A REVIEW OF THE METHODS FOR MONITORING ROE DEER EUROPEAN POPULATIONS WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO ITALY
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Hystrix It.
Hystrix It. J.
J. Mamm.
Mamm. (n.s.)
19(2)19
2008: 103-12023-40
(2) (2008):
A REVIEW OF THE METHODS FOR MONITORING ROE
DEER EUROPEAN POPULATIONS WITH PARTICULAR
REFERENCE TO ITALY
ALBERTO MERIGGI1,2, FRANCESCA SOTTI2, PAOLO LAMBERTI2,
NICOLA GILIO2
1
Dipartimento di Biologia Animale, Università di Pavia, Piazza Botta 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
e-mail: meriggi@unipv.it
2
Centro Interuniversitario per la Ricerca sulla Selvaggina e i Miglioramenti Ambientali a
fini Faunistici, Piazzale delle Cascine 18, 50144 Firenze, Italy
Received 20 September 2008; accepted 22 December 2008
ABSTRACT - Throughout the last century, deer populations have shown a remarkable in-
crease both in North America and Europe. As a consequence, the estimate of roe deer den-
sity has become a matter of interest. We reviewed the available literature on the methods
used for monitoring roe deer populations in Europe from 1950 to 2004, with the aim of de-
tecting the trend of papers and distribution of census techniques by years, countries and
habitat types. Particular attention was paid to the census and monitoring methods adopted
in Italy and in Tuscany, which is the region where the roe deer is more carefully managed.
Published papers showed an increasing trend, as did the number of methods used and their
complexity. France, Italy, UK, and Spain were the countries with the richest literature and
the largest variety of methods applied. Eleven census methods have been applied in woods -
particularly line transects, pellet group counts, CMR and IKA - with only 6 in open coun-
try, mainly pellet group counts. In Europe vantage points are more commonly used for
planning culling programs, whilst in Italy, and particularly in Tuscany, the drive census and
spotlight counts are mainly used. Unfortunately, in Europe, harvesting programs are still
too much based on hunter knowledge and traditions. However the countries where the man-
agement of roe deer hunting is of more recent tradition make an exception to this rule. In
Italy and in Tuscany the methods of monitoring roe deer populations should be improved
towards less expensive and more accurate methods.
Key words: Capreolus capreolus, monitoring methods, culling, management, Europe, Italy
RIASSUNTO – Revisione dei metodi di monitoraggio delle popolazioni di capriolo in Eu-
ropa con particolare riferimento all’Italia. Le popolazioni di Cervidi hanno avuto
nell’ultimo secolo un notevole incremento sia in America settentrionale, sia in Europa. Di
conseguenza la densità delle popolazioni di capriolo è diventata oggetto di interessi diversi
e la sua stima suscita grande attenzione. Con lo scopo di evidenziare l’andamento delle
pubblicazioni e la distribuzione dei metodi di censimento per anno, Paese e tipo di habitat,
abbiamo analizzato la letteratura europea sui metodi di monitoraggio delle popolazioni di
capriolo dal 1950 al 2004. Particolare attenzione è stata data ai metodi normalmente adotta-
ti in Italia e in Toscana, che è la regione dove la gestione del capriolo si può considerare più
avanzata. I lavori pubblicati hanno avuto una tendenza all’aumento così come il numero di
metodi utilizzati e la loro complessità. La Francia, l’Italia, il Regno Unito e la Spagna sono
103Meriggi et al.
risultati i Paesi con la letteratura più ricca su questo argomento e anche quelli dove è stato
sperimentato il maggior numero di metodi. Undici metodi di censimento - soprattutto tran-
setti lineari, conteggi di pallottole fecali, cattura-marcatura-ricattura e indice chilometrico
d’abbondanza -, sono stati usati negli ambienti boscati e solamente 6 nelle aree aperte, in
particolare il conteggio delle pallottole fecali. In Europa il metodo più usato per pianificare
il prelievo con la caccia di selezione è risultato quello dei punti dominanti, mentre in Italia e
particolarmente in Toscana sono principalmente usati le battute su aree campione e i con-
teggi notturni. Sfortunatamente in Europa i piani di prelievo sono ancora troppo basati sulle
conoscenze e sulla tradizione dei cacciatori. Tuttavia, fanno eccezione a questa regola i Pa-
esi dove la gestione venatoria del capriolo è iniziata di recente. In Italia e in Toscana i me-
todi di monitoraggio delle popolazioni di capriolo dovrebbero essere migliorati, adottando
tecniche meno dispendiose e più accurate.
