The Status of Black History in U.S. Schools and Society
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Social Education 81(1), pp 14– 18
©2017 National Council for the Social Studies Teaching and Learning African American History
The Status of Black History
in U.S. Schools and Society
LaGarrett J. King
The year 2015 marked a century since Carter G. Woodson and his colleagues cre- tion highlighting the purpose and limita-
ated the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History (originally ASNLH, tions of a Black history curriculum. In
now ASALH), the first Black history organization that successfully “promoted, the issue, Nathan Hare and Louis Harlan
researched, preserved, interpreted, and disseminated information about Black life, exemplified the various arguments about
history, and culture to the global community.”1 Woodson, with help from ASALH, the significance of Black history. Hare,
had a profound impact on efforts to institutionalize Black history in schools. Between for example, explained that a Black his-
1915 and 1950, Woodson and his colleagues established a foundation for K-12 Black tory curriculum and instruction should
history education. They did so by authoring several K-12 Black history textbooks, focus on social justice, militancy, and self-
designing Black history home study courses for school-aged children, establishing a improvement, while Harlan believed
K-12 Black history teacher journal, and promoting Negro History Week (now Black that Black history instruction should be
History Month) in schools.2 Woodson envisioned these programs as temporary, and more subtle, apolitical, and integrated
only the first steps at integrating K-12 Black history within the mainstream social within traditional U.S. history classes.6
studies curriculum. In school districts across the U.S.,
Black students, teachers, and parents
The mainstream social studies cur- began to demand that Black history
riculum, however, either largely ignored courses become either part of the social
Black history or misrepresented the studies curriculum or exist as stand-
subject. Early renditions of history text- alone courses. Some schools/school dis-
books typically classified Black people tricts—especially those with large Black
as docile, uncivilized, and lazy. For populations—established Black history
example, a 1934 history textbook analy- courses, and it was this type of experi-
sis by Lawrence Reddick observed that ence which became the foundation of
Black people were portrayed as being the multicultural education movement.7
content as slaves; they liked to “sing,
dance, crack jokes, and laugh; admired A Contemporary Look at Black
bright colors, never in a hurry, and [were] History
always ready to let things go until the Today, the legitimacy of K-12 Black his-
morrow.” 3 These examples illustrated tory as an academic subject for school-
a social studies curriculum mirroring a children is largely unquestioned. Take
U.S. culture that elevated those consid- for instance the report, Research into
ered to be White while simultaneously the State of African American History
demeaning all of those considered to be with the 1961 California law, seven states and Culture in K-12 Public Schools,
Black. It was not until the middle of the “passed laws requiring or recommending conducted by the National Museum
twentieth century that mainstream social that the contributions and achievements of African American History and
studies textbooks began to eliminate text of minority groups be included in school Culture (NMAAHC). With the help
that was explicitly racist.4 curricula.” 5 The study also chronicled of an evaluator, Oberg Research, this
Inspired by the 1960s civil rights the development of several school dis- 2015 study sought to understand how
movement, systemic efforts to main- tricts’ Black studies programs, complete social studies teachers conceptualized
stream K-12 Black history began to build with their own textbooks and resources. and implemented a K-12 Black history
momentum. A 1969 survey conducted by Additionally, Social Education, with its curriculum. The methodology included
Education USA indicated that, starting April 1969 issue, published a special edi- a nationwide survey of 525 elementary,
S o c i a l E d u c at i o n
14middle, and high school teachers, 72 NMAAHC’s study also notes that Smithsonian
in-depth personal interviews,8 and 5
focus groups,9 and a review of social
teachers may not teach Black history
as much as they should because they
American Art
studies standards from all 50 states lack content knowledge, confidence, Museum
and the District of Columbia. Key time, and resources, and are con-
findings indicate that teachers con- cerned with students’ maturity levels
sidered Black history as influential in for approaching difficult knowledge.
understanding the complexity of U.S. The general consensus, however, is
history, with many teachers stating that that Black history should be included
they infuse elements of Black history in the curriculum, but (as the previ-
in every historical era, sometimes ously mentioned debate between
going beyond state and local stan- Hare and Harlan showed), there is
dards. Teachers noted that topics such concern about how and what content
as forced African migration, Brown v. should be delivered.
