the "classes of phenomena," i.e. domains, established
by the participants of the culture. Secondly, a very simple test will
show that a great agreement exists among the "folk" and the scholars
alike about what is a riddle : whenever I have asked Finns to pose a
riddle, I have heard a riddle, and when I have asked them to identify a
riddle in a series of related statements, e.g., proverbs, they have
pointed out the riddle. To take a domain as given, for example riddles
as Finns use them, and then analyze the characteristics of this class is
not "intuitive" or "inadequate," but exactly what one has to do in the
study of any class of ethnographic data.
The Unit of Analysis
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Second, I take exception to the wide-spread practice of riddle
scholars (Taylor 1951 ; Christiansen 1958 ; Virtanen 1960 ; Georges
and Dundes 1963 ; etc.) that only the riddle image should be analyzed,
or that the riddle image should be analyzed in isolation from the an-
swer. My most important initial decision was to study the interrela-
tions between the two parts of the riddle, the image and the answer.
Both of them are pre-established, coded ; and the fact that one and the
same image may receive many answers does not mean that the answer
is arbitrary. A neat relation exists between images and answers, and
also between alternate answers to the same image. The answer(s) can
be shown to participate even in the features of style which govern the
riddle image, such as alliteration, rhyme, or the selection of consonant
clusters within the words.
Jolles considered myth and riddle in a way inverse phenomena : he
defined myth as an answer which contains a question, and riddle as a
question which requires an answer (1930 : 129). Had he made his
statement completely symmetrical, he would have been right at least
as to riddles ; for the riddle image is a question which contains the
answer. This is true of all riddles, and it is brought to its extreme inElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 9
the case of riddles in which the answer is literally explicit in the im-
age, disguised as a pun. I have noticed this feature in riddles other
than Finnish, too, for example, Votic riddles.
Reciprocity of Action
and Binary Cognitive Structures
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In a riddling situation, the image and the answer are recited by dif-
ferent parties, and thus the riddle is one of the very few truly recipro-
cal genres, perhaps the only one which is always carried by two active
performers. This may have significance also in view of the fact that
the functions of riddles, whenever they have been reported (e.g., Hau-
tala 1954 : 21-22 ; cf. also Taylor 1951 : 687-688 ; Virtanen 1960)
have been said to deal with preparation to marriage (courting, or the
marriage ceremony itself). This brings to mind Leach's view of myths
as "one way of describing certain types of human behavior" (1964b :
14), or, as he also says, a language in which a group speaks of its so-
cial action. In a parallel way, riddles can be viewed as the perhaps
more specialized language in which a group speaks of its most basic
social action, the union of a man and a woman. On the level of social
action, this reciprocity -be it between the marrying individuals, as in
our Western present-day societies, or between the marrying groups, as
in many other societies- constitutes the foundation. It is my contention
that this reciprocity "on the ground" corresponds to a continuous rec-
onciliation of opposites on the less tangible, but equally fundamental,
cognitive level.
Thus, this paper is based on the view that a riddle is a structural
unit, which necessarily consists of two parts, the riddle image, and the
riddle answer. In a riddling situation, these two parts are "recited" by
two different parties, a fact which has significance also regarding the
functions of riddles. Both of these two parts are coded, as is implied in
native names for the genre, such as the Finnish arvoitus, derived pri-
marily from the verb arvata "to guess," but ultimately from the nounElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 10
arpa "dice, an instrument used in divination" (Toivonen 1955). The
semantics of the term thus point at a similar connotation as corre-
sponding words in Indo-European languages, such as the English
word riddle which is etymologically connected with the German Rät-
sel, Danish raadsel, Anglo-Saxon raedan, and with the archaic verb
read, red, redd, rede "to counsel." The Germanic Rätsel is, further-
more, like its English counterpart, connected with Rat, "advice, coun-
sel" ; verb raten "to advise, counsel, guess, divine."
Analogy, Metaphor, and Metonymy
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Central concepts used in this paper are analogy, metaphor, and me-
tonymy. For the first, Aristotle provides a definition : "There is an
analogy whenever there are four terms such that the relation between
the second and the first is similar to that between the fourth and the
third" (1954). This can be presented thus :
A/B = C/D.