Parole chiave: Capreolus capreolus, metodi di monitoraggio, piani di prelievo, gestione,
Europa, Italia
INTRODUCTION (Staines and Ratcliffe, 1987; Cederlund
et al., 1998; Duncan, 1998; Radeloff et
Throughout the last century, deer popu- al., 1999).
lations have remarkably increased both Roe deer density has become the object
in North America and Europe (Gill, of different interests: hunters, natural-
1990), probably as a consequence of ists and tourists that want higher densi-
the general improvement of habitat ties, and, on the other hand, stake-
quality and availability together with holders, farmers and foresters that
that of game management (Gill et al., would prefer low or even zero densi-
1996; Cederlund et al., 1998). The ties. Nevertheless the roe deer, as all
European roe deer (Capreolus capreo- the other ungulate species, must be also
lus) derived much benefit from the considered as an important prey for
widespread decrease of intensive stock- threatened and protected carnivores
breeding and the abandonment of agri- such as the wolf (Canis lupus) and lynx
culture on the hills and mountains, fol- (Lynx lynx) (Mattioli et al., 1995;
lowed by an increase of woodland. Okarma, 1995; Meriggi and Lovari,
Moreover, in the last forty years, the 1996; Meriggi et al., 1996; Aenes et
game management of roe deer popula- al., 1998; Mattioli et al., 2004; Gazzola
tions has improved, providing shorter et al., 2005; Meriggi et al., in press).
hunting seasons and limited quotas, Considering all these aspects, roe deer
food supply and habitat improvement, management should gain a sort of bal-
reintroductions and restocking. On the ance between harvesting and conserva-
other hand, if the consequent growth in tion of habitats and species without af-
density and distribution of roe deer fecting human activities. In other
populations has brought benefits to words, different strategies should be
hunters, the increasing damage to for- adopted to adjust population density
estry and agriculture has enlarged the according to different habitats and eco-
social component interested in the systems.
proper management of this species Several examples of different harvest
104Monitoring roe deer populations
plans are reported in the available scien- different across Europe. In the Mediter-
tific and technical literature; most of ranean area, for example, roe deer
them are focused on a single objective, were, and somewhere still are, hunted
such as maximising harvest quotas or by drives with hunting dogs without
trophy hunting. Harvest plans can be any selective and sustainable harvest-
qualitative, when based on criteria such ing criterion. Otherwise, in central
as the distribution of age or sex classes Europe roe deer are traditionally hunted
and trophy size (Von Raesfeld, 1985; for their trophies, so only adult males
Kurt, 1991), or quantitative, when and individuals of poor quality (i.e. old,
based on the estimate of fecundity and sick or injured ones) were culled, often
productivity (Ellenberg, 1975; Blant, ignoring young and females.
1991). Progressively, harvest plans and tech-
The adoption of one approach or the niques have evolved everywhere to-
other may depend on the main man- wards culling plans that respect the sex
agement objective - e.g. population and age class proportions, according to
control vs. the rational exploitation of the consciousness that each population
the population -, the information has its own characteristics and parame-
needed varying drastically in relation to ters. As a result, the census of deer
the different circumstances (Cederlund populations has become a priority to
et al., 1998). In the case of a small har- formulate culling plans, following the
vest quota, compared to the population idea that the more accurate the census
abundance (e.g. trophy hunting), it is the higher the probability of avoiding
sufficient to evaluate by direct counts the degeneration of the population to-
the minimum number of adult males. If wards either overabundance or scarcity.