Board of Education, the impact of the There is no doubt that Black history
Civil Rights Acts of 1960s, and the has become engrained in the nation’s
Obama election were the most taught lexicon, probably making it one of the
subjects by teachers. Teachers also most popular subsets of U.S. history
enacted pedagogies such as inviting taught in K-12 education.12 Several
guest speakers from academia and the factors contribute to Black history’s
community, primary sources, movie popularity. First, Black History
clips, virtual fieldtrips, and web quest Month in schools is now celebrated What can we find
activities. Yet, despite teachers’ enthu- in many different countries. Teachers in this picture?
siasm about teaching Black history, the sometimes see Black History Month
study surmised that generally only 1 to as a liberating time to offer different a. A family portrait
2 lessons or 8–9 percent of total class pedagogical approaches and disrupt b. A reference to Hamlet
time is devoted to Black history in U.S. an inequitable and limited curricu-
history classrooms. lum.13 Second, Black history museums c. A new nation’s hopes
The study represents a conundrum have become increasingly salient in for independence
for Black history in the classroom. For providing educational opportunities
d. All of the above
one, K-12 Black history can be seen for Black history learning. The newly
as successful to the extent that stu- created National Museum of African
dents are now aware of famous Black American History and Culture is an
leaders: Wineburg and Monte-Sano’s indication of the national impor- Explore American art’s
Famous American study saw 2,000 tance of examining Black history.
connections to your curricula
high school students name Martin Even before NMAAHC, many state
Luther King Jr, Rose Parks, and and local Black history museums and make history present.
Harriet Tubman as the most famous contributed to K-12 Black history
historical figures in the United States enrichment for students and teach-
other than presidents and their wives.10 ers through activities such as Black
Summer Institutes:
Yet the Southern Poverty Law Center’s history summer camps, lecture series, Teaching the Humanities
report, Teaching the Movement 2014: historical reenactments, and storytell- through Art
The State of Civil Rights Education ing. A few other museums such as the
in the United States, noted that the Reginald Lewis Museum in Baltimore,
majority of states received grades Maryland, and DuSable Museum July 10 – 14, 2017
of Ds and Fs for their approach to in Chicago, Illinois, have even col- July 24 – 28, 2017
teaching the civil rights movement, laborated with their respective state
with five states neglecting the sub- departments of education to create AmericanArt.si.edu
ject all together.11 Additionally, other elementary and secondary K-12 Black /education/dev/institutes
research has indicated that teachers history curriculum. Black history pro-
ignore Black history and that what is fessional development opportunities
taught is sometimes lethargic, too cel- for teachers are also common at Black Charles Willson Peale, Mrs. James Smith and Grandson (detail), 1776.
Smithsonian American Art Museum, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Wilson
ebratory, and lacks complexity. The history museums as well as throughout Levering Smith Jr. and museum purchase.
