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WATCHING US DIE ON CNN Report on the study of community-level conflict management mechanisms in the Niger Delta, middle belt and north east zones of Nigeria www.nsrp-nigeria.org Volume 1: Analytical report Abuja, December 2012
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Community-level Conflict Management Mechanisms
study was carried out by research teams at conflict research
centres based in three Nigerian universities, as follows:
1. NIGER DELTA REGION
Centre for Ethnic and Conflict Studies (CENTECS), University of Port Harcourt, Choba
Director: Professor M Anikpo
Lead Researcher: Onyinye Onyido-Durueke
Researchers: Grace Scent, Paul Nyulaku, Charles Mezie-Okoye and Gbenemene Kpae
Field assistants: Kate Enukweri, Love Turaa-Amadi, Brown Meshack, Maurice Timizi and Endurance Uzobo
2. MIDDLE BELT REGION
Centre for Conflict Management and Peace Studies (CECOMPS), University of Jos, Jos
Director: Professor Audu N Gambo
Lead Researcher: Chris MA Kwaja
Researchers: Dr Elias Lamle, Samuel Obadiah, Barr Nafisat Musa and Dr HafsatLawal
Assistant researchers: Barr Fatima Shittu, Ishaq Abdulsalam, Barr Emmanuella Katukah, Kingsley Madueke
and Danjuma Jise
3. NORTH EAST REGION
Centre for Peace, Diplomatic and Development Studies (CPDDS), University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
Director: Professor HD Dlakwa
Lead Researcher: Dr Ibrahim Umara
Researchers: Dr Hadiza Isa Bazza, Dr Zainab Bala, Anthony Rufu and Professor JP Dada
Field assistants: Bukar G Aji, Baba Auno Musa, Mustapha A Ali, Idris Haruna and Yakaka Abubakar
The research project was designed and overseen by a team from the Nigeria Stability and Reconciliation
Programme (NSRP), led by Dr Sarah Ladbury (NSRP Technical Team Leader) and including Atinuke Opeseitan
(Resources Officer), Eleanor Nwadinobi (Gender Adviser), Ere Amachree (Programme Officer), Hamsatu AllAmin
(Regional Co-ordinator, NE), Imran AbdulRahman (Regional Co-ordinator, Middle Belt), Judy El-Bushra (Conflict
and Peace-building Adviser), Maxwell Anyaegbu (Operations Manager), Patrick Naagbanton (Regional Co-
ordinator, Niger Delta), Paul Francis (Social Development Adviser) and Ukoha Ukiwo (Conflict and Political Adviser).
The research centres and NSRP are profoundly grateful to the community members who participated
in the study and shared their stories, their views and their knowledge with the research teams.
NSRP – WATCHING US DIE ON CNN: CONTENTS 1
CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.............................................. 2 B: MIDDLE BELT REPORT.......................................39
1. Methodology..............................................................................41
ACRONYMS ................................................................... 3
2. The context.................................................................................41
GLOSSARY...................................................................... 4 3. T
ypes of conflict encountered in the study................ 45
4. Community-level conflict
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND.................. 6 management mechanisms.................................................. 50
1. R
ationale and aims of the study..........................................6
5. Pathways for the NSRP
2. Methodology................................................................................6 on the middle belt region.................................................... 53
3. W
hat is in this volume..............................................................8 References...................................................................................... 55
OVERVIEW REPORT.................................................... 9 C: NORTH EAST REPORT........................................57
1. B
rief conflict background to the three zones................9 1. Methodology............................................................................. 58
2. Types of conflict encountered...........................................11 2. Context........................................................................................ 58
3. C
onflict management mechanisms.................................14 3. Types of conflict identified in the five study areas..... 59
4. Implications for NSRP.............................................................17 4. Conflict management and mediation
processes identified in the study areas........................ 67
A: NIGER DELTA REPORT........................................19 5. Recommendations................................................................. 69
1. Methodology............................................................................. 20
References...................................................................................... 69
2. Context descriptions............................................................. 20
3. T
ypes of conflict in the study area...................................21
4. Conflict management and mediation processes........... 30
5. Recommendations to NSRP...................................................37
References...................................................................................... 38
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The study concludes that people
The Nigeria Stability and Reconciliation are desperate for peace, yet have
Programme (NSRP) commissioned this study little confidence in the capacity
of their leaders to deliver it. The
on community-level conflict management fundamental driver of conflict in
mechanisms as background research for the three zones is revealed as
being a crisis of governance.
its design phase.
Confidence can be restored,
Research institutes attached to the control of local traditional and
however, if government shows
universities of Port Harcourt, Jos religious institutions were noted
itself to be proactive in addressing
and Maiduguri carried out the as causes of conflict in all three
a range of problems. The most
research. The findings presented zones. Finally, political conflicts
important of these are
here draw on interviews with were also common to all three
unemployment and poverty,
community members, in which zones. However, the foremost
unaccountable security forces,
they described their experience of example of these is the crisis
a poorly functioning judicial
conflict and their views as to how in the North East entailing
system, government’s perceived
it can best be dealt with. In addition radical Islamic militancy.
indifference to people’s suffering,
to talking with community members,
and constitutional barriers to equal
the research teams interviewed Of the conflict management
treatment. NSRP can support this
key informants, held focus group mechanisms identified, traditional
process by strengthening local
discussions and consulted existing and religious dispute resolution
capacities for non-violence, and
documentation. This volume of the mechanisms were the most trusted,
by spreading and building on
report presents the three zonal as well as the most accessible,
examples of local initiatives
reports covering the Niger Delta, especially to the poor. However,
that have been shown to work.