I would call analogy a technique of reasoning. The utilization of
this technique rests on two kinds of connections between phenomena :
similarity and contiguity, in other words metaphor and metonymy (Ja-
cobson 1956 : 55-82 ; Leach 1964a). In the analogy formula given
above, two members in the same structural position (A and C) consti-
tute a sign, a metaphor in which one of them (A) is the signans, or the
signifier, and the other (C) is the signatum, or the "signified" (cf. de
Saussure 1916 ; Jakobson 1956 ; Sturtevant 1960 : 2-3 ; Greimas
1966 : 10). Finally, the members on one side of the equation mark are
in a metonymic relation to each other (A and B). Thus, in the analogy,
we have the interrelation of metaphor and metonymy in the same pic-
ture :Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 11 In other words, metonymy is the relation of two terms, metaphor, the equation of two terms. It seems necessary to develop the definition of a metaphor a little further. A metaphor can be considered a sign consisting of two sets. Each set has at least two elements, even when it has only one member, namely itself and 0. The identity of the two sets of the metaphor is based on an analogy. If we assign the symbols thus : A first set a one of its elements B second set b one of its elements then we will say that the relations a/A and b/B are each meto- nymic. The analogy a/A = b/B underlies the equations, that is, the metaphors, a = b and A = B. In the metaphor, the "leg" of the table, set A would be human being (or animal), a his (or its) leg, and B table. The metaphor is then created by the analogy a/A = x/B, which yields x = leg. Thus, the analogy provides the "documentation" of the structural identity between the two sets, A and B. In the process, the sets are shown to be subsets (or elements) of a set greater than the two original ones. In the leg metaphor, the "superset" could be called "standing things" (or, as one could do in Finnish, "carrying things"). The two original sets are supposed to be opposites, and obvious grounds for the supposition can be named : humans (and animals) are alive, tables aren't ; humans and animals grow, tables don't ; humans and animals are able to move, tables are not, etc. The metaphor builds a structural bridge over this "content" abyss.
Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 12
However, there must be contiguity before there can be a relation,
that is, before a metonymy is possible (cf. Jakobson 1956). And since
riddle metaphors bring the two sets into a position in which they are
but elements of one superset, then the original sets are at once brought
into contact, that is, to a metonymic relation. This is where metaphors
and metonymies, the two opposite poles of thinking, meet.
The method applied here has emerged from the scrutiny of the cor-
pus ; however, three main sources of inspiration must be mentioned.
They are Lévi-Strauss' studies of the structure of myth (previously
tested in Köngäs and Maranda 1962) ; Jakobson's studies of semantics
and style : and Chomsky's transformational analysis of syntax (1957,
1965). Regarding the third, a distinction has to be maintained : when
studying riddles, one is not treating sentence units from their syntactic
point of view, but from the viewpoint of the structure of the folkloric
discourse. The structural unit of the riddle is, as already mentioned, a
unit larger than a sentence ; therefore, its constituent elements do not
agree, either, with those of a sentence. Thus the following possible
syntactic variations are all equivalent in terms of riddle structure :
Who is the man whose head is on fire, but behind soaking wet ?
Whose head is on fire, but behind soaking wet ?
The man has his head on fire, but his behind soaking wet. The man
whose head is on fire but behind soaking wet.
The man's head is on fire, but behind soaking wet.
His head is on fire, but behind soaking wet.
Head is on fire, but behind soaking wet.
Head is on fire, behind soaking wet.
Head on fire, behind soaking wet.-Pipe (Haavio and Hautala 1946 :
103)
That is, in making syntactic transformations, such as between in-
terrogative and affirmative sentences, one cannot make riddle trans-
formations, because the riddle image is always a question, be it syn-
tactically a question or not.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 13
However, it would not be sufficient to define a riddle as a ques-
tion-answer sequence, not even as a coded question-answer sequence,
because such coded units also comprise the following : "How are
you ?" "Fine, thank you."
Aspects of Analysis
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A number of slightly variant approaches have emerged from the
investigation of the corpus. They are analytically distinct, although of
course it is not possible to separate them in actual work, at least not
without some redundancy. First of all, a functional division can be
made between emotional, intellectual, and informational riddles. The
first ones deal with sex, more exactly with creating an erotically-
colored atmosphere by offering riddle images designed to evoke "er-
roneous" sexual answers. As some riddle scholars have remarked
(Taylor 1951 ; Virtanen 1960 : 181), these riddles are only a teasing
device, used to tune up the riddling session. I will not discuss them in
this paper, for lack of space, although the corpus contains a good
number of them and although most of them are metaphoric. The sec-
ond are usually called "true riddles" (Taylor 1951) because they are
supposed to require an intellectual effort to find an answer when
memory cannot be called upon. The third are known as monks' ques-
tions, and they ask primarily for a foreknowledge of the answer, espe-
cially information about religious tenets and facts (cf. Taylor 1951 :
Haavio and Hautala 1946 : XV-XVI). However, although the second
group is repeatedly called true riddles or riddles proper, it must be
borne in mind that both the image and the answer are coded, and that
the main intellectual effort in a riddling situation consists of a quick
scanning of the coded messages to "discover" the answer rather than
of an intellectual effort to "invent" a novel answer. In this sense, rid-
dling is always closer to an academic test than to creative research.
More fruitful than such a functionally-biased approach seems to be
the study of riddle structures. This will be done by focusing on the
point that riddles-like all signs-consist of a signans, the core of the
riddle image, and a signatum, the riddle answer (cf. de SaussureElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 14
1916 ; Jakobson 1956 ; Greimas 1966 : 10). As metaphors, riddles
exhibit an identity between the signans and the signatum which is one
of structure rather than one of content as it would be in metonymic
thinking (cf. Jakobson 1956). A peculiarity of riddle metaphors, as
will be exemplified, is that the metaphor, in a large number of cases,
works two ways : if A is like B, by a metaphoric "jump," this jump
can be reversed, and a riddle will be found which illustrates that B is
like A. I find the two-way metaphors one of the striking features of
Finnish riddles, well worth investigating in riddles elsewhere.