J a n u a r y / F e b r u a r y 2 0 17
15various community-based organizations division: Holt McDougal], and Globe.16 cant contributions to the development
and education and history departments In addition, school districts in Chicago, of this country.” 21 Curricular mandates
on U.S. university campuses. Minneapolis, and Philadelphia have in Florida, South Carolina, and Rhode
Third, popular culture and visual required that Black history classes Island suggest that Black history begins
media outlets have been influential in be taught at all grade levels.17 The with Africa. Florida defines Black his-
providing another space for Black his- Philadelphia city school district has tory as “the history of African Americans,
torical study. Recent movies such as The made a yearlong African American his- including the history of African peoples
Help, 12 Years a Slave, Selma, and The tory course a requirement for high school before the political conflicts that led to
Birth of a Nation have all been devel- graduation.18 Recently, Teachers College the development of slavery, the passage
oped into K-12 curriculum and have been at Columbia University, the African of America, the enslavement experi-
made available across the country.14 The Diaspora Consortium, and the College ence, abolition, and the contribution of
Chicago-based television station, WGN Board have collaborated to develop the African Americans to society.” 22
America in a partnership with Sony pic- first Black history advanced placement Many of the Black history mandates
tures, has developed a successful TV course. The course will focus on the are subject to criticism. Citizens in
series about the Underground Railroad. African Diaspora and will be piloted Illinois and New York have complained
Harvard University’s Henry Louis Gates’ in several school districts during the that the mandates are in name only and
Black history series: Finding Your Roots, 2017–2018 school year. have no real and tangible purpose; this
Black in Latin America, Many Rivers to critique is based on the lack of cur-
Cross, and Black America since MLK, Black History Mandates riculum enactment, enforcement, and
have enjoyed tremendous success on The establishment of Black history man- financial assistance. Others just rehash
Public Broadcasting Service stations. dates in a number of states is another the same old narratives of enslavement
Even streaming networks such as Netflix sign of the popularity of Black history. and the civil rights movement. While
have produced some Black history con- States such as Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, these topics need attention, Black his-
tent, as evident in the popular documen- New Jersey, New York, Mississippi, and tory can become stagnant when the same
tary 13th. Rhode Island have passed laws requir- topics are revisited with no re-interpre-
Fourth, the Internet and social ing Black history to be taught in public tation throughout K-12 schooling. More
media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, schools with special K-12 Black history research is needed on the history, struc-
and Pinterest have expanded how oversight committees (See Table 1 for ture, teacher training, resources, and
Black history is accessed and inter- details about these states).19 influences of Black history mandates
preted. These social sites are used as a Other states such as California, on states’ history education.
medium by users to help develop edu- Colorado, Michigan, South Carolina,
cational materials. Examples such as Tennessee, and Washington have passed The Purpose of this Special Issue
#Charlestonsyllabus, #Fergusonsyllabus educational laws regarding Black his- This special issue on teaching Black
and #Blackpanthersyllabus have been tory with no special oversight commit- history serves several purposes. First,
appropriated by people of all walks of tee.20 The mandates are similar in many since teachers are extremely busy, find-
life, providing them with spaces to con- regards but vary in scope and imple- ing teaching resources can be daunting.
tribute to Black historical knowledge mentation. State laws in Mississippi The lesson plans and recommended
through social media. The proliferation and Washington, for instance, only resources in this issue will benefit teach-
of and access to text and media sources focus on the civil right movement. Both ers. The second purpose is to combine
have allowed people who might not oth- Mississippi and Washington favor a civil theory with practice. The third pur-
erwise learn about race, policing, and rights history that not only is studied pose is to show how Black history can
civil rights to do so through the lens of within classrooms but applicable to be used in teacher preparation, profes-
Black history. contemporary human rights issues. The sional development, and nontraditional
Fifth, Black history has become a Black history mandates in Illinois, New educational spaces. The fourth purpose
common elective course at many schools Jersey, and New York are called Amistad is to reconceptualize how educators and
and school districts. Curriculum struc- commissions and emphasize curricula other citizens understand what people
tures for these classes differ based on that explain how the African slave trade consider to be Black history.