Middle Belt and North East regions they were not always seen as
The programme should also
respectively. An overview chapter immune to corruption.
seek to promote conflict-sensitive
precedes each of these regional Respondents mentioned various
discourse in all its own activities,
reports. The zonal and overview community-based mechanisms,
and to promote the healing of
reports each analyse the types of including interfaith projects,
deeply entrenched antagonisms
conflict and the mechanisms for community development
in all its communications work.
managing conflict described by approaches and women’s groups.
respondents, and then go on to However, these are relatively
make recommendations for NSRP. recently established mechanisms
A selection of interview transcripts that have yet to build a record
is presented in Volume Two of of achievement. Respondents
this report. described as useful various
government mechanisms for
Five main types of conflict were dispute resolution, such as
identified by the three studies. rent tribunals, and welcomed
Conflicts relating to land and other the intervention of senior
natural resources were the most statesmen in specific violent crises.
widespread in all zones, though Respondents also commended
especially so in the Niger Delta. the police and security forces for
Domestic violence and violence intervening in crises as peace-
against women were also common keepers. However, in many
in all three zones. Ethno-religious situations these agents were seen
identity lies at the root of much to have done more harm than good
serious violent conflict, especially through their disproportionate use
in the Middle Belt. Struggles over of force against innocent citizens.
NSRP – WATCHING US DIE ON CNN: ACRONYMS 3
ACRONYMS
ANPP All Nigerian Peoples’ Party KII Key informant interview
ASTC Agricultural Services and Training Centre KK Klansmen Konfraternity
BAYODA Bakin Rijiya Youth Development Association KSDPC Kaduna State Development and
Property Company
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
LGA Local Government Area
CAN Christian Association of Nigeria (Christian
umbrella organisation) LGC Local Government Council
CCMM Community-led conflict management MACBAN Miyetti Allah Cattle Breeders Association
mechanisms of Nigeria
CDC Community Development Committee MOPOL Mobile Police
CECOMPS Centre for Conflict Management and MOSOP Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People
Peace Studies (University of Jos)
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
CENTECS Centre for Ethnic and Conflict Studies
(a unit of the Faculty of Social Sciences, NAPEP National Agency for Eradication of
University of Port Harcourt, Choba) Poverty Programme
CNN Cable News Network NDDC Niger Delta Development Commission
COCIN Church of Christ in all Nations NEMA National Emergency Management Agency
CPDDS Centre for Peace, Diplomatic and NEPA Nigerian Electric Power Authority
Development Studies (of the University NGO Non-governmental organisation
of Maiduguri, Maiduguri)
NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Company
CSO Civil Society Organisation
PDP Peoples’ Democratic Party
DPO Divisional Police Officer
PRTVC Plateau Radio and Television Corporation
FGD Focus group discussion
SEMA State Emergency Management Agency
FGN Federal Government of Nigeria
SPDC Shell Petroleum Development Company
GBV Gender-based violence or Shell
GRA Government Reserve Area SS Senior Secondary
IIDEA International Institute for Democracy SSS State Security Service
and Electoral Assistance
STF Special Task Force
JAS Jama’atul ahl al-sunnah li da’awati wal jihad
(radical Islamic organisation commonly UMTH University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospital
known as Boko Haram)
UPTH University of Port Harcourt
JIBWIS Jama’atu Izalatu Bid’a Wa Ikamatus Sunnah Teaching Hospital
JNI Jama’atu Nasr al Islam (Islamic umbrella UST or Rivers State University of Science
organisation) RSUST and Technology, Port Harcourt
JPRM Justice, Peace and Reconciliation VOA Voice of America
Movement
JTF Joint Task Force
4
GLOSSARY
Acha A medicinal cereal for diabetic patients, Garri Cassava granules usually made
Plateau State. into meal and eaten with different
local soups.
Achaba Commercial motorcycle
(same as okada). Gbenemene Ogoni paramount ruler.
Almajiri Qur’anic student (pl. almajirai). Gen Electricity power generating set.
Aja District head (Kanuri). Going Another name for commercial
motorcycle.
Alwali Representative (Arabic); in this context,
a person (usually male) who gives a Greenlanders A cult and militant group.
bride away on behalf of her father or
takes a bride on behalf of the groom. Gwom Kassa Chief of Kassa village
(Berom ethnic group).
Amanikpo An indigenous religious society in
Ogoniland, exclusively for people of Gwom Kwok Chief of Kwok village
middle age. (Berom ethnic group).
Ardo Fulani traditional chief. Gwom Rwei Berom district head.
Arne Unbeliever; derogatory term in Hausa Gwom Sho Chief of Sho village
for non-Muslims. (Berom ethnic group).
Belle Pregnancy (pidgin English – Haba Oh no! Please! (Hausa).
pronounced bèllé). Hakimi Village head (Hausa).
Boko Haram Name popularly given to JAS. Icelanders A cult and militant group.
Brutali Cattle-routes (Fulani). Imam Islamic prayer leader.
Bulama Village head (Kanuri). In sha Allah! God willing! (Arabic).
Butu Ten per cent return on produce Juju Indigenous religious institution.
(or tithe) from farmland (Kanuri).
Jihad Islamic struggle (Arabic).
Chima Njibe Officials charged with managing
water resources (Kanuri). Kabon Those who constitute the local
authority of a community (Ogoni).
Dumba Dyke (Kanuri).
Kachalla Custodian (of the lake water, market,
Da Gwom Paramount chief. etc.) (Kanuri).
Rwei Berom
Kaikai Popular locally brewed alcoholic drink.
Deebam A cult group.
Kobo Penny, cent (Nigerian currency).
Deewell A cult group.
Laga Palm frond (Ogoni) usually pinned on
Egbesu An Ijaw deity. the border between warring parties
Egelege Aluu cultural festival of wrestling. or communities, especially violent
ones, ordering a ceasefire leading
Elegam Face A vigilante group (literally ‘don’t look to negotiation. Disobedience attracts
at faces’). sanctions. Laga has spiritual and
symbolic meaning, and its pinning is
Emir Paramount ruler (Hausa).
accompanied by incantations and
invocations of spirits.NSRP – WATCHING US DIE ON CNN: GLOSSARY 5
Lawan Ward head (Kanuri). Sallah Muslim festival.