The structure of the riddle has more to it than the signans and the
signatum ; in everyday language, a metaphor is established : conven-
tional and unambiguous, such as the "leg" of the table, or the "mouth"
of the river. No hesitation exists as to what is meant. Not so in riddle
metaphors, if the riddle is to be enigmatic at all. As contrasted with
generally accepted metaphors, riddle metaphors-and poetic metaphors
on the whole-offer a fresh point of view. Riddle metaphors are condi-
tional metaphors, and the riddle image states the condition under
which the metaphor holds true. This condition is, seen from the logi-
cal point of view, the true premiss given in the riddle image.
Riddle structures appear to be of different degrees of complexity : I
have distinguished simple, compound, and string riddles. Simple rid-
dles contain only one term, one true premiss, one false premiss, and
one answer. If any of these components is multiplied, we have a com-
pound riddle. Finally, there are riddles which I have termed string rid-
dles : in this case, the image consists of a list of terms, and the answer
of another list of terms. Certain transformational techniques will be
developed to analyze the different types.
The surprise aspect of riddles is often based on devices such as pun
and paradox. A pun, in fact, can be used as a miniature paradox, and
can be, like paradox, an objection to a "truism," a commonplace,
commonsense truth generally held to be valid. Pun and paradox, and
more markedly the latter, pierce holes in such truisms, to show the
one-sidedness and short-sightedness of the truism.
The study of metaphors and paradoxes introduces another angle :
that of set theory and logic. Every riddle can be rewritten as a logicalElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 15
proposition, but it is always a proposition of a certain type. I have
chosen to name the parts of the riddle structure in the language of
logic : the given term (the riddle metaphor), the hidden term (the an-
swer), the true premiss (which holds true of the given term and the
hidden term alike, and provides a constant), and the false premiss (the
pointer, or clue, which shows that the given term is not to be accepted
and that the hidden term is to be discovered by way of seeking for an
obvious, even if hidden, true premiss to be substituted for the false
premiss. The answer of the riddle is to be found in the nullification of
the disbalance of the terms and premisses.
One further dimension of analysis needs to be mentioned now : the
study of style. Style constitutes a separate folkloric level, as do the
previously mentioned levels of structure and function (cf. Köngäs Ma-
randa 1963 : 292). A number of poetic devices mark riddle style ;
some of them are clearly archaic in Finnish, such as asyndeton and
ellipsis. The impact of riddle style, and its relation to poetic style on
the whole will be briefly discussed.
ELEMENTARY
RIDDLE STRUCTURES
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In this section, I will first present the most simple riddle -structure,
trying to make the analysis as explicit as possible. Then, I will show
how more complex structures, compound riddles "grow" from these
simple ones ; and how reversal works.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 16
SIMPLE RIDDLE
STRUCTURE
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The following will serve as an example of a simple structure :
(1) One pig,
two snouts. - Plough. 227/17. 1
To start with, the statement is typically elliptic, lacking a verb, al-
though it is easy to supply. The riddle image can be considered a cross
between two truisms : "a pig has a snout" and "a plough has two
snouts," the plough here being the traditional Finnish "fork plough"
(cf. Vuorela 1958a : 17). When these commonplace truths intersect,
the riddle is born (fig. 1) :
Figure 1. The intersection of truisms forming a riddle.
1 The number after each riddle refers to page and variant number, if any given,
in Haavio and Hautala 1946.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 17
This as such shows the structure of the riddle :
PREMISSES
TERMS
CONSTANT VARIABLE
GIVEN A pig (I) has snouts (II) two (IV) IMAGE
HIDDEN A plough (V) one (III) ANSWER
Thus, this riddle consists of five elements :
I. The given term, which is the signans of the metaphor, the core of
the riddle image,
II. the constant premiss, which is true of both the signans (given
term), and of the signatum (the answer),
III. the hidden variable, which is recalled to notify the answerer
that something is amiss with the statement of the riddle image, that it
cannot fit (because the number of a pig's snouts is one, not two). By
definition, this element is never made explicit, thus, in terms of the
uttered statement, it always appears as zero,
IV. the given variable, which in turn serves to point at the direction
of the answer. This is the condition under which the metaphor holds
true, and
V. the hidden term, the signatum, i.e., the answer.
I, II, and IV are "recited" by the person who poses the riddle ; III is
recalled by the answerer to evoke V, which he "recites."Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 18
This structure can be discovered in all Finnish riddles. The most
significant elements of the structure seem to be the variable premisses,
or clues : the hidden variable is the fact which is automatically known
to be true of the given term, the given variable provides a pointer to-
wards the answer. In terms of this structure, it is as if the reasoning
should always advance in the order I-II-III-IV-V.
I will take a few additional examples :
(2) An instrument which sings on the knee by itself.