the management objective is to reduce In this review we collected the avail-
deer damage to forests or crops, it is able information on roe deer monitor-
necessary to estimate the whole popula- ing methods that have been applied in
tion size, particularly the proportion of Europe and Italy, in particular in Tus-
adult females (Ratcliffe, 1987; Lubow cany, where the species is widespread
et al., 1996). Finally, if the objective and more carefully managed. Data
was to achieve the maximum sustain- were obtained from the international
able exploitation, the population re- and national scientific literature as well
cruitment should be known, as also the as from technical reports and congress
intrinsic and external factors that influ- proceedings.
ence it. In any case, especially for the
last target, a sound knowledge of the MATERIALS AND METHODS
main parameters of population dynam-
ics represents the first step for a correct To investigate the census methods usually
management of roe deer populations. adopted for roe deer populations in Europe,
we analysed the bibliography available for
Hunting techniques have changed over
the period 1950 - 2004. From 1990 on-
the years as a consequence of increased wards, the scientific indexed papers were
public awareness promoted by the ac- searched for using the CILEA digital li-
quisition of scientific knowledge of roe brary, by means of ISI Web of Science and
deer populations. This process has been Current Contents Connect (CCC). The
105Meriggi et al.
Wildlife Service software was used to the census techniques adopted in each
search for and consult the abstracts of all game management unit.
the literature published before 1990; above
all, this database yielded a list of references RESULTS
for non indexed journals, congress and
workshop proceedings. Moreover, we con- 1. Evolution of roe deer census methods
sulted books and reports on the conserva-
tion and management of ungulates, particu-
larly the roe deer, in Europe and Italy. The first census methods adopted for
The following journals were consulted: management and scientific purposes -
Journal of Animal Ecology (1968-2004), the drive census and direct observations
Journal of Applied Ecology (1968-2004), - derived from hunting practices (De
Acta Theriologica (1979-2004), Revue Crombrugge, 1969; Boisaubert and
D’Ecologie (Terre e Vie) (1979-2004), The Stoquert, 1975; Boisaubert et al., 1979;
Journal of Wildlife Management (1981- Von Berg, 1979; Cederlund et al.,
2004), Gibier Faune Sauvage (1984-1998), 1984; Denis, 1985; Blant, 1987). These
Ethology Ecology & Evolution (1989- techniques have been largely used,
2004), Ecography (1994-2004), Oikos
even if some authors pointed out the
(1994-2004), Wildlife Biology (1995-2004).
The references of each paper of some inter- risk of underestimating the actual roe
est were searched for and consulted, and deer density (Cederlund et al., 1998;
the same was done for the two most impor- Van Laere et al., 1998), whilst others
tant books about the roe deer (Danilkin and authors asserted their accuracy
Hewison, 1996; Andersen et al., 1998). (Boscardin, 1999). Particularly, with
Then all papers were ordered and listed per the drive census technique it is very
year of publication, country, study period, difficult to apply an adequate sampling
census techniques, census season and habi- strategy and a sufficient number of rep-
tat. All these data were fully available only licates (Van Laere et al., 1998). The
for some papers.
impossibility of replicating the census
The analyses were conducted in order to
obtain: a) the 1950-2004 trend of papers in the same conditions prevents the cal-
dealing with fully explained census tech- culation of confidence intervals and
niques, b) the distribution of papers per standard errors (Cederlund et al.,
country and the frequency distribution of 1998), which are necessary to obtain
census techniques c) per year, d) country, comparable data (Fattorini and Pisani,
e) habitat and f) season. 1999; Fattorini, 2000).
Moreover, the census techniques adopted Successively less laborious techniques
by the major European wildlife services - spotlight road counts, sector census,
and research institutions have been investi- vantage points census, line transects
gated to define the main methods used to
and pellet-group counts -, have been
note down culling plans. In particular, for
Italy, all the Regional and Provincial regu-
adopted, with the main aim of reducing
lations on the management of ungulates the number of people involved, and
were collected, in order to find out the offi- sample size. All these methods have
cial rules on this matter. Finally, a more been scarcely used in the past, due to
intensive investigation was conducted in environmental constraints and the lack
Tuscany by direct inquiries with game- of scientific tests on roe deer popula-
keepers and wildlife managers, to define tions (Cederlund et al., 1998), even if
106Monitoring roe deer populations
sometimes their potential and applica- (1953) exterminated a roe deer popula-
bility has been shown (Mitchell et al. tion that demonstrated a three times
1985; Staines and Ratcliffe, 1987; more abundant estimate than had pre-
Ratcliffe and Mayle, 1992; Boscardin, viously been recorded by direct obser-
1999; Crépin et al., 1999; Mayle et al., vations and drive counts. Successively,
2000). Strandgaard (1972), Pielowski (1984)
Among them, line transects are becom- and Ratcliffe (1987) reported similar
ing more and more used in the monitor- cases, the solitary and secretive behav-
ing of wildlife populations (Burnham et iour of roe deer, particularly in forested
al., 1980, 1981; Seber, 1992; Buckland habitat, enhancing the probability of
et al., 1993). This method is based on population underestimates (Gaillard et
the count of animals observed on both al., 1993).