Mago-mago Dishonest activity (Pidgin English). Sarki Chief (Hausa).
Mai(s) King(s) (Kanuri). Sarkin arne Derogatory Hausa term meaning
chief of unbelievers.
Mai Head(s) of a hamlet.
anguwa(s) Sarkin Chief (Hausa); the leader of the Hausa
Hausawa community in a given place.
Mallam Teacher, learned man (Hausa).
Shari’a Islamic legal system.
Masquerades A feature of some indigenous religions.
Masquerades are ceremonial Shehu Paramount traditional ruler (Hausa).
occasions involving masked dancers.
The masks depict deities, which play a Sulhu Islamic mediation process.
key role in resolving disputes between Torbake A traditional divorce ceremony in
devotees by emphasising relationship Gokana, in which a marriage is
building, rewards and sanctions. dissolved through the pouring of
libations and speaking of incantations.
Matching An illegal appeasement fee paid to a
ground landowner or neighbours of recently Tom and Cat and mouse.
acquired land before commencing Jerry
work on the land; more recently
demanded before the start or Town crier Village messenger who goes around
continuation of any project by the town with a gong making
mostly jobless youths in an area. announcements.
Mene Ogoni chief. Ulama Teachers, learned men (Arabic).
Mishkaham Mwaghavul paramount leader. Umuada A grouping consisting of daughters of
Mwaghavul a family, married or unmarried (Ikwerre).
Miigia A cultural and spiritual festival UniPort Common name for University
particular to the Gokana people in of Port Harcourt.
Ogoniland, Miigia is usually performed
Wahala Trouble (Pidgin English).
before the planting season to request
the Gods to ensure good yam yields. Wakili Scribe or secretary (Kanuri).
Numana An indigenous ethnic group in Sanga Wallahi By God! (Arabic).
LGA, Kaduna State.
Waziri Prime Minister (Hausa).
Obenema Traditional ruler in Imiringi.
Yussufiyah Another name for JAS (derived from
Oha or Uha Tree forming a shrine worshipped the name of the late JAS leader,
by some groups or persons in. The Muhammed Yusuf); JAS members are
leaves are edible and are used in oha sometimes referred to as Yussufiyah.
soup, eaten mostly in the eastern part
of the country.
Okada Commercial motorcycle.
Operation Security framework set up by Federal
Yaki Government to manage internal
security in Kaduna State.
Ponzhi Tarok paramount ruler.6
INTRODUCTION
AND BACKGROUND
1. RATIONALE Early on in the design phase, the 2. METHODOLOGY
NSRP inception and design team
AND AIMS OF identified a gap in the existing Locations and timing
THE STUDY knowledge base, namely that few
detailed descriptions of the conflict The CCMM study took place in six
The Nigeria Stability and context of the target states were states within three Programme
Reconciliation Programme (NSRP) available. Such knowledge was zones: Yobe and Borno in the North
commissioned the Community-level necessary for the design of all four East, Kaduna and Plateau in the
Conflict Management Mechanisms components. The team aimed to fill Middle Belt, and Bayelsa and Rivers
study (CCMM) in January 2012. the gap with two studies: a review in the Niger Delta zone. 1NSRP
The study formed part of the of conflict prevention actors and commissioned three research
background research for NSRP’s initiatives operating at state level, centres to carry out the research.
design phase. NSRP, which is and an examination of community- These were:
initiated and funded by the UK level mechanisms for managing • The Centre for Ethnic and
Government’s Department for conflicts. While informed by the Conflict Studies (CENTECS),
International Development, seeks first study, the main purpose of the University of Port Harcourt
to help reduce the negative impact present report is to summarise the
of violent conflict on the most findings of the second. • The Centre for Conflict
vulnerable, in eight target states: Management and Peace Studies
Kano, Yobe, Borno, Kaduna, The overall purpose of the CCMM (CECOMPS), University of Jos
Plateau, Delta, Bayelsa and Rivers. study was to document a ‘people’s • The Centre for Peace, Diplomatic
experience of security and and Development Studies
NSRP is designed around four main insecurity’, in order to provide the (CPDDS), University of Maiduguri
strands of work. These deal evidence base for the community
respectively with: dimension of NSRP’s work. The During January, February and
• Improving conflict management study gathered evidence from March 2012, the research teams
mechanisms people at community level about held several meetings in Abuja
aspects of security that affect to agree the detailed research
• Reducing grievances about them, and identified formal and plans for the three zones, and
economic opportunities and informal mechanisms for security, develop the research methodology.
distribution of resources mediation and protection operating Fieldwork was conducted between
• Reducing violence against at community level – including March and April. The teams came
women and promoting traditional and religious leadership, together in several further
women’s active involvement local government, NGOs/women’s meetings between April and June
in peace building groups, media, police, army, and to discuss the progress of the
so on. Finally, the study aimed to fieldwork, and to share findings.
• Contributing to improved policy
show the extent to which these Each research team first identified
and practice around stability
mechanisms link to LGA, state- five communities to be the research
and reconciliation in Nigeria
and national-level responses, sites. For the purpose of the study,
and to suggest how NSRP could ‘community’ was defined as a
contribute to enhancing these. group either with a common
identity or living under a common
authority structure (or both).
Communities in Nigeria differ
1
Kano State was not included in the CCMM study, as it did not form part of NSRP’s original slate of target states.NSRP – WATCHING US DIE ON CNN: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 7
widely in form according to remain safe, thus acting as their degrees of success in managing this
context, and research teams own ‘gatekeepers’. open-ended process, with the result
were directed to take a common- that some interview sets are more
sense approach to selecting an Researchers took a variety closely structured than others.
appropriate unit of analysis for of approaches to sampling. Nevertheless, the fact that ‘ordinary’
the study, adopting the unit most In some areas it was possible to community members took centre
appropriate to the circumstances. be relatively systematic, whereas stage in the research process,
in others the teams relied on the articulating their experiences and
The primary criterion for selection research assistants to identify opinions, is significant. It is their
of the research sites was experience individuals who were willing to narratives that provide the primary
of violent conflict. Weight was also be interviewed. By and large evidence for the analyses presented
given to achieving a spread of urban the teams managed to follow the in this volume.
and rural contexts. Care was taken general guidance of interviewing
to ensure that, where communities roughly equal numbers of men and The research team complemented
had been divided on ethnic or other women, and older and younger these narratives with several other
grounds, all parties were included persons (i.e. above and below methods:
in the interview schedule. Priority 30 years of age).