- Child. 27/4.
To unfold this riddle, we will have to know that the most tradi-
tional Finnish musical instrument, the kantele is normally played upon
the knee ; thus, the riddle is a cross between "an instrument sings on
the knee when played upon" and "a child sings on the knee by itself."
The structure of the riddle is the following : An instrument (Given
term, I) which sings on the knee (Constant, II) by itself (Given vari-
able, IV). - A child (Hidden term, V). As can be seen, the hidden vari-
able, or the clue, is not explicit in the wording of the riddle ; I can
only reiterate that it is an obvious fact. Since the riddle contains all the
elements of the two statements, (that is, the two sets), it can be said to
constitute the union of the two sets.
(3) A small sky shows. - Sifting flour with a sieve. 68
The translation in this case is somewhat hard to undertake : liter-
ally, the Finnish riddle answer is a two-morpheme word, seulominen
containing the meaning of the five-word translation. The metaphor is
in this case again built on an analogy : sky/snowing = sieve/sifting.
The metaphor, or given term, is sky (I), the constant in literal transla-
tion "rains white" (II), the hidden variable the known fact that the sky
is vast (III), the given variable the adjective small (IV), and the hidden
term sieve (V). Interestingly, the recorded answer here is slightly of-
fkey naming the use of the sieve rather than the sieve only ; it is my
prediction-which I cannot prove without access to the actual field re-
cording and the informant-that the "fault" is secondary, introduced by
either the collector or the editors.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 19
I will now take an example, in which the given term is implicit,
even if clear from the context :
(4) What grows without roots ? - Human being. 4/22
This riddle, in its literal form a paradox, can again be considered a
chiasm between "a tree grows with roots" and "a human being grows
without roots." The reason why I choose tree rather than just generally
plant here is that a great many other riddles exist which use the tree
metaphor for a human being. It is, however, of no consequence
whether the implicit term is "filled in" with the general term plant or
with the more specific tree. What is interesting is that we have a
"zero" metaphor, an image which is evoked entirely by means of the
context, but not explicitly named. The constant "grows" gains specifi-
cation also from the hint to roots, even that the existence of the roots
is denied ; in fact, "grows" here is synonymous with "lives ; has a life
cycle." Explicitly, we have only the slot of the given term marked by
the interrogative pronoun what. This zero occurrence of a given part
of the riddle unit is by no means rare.
The structure of this riddle would then be : What [tree] (I) grows
(II) without roots ? (IV) - Human being (V).
COMPOUND RIDDLE
STRUCTURES
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I consider that transformations of riddles come about by the expan-
sion of the analogy, that is, by an examination of the correspondence
of the elements of the two sets in question. Thus, for example, the tree
metaphor is further specified by adding the analogy bridal
dress/woman leaves/tree. The result is the following riddle :Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 20
(5) Rowan tree on a sacred hill,
sacred leaves in the rowan tree.-Bride [at wedding]. 22/1
This time, the constant is implicit. As the leaves are only a tempo-
rary decoration on a tree, so is the bridal dress only a temporary deco-
ration for the bride. To illustrate this, another related riddle may be
quoted :
(6) Blooms as grass,
blossoms as flowers,
to be beholden by all people,
lasts only a few hours.-Bride. 22/2 (Cf. Psalm 103. Cf. also
Korhola 1961 : 330).
Finland can boast no fruit trees. This explains why the next trans-
formation utilizes the analogy of a berry to a tree as a child to a
woman.
(7) A sacred rowan tree,
on the edge of a sacred field,
a sacred berry in the rowan tree. - Pregnant woman. 23/1.
The tree metaphor undergoes additional transformations. The fol-
lowing riddle image describes the birth of a child :
(8) A poplar fell on the ground,
but broke none of its branches. - Birthgiving woman. 24/1.
Another riddle, in detail a little obscure, starts :
(9) One tree grows ...
(continues describing that parts of it are taken away, and
ends) and still the tree remains green. 25/10
The answer is again birthgiving woman.
Finally, one more example of the same basic metaphor in its dif-
ferent transformations :Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 21
(10) A woodpecker pecks to get a worm. - Child nurses. 25/3.
A simple riddle structure, as understood here, has only one of
each
basic element. Thus, in the examples (4)-(10), the metaphor is A =
B, that is,
a human being (signatum) = a tree (signans).
As such, this is not intelligible, or rather, justifiable, and no riddle
exists which could consist of the two terms only. The constant premiss
which connects the two terms is "growing," which relates to the two
terms simultaneously. At this stage, the statement is :
f x A = f x B , that is,
a growing human being = a growing tree ;
or :
a human being = a tree, since they both grow, or live.
The transformations come about when a metonymic addition is
made to both the signans and the signatum. This, in fact, gives rise to
a new metaphor ; but this metaphor depends on the first, so that
bridal dress/bride = leaves/tree
on the basis of a metonymic function, namely decorating for a spe-
cial time, passage to reproductive status. The following formula ex-
presses this new riddle :
f y a / f x A = f yb / f x B in which the following values pertain :
A woman
a bridal dress
B treeElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 22
b leaves
x "standing on a hill" = living
y decorating
This formula as such describes also riddle (6).