school policy and teacher experiences. and enslavement in the U. S. connect to For over a century, K-12 Black his-
These classes, however, have the option the contemporary realities of African tory has matriculated from a discourse
of using one of the four Black history Americans. In addition to learning about that questioned its legitimacy as an aca-
textbooks published by Pearson [sub- oppression, the commissions require that demic subject to a medium that can be
division: Prentice Hall], McGraw Hill, students also learn about the “triumphs accessed in multiple ways in schools
and Houghton Mifflin Harcourt [sub- of African Americans and their signifi- and society. Yet, despite these achieve-
S o c i a l E d u c at i o n
16Table 1: Black History Mandates with Oversight Committees
States with Black History
Oversight Committee State Curriculum/Resource Guide Website
Mandates
Black History Commis-
Arkansas www.ark-ives.com/about-us/bhca.aspx
sion of Arkansas
African American History
Florida http://afroamfl.org/
Task Force
Amistad Commission
Illinois www.dusablemuseum.org/education/lesson-plans
(2005)
Mississippi Civil Rights http://winterinstitute.org/academic-service/mississippi-civil-rights-education-
Mississippi
Education Commission commission/
New Jersey Amistad Commission www.njamistadcurriculum.net/
New York Amistad Commission www.dos.ny.gov/amistad/resources.html
1696 Historical Commis-
Rhode Island http://sos.ri.gov/boards/?page=board_detail&board_id=6311
sion
ments, significant problems remain. been silenced in favor of the dominant the way we typically frame U.S. history.
Recently, a mother complained about Eurocentric history curriculum. The curriculum will need to balance
a McGraw-Hill textbook distributed in Some manifestations of this problem narratives of victimhood, oppression,
Texas that described the Trans-Atlantic are a lack of context for the teaching of perseverance, and resistance, but unlike
slave trade as the immigration of “mil- Black history and a shallow treatment current renditions of the curriculum, it
lions of workers from Africa to the south- of the great differences in the historical should contextualize issues that connect
ern United States to work on agricul- experiences of Black people compared with the present.26
tural plantations.”23 Reportedly, social to those of White Americans. For exam- The study of history requires learning
studies teachers at a Washington, D.C., ple, enslavement should not be the first about the identities of groups of people.
middle school were fired for teaching contact school children have with Black History not only indicates where people
Black history not associated with the history. Thousands of years of Black have been, what they have been, where
standards.24 Additionally, teachers have history existed before Western contact. they are, and what they are; history also
been criticized for questionable Black In addition, for the majority of Black provides a blueprint for where they still
history class activities such as students people who were enslaved, the date for must go and what they still must be.27
participating in mock slave auctions, U.S. independence meant little. A more K-12 Black history is as important as ever
poorly constructed slavery math prob- suitable starting point for full emancipa- as we enter a new political era that might
lems, slave games with some students tion for Black Americans might be June be contentious about those principles.
acting as slaves and slave catchers, the 19, 1865 (“Juneteenth”), when Major As was the case in the early twentieth
dramatization of the middle passage with General Gordon Granger delivered the century and the 1960s, Black history is
Black students tied under desks, and stu- news at Galveston, Texas, that the Civil needed to allow society to comprehend
dents writing fun slavery songs.25 War ended two months before and that Blackness through the record of Black
Therefore, the issue with Black history enslaved people were free. In addition, agency and advancement in the context
now is not simply the need to increase the concept of the United States as a of systemic notions of White supremacy
Black representation in the curriculum. country of immigrants is not applicable and racism. Our teaching should cen-
Instead, we should ask how we can truly to most Black American history in the ter on how Black history improves our
represent Black history in more human- same way as it is to White American his- understanding of contemporary circum-
izing ways. At the moment, Black history tory. stances, and how it can stimulate us to
knowledge required by the curriculum The Black history curriculum needs to improve our democracy.
is often additive and superficial. In come from a Black perspective with top-
many ways, we teach about Black his- ics specifically geared towards the Black Notes
1. Association for the Study of African American Life
tory and not through it. The voices and experience, and many times these narra- and History, “About ASALH: Mission, Vision,
experiences of Black people have often tives are and need to be independent of Structure, Activities,” Association for the Study of
J a n u a r y / F e b r u a r y 2 0 17
17African American Life and History (June 5, 2015) Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans “Howard County Teacher Placed on Administrative
http://asalh.net/aboutasalhmain.html. (New York: McGraw Hill, 2011); Lisbeth Gant- Leave for Telling Students to Write ‘Fun’ Slave Song,”
2. LaGarrett J. King, Ryan M. Crowley, and Anthony Britton, African American History (Austin, Tex.: Baltimore Sun (Dec. 14, 2016), www.baltimoresun.