• Focus group discussions
was given to communities where
with specific groups of
extensive social research had not Interview methods informants (e.g. market women,
previously been undertaken.
The main method used in the unemployed youth)
Researchers excluded locations
research was open-ended • Semi-structured interviews
in which they had personal contacts
interviews, designed to allow with key informants (e.g.
(with the exception of the North
respondents to tell their stories local government chairmen,
East, discussed below). Finally,
about the conflicts that they had traditional and religious leaders,
the physical accessibility of the
encountered and whether and and civil society leaders)
location and the safety of the
how these had been resolved.
researchers were also factors
The interviews were recorded • Secondary sources of information
in selection.
by hand in writing, as close to such as other research reports,
verbatim as possible. local government meeting
Accessing communities minutes, etc.
and respondents The aim of this approach is two-fold:
on the one hand, it gives researchers The material generated by these
In all the sites selected, the and policy-makers access to ‘real-
research teams identified fieldwork methods supplements the
life’ situations and views ‘from the narratives with its own, unique
assistants who would act as grassroots’, while on the other it
‘gatekeepers’ into the community. insights into the conflict dynamics
provides respondents with a rare of the communities participating
These were residents of the opportunity to articulate their
communities known to the in the study. In total, 244 individual
feelings and concerns, and to interviews were recorded, together
centres in some capacity (often channel these to people in authority.
as university staff or as previous with around 50 key informant
research collaborators), who were interviews and some 20 focus
Lead researchers practised the group discussions (each of which
willing to arrange the required methodology (through role plays,
permissions and introductions, was made up of between five to
etc.) at workshops in Abuja, and seven informants)3. The study
set up interviews and focus groups, then trained their research teams
assist with logistics, and so on. as a whole has thus drawn on
in their zones. The approach, which conversations with approximately
In the North East, because of the is relatively new in the Nigerian
extremely high security risks at the 410 individuals.
context, 2requires researchers
time, this plan was modified, with to depart from the more familiar
researchers being deployed to structured and semi-structured
their own residential areas, where interviews. In the event,
they were well known and could interviewers achieved varying
2
or an account of the oral testimony methodology, and examples of the approach from elsewhere, see: http://panos.org.uk/our-work/our-methodologies/voice
F
3
The verbatim texts of selected narratives are reproduced in Volume Two of this report. Transcripts of the key informant interviews and focus group discussions were used
mainly as background material and, with a few exceptions, are not directly quoted in the reports.8
Constraints encountered husbands before they could speak presentation. This is partly because
in the fieldwork to the research team. However, of differences in the regional
anticipating these constraints, contexts, which highlight different
In the North East, the fieldwork the teams were able to respond issues, and partly because
period coincided with a grave effectively; for example, by fielding research teams developed
deterioration of the security women-only teams in certain somewhat distinctive frameworks
environment, especially in contexts and providing clear from their own discussions.
Maiduguri. This meant that explanations of the purposes
considerable adaptation was of the research.
required in the deployment of 3. WHAT IS IN
researchers and the timing of Analysis THIS VOLUME
visits to communities. It also made
communication with, and between, The narratives were analysed The report of the Community-level
the research team difficult. Security through three related processes. Conflict Mechanisms Management
difficulties also hindered work in In the first, a series of meetings Study comprises two volumes.
the Middle Belt, and adaptations were convened in which the The present volume, Volume One,
were similarly required to the research teams reported back contains four sections. The first
composition of research teams to each other and to NSRP, and summarises the overall findings
on the ground. presented their ‘first cuts’ of of the study, while sections two
typologies of conflict types and to four present the respective
Many respondents were keen to conflict management mechanisms. findings from the three zones.
participate in the project by telling These typologies were honed by
their stories. However, for varying discussion and mutual comment. The reports in Volume One
reasons, all the teams encountered Secondly, the teams worked make liberal use of excerpts from
a degree of unwillingness on through the texts of the narratives, the narratives in illustrating the
the part of individuals to be selecting and codifying passages points made. A selection of these
interviewed. In the Niger Delta, the that threw light on – or raised narratives is presented in full
study was carried out during the questions about – the emerging in Volume Two 4. The overview
farming season, and people were typologies, in order to build up a continues with a brief description
reluctant to leave their farm work complete picture of the issues that of the conflict background to the
to be interviewed. In the Middle was rooted in the evidence from three zones. This is followed by a
Belt, security problems created the interviews. Thirdly, draft review of the overall findings on the
logistical difficulties, and in some reports prepared by the lead types of conflict identified in the
places it was necessary to field researchers went through several study and on the mechanisms for
only female researchers to iterations, as NSRP offered an conflict management encountered
interview women. In the North East, ‘external eye’ and asked critical in the communities under study.
the team encountered a range of questions with a view to bringing The final section summarises the
challenges, including suspicion, out additional points. overall conclusions of the study
especially from security personnel, and its implications for NSRP. The
expectations of monetary reward While broadly consistent in their three zonal reports each have a
by interviewees, and women being findings, the three zonal reports broadly similar structure.
obliged to seek the consent of their differ slightly in format and in
4
Narratives selected for inclusion are those that are quoted from in the reports. Code numbers link the excerpts with the full versions.NSRP – WATCHING US DIE ON CNN: OVERVIEW REPORT 9
OVERVIEW REPORT
1. B
RIEF CONFLICT Such conflicts involve friction over 1.2 Middle Belt
two main resources: on the one
BACKGROUND TO hand, the territory from which oil Plateau and Kaduna States, situated
THE THREE ZONES is extracted, and on the other, the in the Middle Belt of Nigeria, share
selection or election of community a number of similarities in terms
1.1 Niger Delta leaders and representatives, of their socio-economic and
designated to mediate relations demographic characteristics 7.