The riddle about the pregnant woman has the following values of
the symbols :
A woman
a fetus
B tree
b berry
x "standing on a hill" = living
y "growing on"
The identical function y could be described as "growing on" being
attached to, being dependent, forming a physical part.
In riddle (10), in which the child is presented as a separate individ-
ual, the transformation is slightly different. Again, a metonymic con-
nection exists ; as the woodpecker finds its food in the trunk of a tree,
so the nursing baby feeds on the mother. The connection can be con-
sidered metonymic for two reasons : the woodpecker is most often
seen "attached" to a tree (and is so presented in paintings) ; and at
least a folk etymology exists in Finnish between tikka "woodpecker"
and tikku "stick of wood" - a connection not dissimilar to the emphasis
in the English name of the bird. The analogy is therefore
baby/mother = woodpecker/tree,
and again the formula pertains, having now the following values :
A woman
a baby
B tree
b woodpecker
x "standing on the hill" = living
y nursingElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 23
The series of transformations in the riddles about the life cycle of a
woman can be described thus :
I II III IV V
without Human
[Tree] grows with roots
roots being
transformation 1 ; transformer "is decorated"
wedding
Rowan tree leaves bride
dress
transformation 2 ; transformer "is fertilized"
pregnant
Rowan tree berry embryo
woman
transformation 3 : transformer "reproduces"
branches birthgiving
tree child born
taken woman
(For an image which would follow the original more closely, we
can turn to Finnish proverbs. A very common proverb stating that a
child takes after his parent, runs : "The apple does not fall far from the
tree.")
transformation 4, transformer "feeds its dependent"
woodpecker nursing
tree child
mother
Taken together, the. transformations of the basic riddle seem to ex-
plore the possibilities of the original riddle metaphor, which simply
says that a human being is like a tree. Apparently the "female line"
has seemed more fertile, that is, the life cycle better marked (in the
Finnish case), since the collection does not have any riddles in whichElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 24
a man is compared to a tree. However, there are proverbs in which
men are predictably compared to evergreen ("needle") trees, which are
in Finnish opposed to leaf trees. Thus, at least the following can be
pointed out : "Men like pines" (Kuusi, ed. 1960 : 383) ; "Men like
trees in the forest" (Kuusi, ed. 1960 : 386) ; "Black and crooked like a
swamp spruce" (Kuusi, ed. 1960 : 398).
The tree metaphor is implied in the following riddle :
(11) All fall, all turn into earth,
all find room on mother's heart. - Grave. 35/1.
In this case, the transformer is "dies," and thus we have observed
the whole human life cycle described in terms of the life of a tree.
REVERSAL IN RIDDLES
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Another type of transformation takes place when the metaphor is
reversed. If the "original" metaphor says "A = B," the new metaphor
states "B = A." Reversal seems a peculiarity of poetic metaphors, as
opposed to stable metaphors in language. In other words, we talk
about the leg of the table, but not about the "table leg" of a human be-
ing. Faint "attempts" at a reversal can perhaps be quoted, such as
"wobbly on his pins." In riddles, the reversal mechanism is surpris-
ingly productive.
in the riddles analyzed above, trees, especially leaf trees are com-
pared to human beings, especially women :
(12) Virgin grew on a hill
with her hair on her shoulders.-Birch tree. 375/6.
transformation 1, transformer "decorates herself"Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 25
(13) In the winter is naked,
in the summer wears a new bridal dress. - Leaf tree. 374/2.
(14) A bride stands on a hill
all summer beautiful,
in the winter quite naked.-Leaf tree. 374/1.
transformation 2, transformer "gives birth"
(15) In the summer, a beautiful bride,
in the fall, gives birth to children,
the children are all round,
and each of them has a stone in his stomach. - Tuomi
- berry tree with its flowers and berries. 378.
transformation 3 and 4, transformers "loses family" and "has a new
family"
(16) A widow in the fall, a widow in the winter,
a new bride in the summer. - Leaf tree. 274/4.
We see that these riddles can be arrived at through two transforma-
tions ; and I would maintain that it does not matter in which order they
are performed. One possibility is to advance from "Woman = tree"
through an expansion to "woman with bridal dress = tree with leaves"
and through a reversal to "tree with leaves = woman with bridal
dress" ; the other possibility is to perform the reversal first and the
expansion after it.
Examples of transformations of this basic riddle do not end here ;
but they do not add anything to the structural principles discovered. I
will only give a few more transformations in which the complement
of the woman/leaf tree comparison, namely man/evergreen tree is
used ; again, the basic metaphor is :
tree is like human being. Transformation 1, transformer "has
weapons"Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 26
(17) Soldier stands on a hill
equipped with a hundred swords. - Evergreen (i.e., either a
pine or a spruce).s
Transformation 2, transformer "has offspring"
(18) Big man, hairy head,
all sons are twins. - Pine. 372.