L. Brown, “Forgotten Legacy: Carter G. Woodson’s Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2009); Stephen com/news/maryland/education/bs-md-ho-foose-
Contributions to Social Studies Education and Middleton and Charlotte M. Stokes, The African race-issues-20161213-story.html.
African American History,” The Social Studies 101, American Experience (Parsippany, Globe Fearon, 26. Pero G. Dagbovie, African American History
no. 5 (2010): 211-215. Pearson Learning Group, 1999). There is also a Reconsidered (Champagne: University of Illinois
3. Lawrence Reddick, “Racial Attitudes in American Black history textbook used in some Canadian Press, 2010).
History Textbooks of the South,” Journal of Negro schools: Rosemary Sadlier et al., Black History: 27. Others have made this argument. See Maulana
History 19, no. 3 (1934): 225-265. Africa, the Caribbean, and the Americas (Toronto: Karenga, Introduction to Black Studies (Los
Emond Montgomery Publications Limited, 2009). Angeles: University of Sankore Press, 1993) and
4. Gary B. Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross E.
Dunn, History on Trial: Culture Wars and the 17. Chicago Public Schools, “CPS CEO Byrd-Bennett Carl Grant, “Escaping Devils Island: Confronting
Teaching of the Past (New York: Vintage Books, Announces New Interdisciplinary African and Racism, Learning History,” Race, Ethnicity and
2000). African American Studies Program,” Chicago Education 14, no. 1 (2011): 33-49.
Public Schools, (Dec. 12, 2013), http://cps.edu/
5. Rose Marie Walker, “Black Studies in Schools: A News/Press_releases/Pages/PR_12_13_2013.aspx;
Review of Current Policies and Programs,” Charles Hallman, “Minneapolis Public Schools
Education U.S.A. Special Report (Washington, Revising Black History Curriculum, Mahmoud El
D.C.: National School Public Relations Associa- Kati Calls for a Radical Change to Educating Youth”
tions, 1969). (February 28, 2013) www.tcdailyplanet.net/
6. Nathan Hare, “Teaching of Black History and minneapolis-public-schools-revising-black-history-
Culture,” Social Education 33 (1969): 385-389; curriculum-mahmoud-el-kati-calls-r/; Michael
Louis Harlan, “Tell It Like It Was: Suggestions of Janofsky, “Philadelphia Mandates Black History
Black History,” Social Education 33 (1969): 390- for Graduation,” New York Times (June 25, 2005).
395. 18. Janofsky, 2005.
7. James A. Banks, “Teaching Ethnic Studies: Concepts 19. Arkansas Black History Advisory Committee Act
and Strategies,” National Council for the Social 1233, ftp://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/acts/1991/
Studies 43rd Yearbook (Washington, D.C., 1973). Public/1233.pdf; Florida K-20 Education code, www.
8. An additional seven long individual interviews were leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_
conducted with teachers in states with small popu- Statute&URL=1000-1099/1003/Sections/1003.42.html;
lations and less of a focus on African American Amistad Commission Act 94-0285, ftp://www.ilga.
history. gov/legislation/94/BillStatus/HTML/09400HB0383.
9. Focus groups were held between March and April html; Mississippi Civil Rights Commission 2718,
2016. The following cities held the focus groups: http://billstatus.ls.state.ms.us/documents/2006/html/
Washington, D.C. (2), Baltimore, Maryland (1) and SB/2700-2799/SB2718SG.htm; New Jersey Amistad
Atlanta (2). The Fitzgerald F. Lewis Museum in Commission 16A52, ftp://www.njleg.state.nj.