The states covered by the They are multicultural societies,
CCMM study, Rivers and Bayelsa, with oil companies.
containing most of Nigeria’s
are two of the three ‘core’ Niger minority ethnic groups, as well
Alongside the general grievance
Delta states. 5 6 These states as a large number other ethnic
narrative of ‘resource control’ are
are dominated by oil and gas groups, including adherents of
other emergent class, generational,
extraction, and by grievances Christianity, Islam and African
gender and occupational
arising from the perceived traditional religions.
perspectives. Youths generally
marginalisation of their local
blame poverty, unemployment,
populations from the benefits The historical transformation of
lack of opportunities and corruption
accruing nationally from oil wealth. Jos, capital of Plateau State, to a
among traditional and political elites
Much of the violent conflict in the cosmopolitan city can be traced to
for the violent conflicts. Other social
two states has been anti-state the establishment of the tin mining
groups, such as women, community
and anti-oil multinational, and has business in the early 20th century.
elders, and government officials,
taken the form of attacks on oil This attracted miners and auxiliary
increasingly perceive the resource
infrastructure, oil personnel and workers from different parts of
control narrative as an excuse
security agencies. In the past the northern region of Nigeria.
for indiscriminate violence and
decade there has been a significant Kaduna, in contrast, emerged
criminality against the rest of
reduction in outbreak of intra- as a cosmopolitan city as a result
society. Ethnic grievance also
communal and inter-communal of having been the seat of
seems to be reducing in intensity
violent conflicts. Moreover, many government of Nigeria’s northern
in the two states. The creation of
of the past (and present) communal region during both the colonial
Bayelsa State in 1996, carved out
conflicts can be attributed to so- and the post-colonial regimes.
from Rivers State, gave room for
called ‘divide and rule’ strategies
the aspirations of the Ijaw people.
of the state and the oil companies. Conflict in these states has become
In Rivers State, historical rivalry
As part of their ‘social licence to progressively more and more
between Ikwerre and Okrika has
operate’, oil companies are violent since the 1980s and 1990s,
been managed politically and has
expected to invest some of their triggered initially by disagreements
not led to violent conflict in the past
profits in community development over local government issues. The
decade. However, ethnic grievance
investment. However, to the extent divergent interests underlying this
remains particularly pronounced
that they have done so at all, they violence derive fundamentally from
among the Ogoni, who still recall
are seen as having done so in ways political and economic factors.
the military brutality of the 1990s.
that can inflame conflict within and These include competition for land,
Ogoni communities continue to
between communities, such as livelihoods, and political power and
refuse to allow resumption of oil
through the policy of selectively influence. The issue of indigeneity
exploration and exploitation
rewarding ‘host communities’. is a key component here: much
activities in Ogoniland. In addition,
conflict is around the question of
the Ogoni are advocating for a
who can lay claim to – and who is
separate state to be carved out
excluded from – ‘ownership’ of land
from Rivers State.
and other resources and benefits
5
his section draws on Ukiwo and Naagbanton (2012) ‘Mapping conflict prevention actors and initiatives in selected states: report for Bayelsa and Rivers States’, NSRP.
T
6
The third ‘core’ state is Delta State.
7
This section draws on Abdulrahman and Nwadinobi (2011) ‘Mapping conflict prevention actors and initiatives in selected states: Report for Plateau and Kaduna States’, NSRP.10
by virtue of being considered
a ‘son of the soil’. Different
population groups put forward
conflicting interpretations of
historical events to justify their
competing claims.
Many inhabitants now perceive
religious difference to be the main
driver of violent conflict. However,
religion is arguably merely a
vehicle for the expression of
differences: it has become a
marker of identity, manipulated by
political elites to generate support.
As a result of successive waves
of inter-communal violence, the
pattern of settlement in key parts
of the Middle Belt is now polarised
along ethno-religious lines. For this
reason, the ethno-religious
dimension of the conflict is often
construed as the main cause
of conflict, as opposed to the
underlying structural factors of
bad government, corruption and students from across the North which often seem intent on
political disenfranchisement. every year. These students, known punishing, rather than protecting,
as almajirai, rely on charitable the population 10. As in the Middle
1.3 North East donations for their survival. Belt, many inhabitants of the North
Population pressure in Maiduguri East view religion as the driving
In the past, Borno and Yobe had has led to the growth of unplanned factor in this conflict. However,
the reputation of being the most settlements around the town, many the JAS phenomenon, and the
peaceful states in the country 8. with no infrastructure or services. response to it, are perhaps more
However, in many parts of the These house thousands of instructively seen as a reflection
zone (especially the state capitals vulnerable families with little means of failure of governance and of
and main towns) extreme violence of making a living. Young men in deteriorating institutions and
against citizens, by both militant particular are vulnerable to being values – a lack of communication
Islamists and the security exploited, both by political interests between government and
forces, has of late become and radical ideologues. governed, unpopular government
an everyday occurrence. policies, youth poverty, illiteracy
The increase in violent actions by and unemployment, political
Both states experience the Islamist group Jama’atul ahl al- violence, and the militarisation
widespread poverty, illiteracy and sunnah lida’awati wal jihad (JAS) 9, of youth.
unemployment, exacerbated by which saw a sudden spike around
desertification and migration to the end of 2011, has brought untold
urban areas, especially Maiduguri danger to the population of the
(capital of Borno State). Maiduguri North East states, especially of
is also a famous historical centre their main cities. This has only been
for Islamic religious instruction, exacerbated by the heavy-handed
and draws in thousands of religious responses of the security forces,
8
This section draws on Isa and Allamin (2011) ‘Mapping conflict prevention actors and initiatives in selected states: Report for Borno and Yobe States’, NSRP.