An interesting transformation of the feminine leaf tree riddle (12)
is the following masculine "needle" tree riddle :
(19) Blue mantle,
face covered with beard.-Spruce. 373.
However, the fertility of women is evoked, and wins over the
"masculinity principle" of evergreen trees in the following riddle :
(20) A thousand-year-old woman
has a child every year. - Pine tree and cone. 373.
In this case, the "masculinity" leaves its traces in that the riddle
image gives the woman the least femininity : the literal words are tu-
hannen vuoden vanha ämmä "an old woman a thousand years old"as
little like the young bride of the leaf tree riddles as possible.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 27
OTHER EXAMPLES
OF REVERSAL
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Riddle (1), ,one pig, two snouts.-Plough." is reversed ; however, it
appears only in transformations in which not only the "plough" but
also the "plower" is included :
(21) Jonas ploughs black earth. - Pig. 203.
(22) Ploughs and ploughs,
and never sows. - Pig. 201/7.
(23) Ploughs all nights, ploughs all days,
and does not get beer for Christmas. - Pig. 201/6.
The allusion to Christmas is a reference to the fact that a pig is
normally slaughtered for Christmas, ham being the typical Finnish
Christmas dish.
These riddles seem all based on the metaphor "pig's snout plough,"
which is actually clearly given in one riddle :
(24) A golden rubel at the tip of a hoe,
two holes in the coin,
always used as a plough,
the fields are turned over with it in the summer. - The snout
of a pig. 202.
Riddle (2), "An instrument which sings on the knee by itself.Child"
is reversed in the following way :
(25) Born in the forest,Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 28
grown in the backwoods,
stands on the wall,
sings on the knee ? - Kantele, or a musical instrument.
337/1.
(26) Born in the swamp,
grown up on a hill,
stands on the wall,
sings on the knee. - Kantele. 337/3.
(27) Born in the backwoods,
grown in the backwoods,
shrieking and yelling
comes to the village. - Kantele. 337/5.
In this last image, the hidden variable, a clue, is the fact that a
backwoods child would be quiet-shy-when coming to the village.
(28) Grew in the backwoods,
was made at home,
stands on the wall,
yells on the knee,
sings lintin lantin (onomatopoeic). - Kantele. 337/6.
All the riddles about the musical instrument are complex struc-
tures, in that several premisses are given : a kantele is born in the for-
est vs. a child is born in the village a kantele grows up (as a tree) in
the forest, whereas a child grows up in the village ; a kantele is born
artificially, whereas a child is born naturally ; a kantele grows up be-
fore it is born, whereas a child grows up after it is born ; a kantele
stands on the wall, whereas a child stands on the floor, etc.
Riddle (3), "A small sky snows.-Sifting flour with a sieve" which
is based on the analogy snowfall/sky = flour/sieve is made compound
by shifting the analogy to snowing/clouds = sprinkling flour/cook's
fingers, and adding two given variables, "five," and "at midsummer"
(literally "in the middle of the heart of the summer"). The result isElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 29
(29) At midsummer
it snows from five clouds.-Cooking porridge. 82/3.
Riddle (3) is reversed thus :
(30) Flour fell into the basket,
stopped on the branches of trees. - Snowfall. 426/5.
(31) "Flours" [spreads/uses flour] all winter,
cooks it into water in the summer. - Snow. 425/7.
(32) Millers are fighting
so that the flour flies.-Snowfall. 429/33.
Still further two-way metaphors are the following :
needle = bird
sausage = serpent
sword = serpent
scissors = crab
scissors = swallow
container = human being
mill = man
hen = woman
sheep = bishop
hair = hay
PRODUCTIVE METAPHORS
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The fact that one riddle image or its slight variations can signify
several answers does not prove that riddle answers are accidental. It
only shows that some metaphors are considered more generally appli-Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 30
cable than others. Good examples of productive riddle images in Fin-
nish tradition are "an old woman sits in the corner" and "a man goes
into the forest." These metaphors, woman, and man, considered as
sets are complements in that they are opposites in regard to sex. There
is, however, at the same time another important opposition in these
riddles, namely that of age ; the riddles define the woman as old, thus,
the least mobile human being ; whereas the man is not defined as old,
but is left maximally free to move.
The complementarity of these two metaphors corresponds with the
sexual division of labor in which outdoor activities (farming, lumber-
ing, hunting, fishing) are men's tasks and indoor activities (household
work, cattle care) are women's tasks.
Old Woman with Eyes
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In this and the following subsections, I will give a few examples of
the "old woman" riddles. As will be seen, the metaphor refers to al-
most the whole inventory of domestic cultural objects at rest ; or, if
the objects are considered in motion, the movement takes place inside
the house. The images again correspond to the notion, also expressed
in proverbs, that "a man is made to be mobile" and that women, espe-
cially old women, are stable. Examples of proverbs based on this idea
are : "Sitting like an old church woman" ("church" indicating that the
old woman is assigned to the house to be taken care of as charity), and
about twenty others (Kuusi, ed. 1960 : 133-136).