Baltimore and the Center for Civil and Human us/20022003/PL02/75_.HTM; New York Amistad
Rights Museum in Atlanta, Georgia, hosted the Commission 57B, www.dos.ny.gov/amistad/legisla-
focus groups. A total of 69 people engaged in focus tion.html, 1696 historical commission H7490,
groups or long interviews. http://webserver.rilin.state.ri.us/BillText14/
10. Sam Wineburg and Chauncy Monte-Sano, “Famous HouseText14/H7490.pdf.
Americans: The Changing Pantheon of American 20. South Carolina Education Improvement Act of
Heroes,” The Journal of American History 94, no. 1984 59-29-55, https://ed.sc.gov/agency/programs-
4 (2008): 1186-1202. services/61/EducationImprovementAct
11. See www.tolerance.org/TTM2014. According to this of1984.cfm; Tennessee Education Improvement Act,
report, Alaska, Iowa, Maine, Oregon, and Wyoming http://comptroller.tn.gov/repository/RE/
are the states that do not cover civil rights in their educimproveact.pdf; Civil Rights Education
state standards. 28A.230.178, http://apps.leg.wa.gov/rcw/default.
aspx?cite=28A.230.178; The Leadership Conference,
12. See Christine Sleeter, The Academic and Social
Value of Ethnic Studies: A Research Review “States Integrate Black History into Public School
(Washington D.C.: National Education Association, Curricula,” (February 26, 2009) www.civilrights.org/
archives/2009/02/119-black-history.html.
2011) in which she explains that African Americans
are the second most represented group in K-12 his- 21. Illinois Amistad Commission, 2005; New Jersey
tory textbooks, behind White Americans. Amistad Commission, 2002; New York Amistad
13. LaGarrett J. King and Keffrelyn Brown, “Once a Commission, 2005.
Year to Be Black: Carter G. Woodson, Curriculum, 22. Florida K-20 Education Code, 2002; 1696
and Teaching During Black History Month,” Negro Historical Commission, 2014.
Educational Review 65, nos. 1-4 (2014): 23-43. 23. Manny Fernandez and Christine Hauser, “Texas
14. See www.heartlandfilm.org/wp-content/uploads/ Mother Teaches Textbook Company a Lesson on
FILM-The-Help-FILM-Curriculum.pdf; Sam Frizell, “12 Accuracy,” New York Times (October 5, 2015).
Years a Slave will be Taught in Schools,” Time 24. Kristin Wright, “Parents: Howard Middle School
(February 24, 2014) http://time.com/9360/12-years- Teachers Fired for Teaching Black History,”
a-slave-will-be-taught-in-schools/; Jordan Moeny, NBCwashington.com (Jan. 31, 2015) www.
“All U.S. High Schools to Receive Free Copies of nbcwashington.com/news/local/Parents-Howard-
Selma,” Education Week/Teacher, 4/24/2015; Middle-School-Teachers-Fired-for-Teaching-Black- LaGarrett J. King is Assistant Professor of
http://bazaned.com/the-birth-of-a-nation-curriculum- History-290400981.html.
Social Studies Education at the University of
guide. 25. Paul Aker, “Official Apologizes for In-Class Slave Missouri-Columbia, where he is an affiliated
15. Kevin L. Clark, “‘Underground Railroad’ Series to Auction,” WNBS-10TV News (March 17, 2011);
faculty member in Black Studies and the Kinder
Air on WGN,” Black Enterprise (August 14, 2014), James Lomuscio, “Students Get Vivid Lesson
www.blackenterprise.com/lifestyle/underground- About the Slave Trade,” Stamford Advocate (March Institute for Constitutional Democracy. His
railroad-television-series-to-wgn/. 27, 2010); Amy Napier Viteri, “Slave Games Played research focuses on K-12 Black history educa-
16. Darlene C. Hine, William C. Hine, and Stanley at Georgia School,” WSB-TV (Jan. 26, 2012); tion, critical theories of race, social studies history,
Harrold, African American History (Boston: CBSNEWS, “Teacher Ties Up Students in Slavery and teacher education.
Prentice Hall, 2011); John Hope Franklin, From Lesson,” CBS News (Dec. 5, 2008); Erica L. Green,
S o c i a l E d u c at i o n
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