9
Jama’atul ahl al-sunnah li da’awati wal jihad (or JAS for short) is the name the group gives to itself, while ‘Boko Haram’ is the name that others ascribe to it.
NSRP policy is to refer to it by its proper name.
10
Amnesty International (2012) Nigeria: trapped in the cycle of violence. London, Amnesty International.NSRP – WATCHING US DIE ON CNN: OVERVIEW REPORT 11
2. TYPES OF competition between young
people over boyfriends
content of disputes in all the forms
of conflict listed above. Land
CONFLICT and girlfriends disputes divide families, as when
ENCOUNTERED • Intra-communal conflict,
brothers compete over their
inheritance, and competition for
At one level, the evidence ranging different sections of a
scarce land often underlies inter-
presented by the narratives about community against each other
communal strife. In the Niger Delta,
the types of conflict encountered (such as indigenes and settlers,
respondents frequently alluded to
in the different zones tallies broadly adherents of different religions,
encroachment on neighbouring
with existing characterisations of followers of competing leaders,
land (for example, by farmers
those zones, with the Niger Delta or different users of a natural
allegedly disregarding or moving
dominated by resource conflict, resource such as water)
traditional boundary markers). Land
the Middle Belt by ethno-nationalist • Inter-communal conflict, in is frequently implicated in political
identity conflict, and the North which neighbouring communities conflict, including complaints of
East by the JAS crisis. However, conflict over land or access to officials presiding over corrupt
at the same time, the evidence services, often entailing mutual land allocation arrangements.
demonstrates the danger of over- retaliation over generations
simplification. A wide variety of Conflict arises both over rights
types of conflict, including violent • Conflict between communities
of land ownership and over rights
conflict, were found in all areas, the and the authorities, often
of use. The latter is particularly
difference between the three zones expressing general discontent
prevalent in the North East and
being one of emphasis. arising from indifference on
Middle Belt, where conflicts
the authorities’ part, poor
between settled farmers and
The three zonal studies employ governance, unequal access
nomadic cattle-keepers are
slightly different typologies in to services, and poor or
widespread. Farmers accuse
analysing the conflicts enumerated poorly implemented policies.
pastoralists of allowing animals
by respondents, reflecting, as Youth unemployment is
to damage their crops and
already noted, both differing local consistently the most urgent
pollute domestic water sources,
circumstances and the respective and critical complaint.
while pastoralists complain of
analytic perspectives of the research encroachment on their traditional
teams. However, the conclusions of Research teams also explored
transhumance routes and grazing
the analysis are broadly similar the content of conflicts mapped
land, as well as of cattle rustling
across the three zones. (noting some overlap with its
by farmers.
forms as listed above). Predominant
Evidence was gathered in the themes are conflicts over resources,
Water is another major source of
study about different forms of domestic violence (including
conflict, especially where it is a key
conflict, including the following violence against women and girls,
factor in sustaining livelihoods. In
broad categories: or VAWG), ethno-religious identity
addition to the Middle Belt, where
conflicts, traditional rulership
• Domestic and family conflicts, shared access to water by animals
tussles and political conflicts.
such as marital discord, and humans was raised by several
arguments between co-wives, respondents, the communities in
2.1 C
onflict over the North East which border Lake
disagreements between
brothers over inheritance, and
resources Chad also report major conflicts
some rare (and mild) cases of Land and land-related resources over water management. In this
disagreement between parents emerge as possibly the single most case the issue is over-fishing by
and children consistent and widespread objects Hausa immigrants (building
of contention, frequently entailing catchment dams across those
• Inter-personal conflicts, such already built by others), which
bitter and often violent conflict,
as boundary disputes between threaten traditional conservation
in all three zones. Contention over
neighbours, problems between practices and provide Hausa
such resources features as the
landlords and tenants,12
fishermen with a commercial Displacement is a fact of life in often driven by economic necessity
advantage over the indigenous all three zones to some extent into hawking or other economic
Kanuri and Shuwa. or another, though nowhere more activities that take place in public
so than in the Middle Belt. Many space, and may find themselves
Resource conflict is most Middle Belt respondents described dependent on soldiers for
prevalent, however, in the Niger the emotional traumas of being protection and support. These
Delta, where oil exploration and driven from their homes and ‘protectors’ may then take
extraction have had multiple waiting for the moment they could advantage. Respondents asserted
and devastating impacts on the return. Thirdly, as territory, land that criminal gangs exploit women
natural and political environment. is intricately tied in with questions in similar ways.
Environmental degradation caused of group identity, with contested
by oil spills and gas flaring has histories of arrival, displacement, There were many reports of
drastically reduced the viability settlement and resettlement, and women being abused during
of agriculture and fishing, once with associated values of rights, episodes of violence, by all sides.
the main sources of livelihood for entitlements and belonging. As one respondent from the Middle
the majority of Delta communities. Belt commented:
After years of campaigning, 2.2 D
omestic violence What the media has failed to do
activists obtained promises of and violence against is to stress the plight of women
compensation from oil companies,
and some such measures have
women and girls in the crisis so that the whole
been undertaken. Forms of (VAWG) world will know how terribly
women are affected by the crisis.
compensation include both cash Domestic violence and violence I know of about 50 women in this
payments to owners of oil-bearing against women were reported to community who suffered from
land, and in-kind benefits such as be commonplace in all three zones. sexual violence during the crisis.