(33) An old woman sits in the corner
with a hundred eyes in her head. - Sieve. 67/5.
(34) An old woman sits in the corner
with a hundred eyes in her head.-Woven birch basket. 167.
From the latter riddle, a new one is generated through a transfor-
mation, with "moving" as the transformer. The answers are seeminglyElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 31
identical, but must be interpreted to imply the opposition "at rest" ver-
sus "in motion."
(35) A man goes into the forest
with a hundred eyes in his back. - Birch bark basket. 167/2.
(36) A man goes into the forest,
a hundred eyes look at home. - Birch bark basket. 167/1.
The number "a hundred," as opposed to the normal number of eyes
in the human head, is used figuratively for "very many." The same
device is used frequently in other riddle images.
Old Woman with Teeth, Mouth
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All the grating and "biting" tools in turn are described with identi-
cal riddle images :
(37) An old woman in the corner
with a hundred teeth in her mouth,
bites, but does not swallow. - Grater. 74.
(38) Image identical. - Hackle. 146/1.
(39) Image identical. - Worsting card. 147/6
(40) Image identical, except : "the mouth bites." - Card. 147/7.
(41) Image identical. - Stove. 114/16.
(42) An old woman in the comer,
with a hundred teeth in her mouth. - Broom. 143/3.
(43) An old woman sits on fireElli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 32
baking beans in her mouth. - Cooking pot. 52/14.
Old Woman with Head
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In this, as in the previous examples, the metaphoric meanings of
body parts are utilized.
(44) An old woman sits in the corner
with a hundred sticks on her head.-Broom. 143/4.
(45) An old woman sits in the corner
with a hundred bumps on her head.-Stove. 113/7.
(46) Small Mari, with a band on her hair
sits for ever and ever.-Broom. 143/6.
Old Woman with Lap
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The metonymic analogies which underlie the following transfor-
mations refer to things contained in the main object referred to. Inci-
dentally, one or another form of stoves - either that in the farmhouse
or that in the bathhouse (sauna) is the signatum ; and the metonymi-
cally carried objects are pieces of burning red embers or charred black
coals.
(47) An old woman sits in the corner
with bright berries on her lap. - Oven and embers. 114/3.
(48) An old woman sits in the corner
with red lingonberries on her lap. - Oven and embers. 114/4.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 33
(49) An old woman sits in the corner
with black eggs on her lap. - Sauna stove. 188/3.
(50) An old woman sits in the corner
with a gallon of tar under her arm. - Stove. 114115.
Another Complementary Pair
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These examples of this productive riddle image -the limits are by
no means exhausted yet- would suffice, but I want to contrast still one
of its transformations with the complementary masculine image.
(51) A black chubby old woman
a thick chubby old woman
sits with her hair in her mouth. - Liquor bottle. 95/1.
(52) A man goes over a copper mountain
through a snowy castle,
gives joy in the evening,
sorrow in the morning. - Liquor. 95.
Again, the contrast is between rest and activity, or stability and
mobility : while standing put, liquor is compared to an old woman ;
while active-going over the lips and through the teeth-it becomes a
man.
Man Goes into the Forest
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As opposed to the "tame" domestic objects symbolized by the sta-
ble old woman metaphor, the signata of this image are weapons in ac-
tion, or at least in motion :Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 34
(53) A man goes into the forest,
his nose scrapes the sky.-Rifle on the shoulder. 262/2.
(54) A man goes into the forest,
with a hollow pine stick on his shoulder. - Rifle on the
shoulder. 262/1.
In the latter riddle (54), as in many other riddles in this group, an
interesting "skewing" takes place : since objects cannot move without
a human mover, and do not go into the forest without a man taking
them there, the signans and signatum in these riddles tend to fuse so
that also the answer at least alludes to a man.
Other signata for this image are an axe ; knife sheath ; sleigh
(Haavio and Hautala 1946 : 170 ; 169 ; 288, 289 variant 7) etc., all
male and moving outdoors paraphernalia. The fusion of image and
answer is exemplified in this riddle :
(55) A man goes into the forest
makes two tracks. - Skier goes into the forest. 283/2.
The structural evidence which can be gathered from examples
(33)-(54) suggests that the "correct" signatum is not the man himself,
but the pair of skis. The same holds true of the following :
(56) An old man goes into the forest
throws bowls behind.-Tracks of skiing poles. 283/1.
(57) A man goes
throws plates behind.-Tracks of skiing poles. 283/2.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 35
A Student in Every House
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Still another productive riddle image is the following :
(58) Teini in your house,
teini in our house,
teini in all village.-Chimney. 122/2.
The word teini is archaic in Finnish, but its meaning is welldocu-
mented : the term was used to denote wandering students who went
from house to house during their vacations collecting food for the
academic year, thus in- fact begging. From the point of view of the
people of the house, such a visitor certainly was an "immovable ob-
ject," as the signata of all these riddles indicate. This view is also ex-
pressed in the proverb "Stands like a teini." (Nirvi and Hakulinen
1953 : 82). As to the meaning "in every house," it is plain from the
method of begging that the teini indeed frequented the village so as to
seem ubiquitous.