employment, scholarships and Many husbands are said to beat Nothing has been done to help
community development projects. their wives, to fail to provide for these women. (B3.1)
However, respondents frequently them economically, to seek to
expressed the view that these control their behaviour, and to Indeed, sexual violence against
measures were not only too little, restrict their access to economic women at times of conflict has
but were being administered in opportunities. Although such become an inseparable part of
a way that divided communities. behaviour was widely said to the reality and discourse of ethnic
They also accuse local leaders be deviant, only a few cases strife, with each side alleging that
of colluding with oil companies were reported where protests – they themselves protect women
to channel benefits for themselves for example, by the wife’s family – and respect their rights, while the
and their associates. were successful in restoring ‘other’ consistently fails to do so.
peace. Polygamy may also generate
There are several deep-seated friction between women of the same
reasons for the prominence of
2.3 Ethno-religious
household or neighbourhood;
natural resources, and land in for example, conflict between
identity conflict
particular, as sources of conflict. co-wives, or competition between Identity conflict is most
Firstly, these are a key economic women marrying into a household pronounced, and has had most
resource, which figure prominently for the approval of the elders. violent repercussions, in Plateau
in the livelihoods strategies of and Kaduna States. As indicated
individuals, communities and Beyond the household, above, ethno-nationalist dynamics
groups. When demand starts respondents considered young have been an increasing feature
to outstrip supply, demand for girls to be particularly vulnerable of this multicultural zone although
land rises to critical levels, and to sexual abuse by older and more they are often represented as
competition becomes acute. powerful men in the community. being religious in nature. Hausa
Secondly, people’s personal, Poverty exacerbates this and Fulani on the one hand are
emotional attachment to land vulnerability. The presence of predominantly Muslim, and both
and associated property has a security personnel, such as Joint of these are relatively recent
significance that goes beyond Task Forces in some areas, was incomers into the zone. On the
the economic, and represents said by some respondents to other hand the indigenous
a motivating force in decisions present a risk to girls. Girls are communities (Tarok, Berom and
about where and how to live.NSRP – WATCHING US DIE ON CNN: OVERVIEW REPORT 13
other smaller groups) are mainly • In the North East, many and immigrants is highly complex,
Christian. Conflicts over land or respondents expressed disquiet given the patchwork of ethnic
over political influence may have that titles and roles that had communities interwoven
an ethnic or political basis, or be traditionally been inherited, throughout the zone. In these
simply a matter of economic such as ward headships, are circumstances, political
interest, but will most likely be now elected. This has left the representation in governance
viewed as having a religious colour. door open for politicians to institutions, such as local
manipulate voting to ensure government councils, is fraught,
Whereas in the past conflicting the success of their own and a frequent focus of discontent.
groups lived together in relative clients. Accounts were given of
peace, successive waves of hereditary occupants and their The most significant single political
violence have led to what one supporters being discriminated conflict documented by the CCMM
respondent called ‘Tom and Jerry’ against, and sometimes study is the conflict in the North
behaviour (B1.1), or mutual physically attacked. East involving the JAS. The extreme
reprisals and counter-reprisals. and indiscriminate violence meted
• In the Niger Delta, a high
These events have progressively out by JAS, and subsequently by
proportion of respondents
split communities, forcing one side the security forces in response, has
similarly complained that chiefs
or the other to relocate to a safer had extremely wide and serious
and local government leaders
environment. Their subsequent impacts on those living in the zone.
have been corrupted, in this
attempts to regain land, houses Narrators gave many graphic
case by the introduction of
and other property are generally descriptions of the loss of life,
monetary and non-monetary
fraught with confusion over title, property, livelihoods, services and
benefits given out by oil
and often in turn give rise to businesses that this violence has
companies. These community
further antagonism. A notable engendered. They also regretted
leaders play a key role in
feature of inter-communal the social impact, in terms of the
distributing these benefits in
antagonism in the Middle Belt is reduced social interaction between
the community, and are not
that all sides feel excluded and neighbours and the reduced
averse, it is said, to making
discriminated against, and perceive diversity of the population. Many
secret deals in their own favour.
the ‘other’ as being privileged in non-indigenes have felt obliged to
access to services, treatment by relocate elsewhere. Since these
In both the North East and the
security forces and the media, were often key actors in the local
Middle Belt, respondents
and the like. economy, their departure has had
mentioned disputes connected
a further negative effect on local
with the emirate system. This
Similar identity conflicts between markets and services.
system, originally established
‘indigenes’ and settlers occur in the
in the time of Northern Nigeria’s
North East. The current conflict Opinions differ as to whether
pre-colonial Muslim empires, and
with JAS could itself be described the JAS conflict is best described
adapted for the purposes of
as ethno-religious, in that ethnic as political, religious or social.
colonial ‘indirect rule’, still exists.
grievances in the context of the However, it is defined, it appears
Although the emirs have much
Federal state have been translated to be at least in part an expression
reduced statutory powers,
into a militant religious discourse. of discontent with government and
traditional title holders remain
Moreover, the religious discourse with governance generally, and
influential. Questions were raised
of JAS has led to large numbers of such restiveness is a common
in some narratives over the extent
Christian non-indigenes leaving the thread running through the three
of the emirs’ jurisdictions, including
zone as a result of the threat of zonal studies. Everywhere, people
their jurisdiction over non-Muslims
violence. Little ethnic conflict was decry a government and a political
in their areas.
referred to by informants in the system whose members appear to
Niger Delta. be exclusionary, out of touch and
2.5 Conflicts with or about indifferent to people’s suffering. The
2.4 Traditional leadership political authorities vision of one respondent from the
tussles Conflicts that could broadly be Middle Belt, who depicted political
described as ‘political’ appear leaders as sitting in their mansions
Conflicts around political positions ‘watch[ing] us die on CNN’, (B4.11)
in the narratives in a number
and appointments were common sums up the general mood.
of guises. In the Middle Belt, for
in all zones.
example, the issue of indigenes14
3. CONFLICT most widespread and most trusted
mechanisms for resolving disputes
traditional and religious
mechanisms are seen as ‘the
MANAGEMENT between individuals and families poor man’s high court’: if the less
MECHANISMS on an everyday basis, and that they privileged are drawn to these,
have on occasion played significant it may be because they have no
3.1 Traditional and roles in mediating in inter-communal real choice.
religious institutions violence and in promoting peace 11.
Respondents ascribed their Women tend to be relatively poorly
Traditional institutions arose from served by traditional and religious
popular acceptance to their
the pre-colonial and colonial mechanisms: the functionaries,
closeness to the people and the
systems of governance and were advisers or mediators are mostly
trust people have in their integrity.
subsequently integrated into the men, and the status quo, which
Moreover, approaches to dispute
modern governance structure, they are inclined to uphold, is
resolution used by traditional and
although playing an ancillary role generally a patriarchal one.
religious institutions tend to be
and subsidiary to elected (or However, examples of women
restorative (aiming at dialogue and
military) governments. State mediators in the traditional or
compromise) rather than retributive
governments and local government informal sphere do emerge
(i.e. seeking to allocate blame to
councils both have subsidiary, from the narratives.
one side or the other). Respondents
advisory structures incorporating
frequently commented that
traditional leadership. Having been Many communities (see particularly
traditional and religious methods
in place for many generations, they the Niger Delta report) have
of dispute resolution get to the
are recognised locally as being an women’s leaders, who in some
bottom of problems, while formal
inherent part of the culture of the cases have the power to call men
processes merely pass judgment,
community concerned. In Nigeria, to account, or who have taken
allowing the cause of the problem
government assigns these part in formal peace negotiations
to resurface at a later date. The
institutions limited roles on the between communities. While
fear of mystical sanction is also
bottom rung of the ladder of these were largely responsible for
said to be a factor in the
judicial, political and administrative managing a fairly limited range of
effectiveness of traditional
authority (for example, as issues (mainly domestic disputes
religious arbitration, which often
mediators in marital disputes). and conflicts between women) this
involves oaths and other ritual
Religious institutions include was not always the case, and there
mechanisms, believed to have
churches, mosques, and their appears to be no effective bar on
severe consequences for those
organisations, as well as those women taking more onerous
who do not respect the truth or
of traditional religions. responsibilities in such structures.
abide by the decisions of the
priests or elders.
There is some overlap between
3.2 Community initiatives
‘traditional’ and ‘religious’, since
However, despite the faith that
in some communities ‘traditional’ Some community-based and non-
people have in these mechanisms,
temporal leaders such as emirs governmental organisations (CBOs
respondents also made it clear that
are closely linked to their spiritual and NGOs) have played a role in
they are not immune to corruption.
counterparts. ‘Institutions’ here solving intra- and inter-community
Especially in the Niger Delta and in
refers to both the organisations conflicts. These include:
parts of the North East, researchers
(churches, mosques, etc.) and the
were told that some chiefs and • Interfaith reconciliation and
authority holders (chiefs, ward
other local authority holders use peace-building projects: these
heads, pastors, imams, priests, for
their positions for personal gain – are found mainly in the Middle
example), as well as practices such
for example, by selling land titles Belt, where Christian and Muslim
as praying for peace or carrying
to more than one buyer, or by leaders and associations hold
out sulhu mediation.
charging illegal arrangement fees joint meetings and other
for granting land access – and that activities to exemplify values of
It is clear from the narratives from
people may get better justice by mutual tolerance and respect.
all three zones that traditional and
going through the courts, if they In Dadin Kowa (Middle Belt),
religious institutions are by far the
can afford it. Generally speaking, for example, local leaders have
11
A particularly important example is the inter-faith dialogues, which have proved significant in peace-building efforts in the Middle Belt.NSRP – WATCHING US DIE ON CNN: OVERVIEW REPORT 15
agreed a practice of publicly • Individual initiatives: some 3.3 O
fficial decision-
exploring and resolving every narratives describe efforts by making and
incident of inter-communal individuals to swim against the
violence in turn, while urging tide and reach out to the ‘other
dispute resolution
their co-religionists to resist side’. Often the individuals who mechanisms
the temptation to respond. stand out in such narratives are Government has often played
This method appears to have local office holders such as LGA a positive role in conflict
reduced the incidence of chairmen or village heads, who management, through the
violence by modelling non- take their responsibilities to police and the judiciary, through
violent responses in preference serve all citizens impartially regulatory bodies such as rent
to reprisals. exceptionally seriously. These tribunals and social welfare
may involve an exceptional committees, and through its
• Women’s groups: women’s
level of bravery, which is rarely efforts at mediation and crisis
groups and women leaders
acknowledged. An example management. Respondents in all
have traditionally played a role
quoted by a Middle Belt three zones commended the police
in settling disputes between
respondent was the village for their role in patrolling crisis
women, in several parts of the
head who was assassinated after zones, and in maintaining order
three zones. Respondents from
negotiating safe passage for by pursuing miscreants. However,
Omuokiri in the Niger Delta
a group that was under attack they do not consider that the police
described how women leaders
(B1.7). It is also appropriate to have lived up to expectations
have also played roles in
mention the former governor in this regard. While people
reconciliation initiatives in the
who sent relief supplies to Barkin acknowledge that the police are
wider community, albeit mainly
Ladi after a violent incident, constrained by lack of resources,
within the confines of domestic
and insisted – in the face of they also allege that they are often
disputes. Although it is rare to
opposition from his own people excessively slow to respond, or
find women playing political
– that both Christians and that the response is less than
roles of any sort, some women
Muslims should receive them impartial. A narrative from the
respondents have taken part in
(B1.11). These individual Middle Belt, for example, describes
dispute resolution, including at
initiatives stand out, however, an incident in which police waited
the inter-community level.
as being exceptional. outside a village while an attack
• Community development
projects: given the universally-
articulated view that poverty
and unemployment are the
major drivers of conflict in all
three zones, it is surprising
that so few respondents
referred to initiatives to address
the economic dimensions of
violence through community
development. However, a few
such projects – for example
micro-credit programmes for
youth – were mentioned.You can also read