Variations of the formula are slight :
(59) Teini in your house,
teini in our house,
teini in each house. - Chimney. 121/1.
(60) Teini in our house,
teini in your house,
teini in every house. - Wall clock. 141/25.
(61) Teini in your house,
teini in our house,
teini in every house,
with the prophet's clothes on,
with a red cap on his head,Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 36
cries vengeance early in the morning
for the night's bad lodgings. - Rooster. 216/20.
The Finnish form is : Teini meillä, teini teillä, teini kaikella kylällä,
which contains-not counting the modifier kaikella, "all, whole" - three
adessive forms (case suffix-Ila/Ilä). The translation can be made in
different ways : meillä can be translated, as I have done above, "in our
house" ; it can also be translated as "we have" (the verb on, "is," being
elliptically omitted in the riddle). Thus, although the translation is dif-
ferent, the image still conforms to the formula in the following rid-
dles ; and these seem good examples of monks' riddles.
(62) We have one,
You have one,
The whole village has one. - God. 327/1.
(63) Image identical. - Sun. 406/28.
(64) We have two,
You have two,
The whole village has two. - Sun and moon. 413/15.
(65) We have five,
You have five,
The whole village has five.-Window. (in olden times farm-
houses usually bad five windows.) 110/9.
(66) A black one in our house,
a black one in your house,
a black one in all the village.-Cooking pot. 50111.
(67) Image identical.-Stove. 113/5.
(68) A black one in our house,
a black one in your house,
a black one in all villages.-Sauna stove. 190/16.
(69) A slide at our house,
a slide at your house,Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 37
a slide in every house.-Sleigh. 289/4.
(70) A damm. in our house
a damm in your house,
a damm in every house.-Well. 181/2.
(71) We have this,
you have this,
a plate at the tip of the stick. - Churn bat. 72/2.
(72) Every house has a chum,
every day churning is done.-Well. 182/5.
Sets Connected in Riddles
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As generally acknowledged, riddles create a surprise. The point
that riddles juxtapose opposites could be deduced from this fact, if it
were not discoverable otherwise ; for what is a greater surprise than to
find that A is non-A. In this sense, every metaphor is a paradox, al-
though I will venture to show that paradox riddles are at least princi-
pally distinguishable from metaphor riddles.
After observing that riddles "combine incombinables" -as marriage
does-the problem is what are the sets that are juxtaposed in them. On
the basis of the quoted seventy-two riddles, the primary contrast is not
nature versus culture, but animate versus inanimate ; the most com-
mon juxtaposition is between human and cultural object. On the
whole, the sets used are classified as shown on page 215.
The marginal classes-God and abstract concepts (number, color)
occur only in a few riddles, all composed in the same pattern (Riddles
62-65, number ; 66-68, color). In the riddle (62), the image is number,
the answer God ; this is a typical monk's riddle. Number as image re-Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 38 ceives also "meteorological" answers-still in the realm of rather ab- stract thought. In this group of seventy-two examples, the sets used are, in order of frequency :
Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 39
Number of
Image Answer
occurrences
human cultural object 32
human wild plant 9
wild plant human 8
human domestic animal 4
color cultural object 3
cultural object cultural object 2
natural object cultural object 2
human meteorological 2
meteorological cultural object 2
number meteorological 2
wild animal human 1
cultural object domestic animal I
domestic animal cultural object 1
cultural object human I
cultural object meteorological I
number God 1
72
Human beings and cultural objects are juxtaposed, in thirty-three
riddles ; human beings and wild plants in seventeen cases. Plants are
never compared to plants, humans to humans, or animals to animals ;
but objects are compared to objects in four riddles (69-72). An ab-
stract term is not well suited to be a term of a metaphor. This was ob-
served already by Quintilianus in Institutio Oratoria (1953, Book
VIII, ch. 6) where he distinguished four kinds of metaphors :
1. One sort of living thing substituted for another ;
2. one inanimate thing for another ;
3. the inanimate put for the animate ;
4. and the animate put for the inanimate.
The riddle structure where abstract concepts abound is paradox.Elli Köngäs Maranda, “The Logic of Riddles” (1971) 40
PARADOX
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On p. 199, I defined the metaphor riddle as the union of two sets.
Now, I will define a paradox as the intersection of two sets. In other
words, if a metaphor riddle is a cross between two truisms, a paradox
riddle is an objection to a truism.
The following will furnish an example :
(73) Gives advice to others,
himself knows nothing. -Roadsign. 295.
The truism would say : he who knows (A) functions as A (fa). The
riddle says : He who does not know (A) functions as A (fa). The rid-
dle can thus be formulated :
Figure 2. The structure of paradox riddles.
Similar, again predictable, riddles are the following :
(74) Mindless, tongueless,
the just one to the whole world.-Calendar. 342/1.
(75) Mouthless, soulless,You can also read