sides of a standardised transect of One of the first methods adopted to
known length; for each individual or evaluate the accuracy of the different
group of individuals detected the per- census techniques and for research pur-
pendicular distance from the transect poses was the Petersen-Lincoln method
must be measured. In order to obtain (Petersen, 1896; Lincoln, 1930), also
reliable population estimates and con- called the Capture-Mark-Recapture
fidence intervals some assumptions (CMR) method (Andersen, 1962;
should be fulfilled: a) all the individu- Strandgaard, 1967, 1972; Gaillard et
als on the transect must be observed, b) al., 1986; Gill et al., 1996; Andersen et
the individuals are observed in their al., 1995).
initial position, c) the observations are This method is hardly suitable for man-
independent events. This technique is agement, being time-expensive. Never-
still poorly adopted for roe deer, even if theless, population estimates and confi-
some encouraging results have been de- dence intervals are generally reliable if
rived from its application in various the following assumptions are fulfilled
habitats (Zejda, 1984, 1985; Alvarez (Strandgaard, 1972; Caughley, 1977;
Jimenez, 1988; Fandos et al., 1990; Seber, 1982): a) the population is
Gaillard et al., 1993). Particularly, roe closed, b) both marked and unmarked
deer are easily detectable at night, so individuals have the same probability
this method has been adopted with of being recaptured or re-sighted, c) the
good results using night-vision and number of marked animals in the popu-
thermal-imaging equipment; however lation is known at any time, d) the pro-
the costs of this equipment still repre- portion of marked individuals is around
sent a limiting factor (Gill et al., 1997). 60%. Recently several software pack-
Line transects methods are increasingly ages have been released that yield pre-
used by researchers, whilst managers cise calculations, even when not all
are still reluctant because not all the as- these assumptions are fulfilled (Pollock
sumptions can be verified and some- et al., 1990).
time few observations are recorded. The CMR method is considered the
Since the first time that roe deer census reference one when other methods are
estimates have been checked, their in- to be tested. Obviously this means that
accuracy has been clear. Andersen suitable experimental areas with a lot
107Meriggi et al.
of marked animal have to be available. habitat suitability models that incorpo-
On the other hand, nowadays the need rate even small habitat changes and
for methods that fit the various levels population dynamics. The adoption of a
of management strategies and popula- Graphical User Interface (GUI) makes
tion density is declared. them adaptable to any local situation, in
Recently, during the VI European Roe order to enhance the accuracy of the
Deer Congress that took place the 23- estimates of roe deer density through
26th April 2003 in Portugal, it emerged the computation of annual habitat
that the more popular and widespread changes and the culling effort of previ-
census methods (drive counts, line ous years (Radeloff et al., 1999).
transects, pellet-group counts, etc.)
show limitations in some situations and 2. Trend and distribution of census
a solution for all density levels and methods
habitats is still far from achieved. A
flexible and well-studied approach is Sixty-one papers on roe deer census
necessary. Especially in France, a set of methods in Europe were found. The
indicators is being developed for roe published papers were unevenly dis-
deer populations and their habitats tributed among years, only 4 before
(Ballon et al., 1991; Van Laere et al., 1975 and a remarkable increase starting
1998). All these indexes are based upon from the late 1970s until 1985, when
biological parameters that were se- the number of published papers stabi-
lected for being easily measurable and lized around a mean of 3 papers per
closely correlated with population den- year, with a peak of 7 papers in 2001
sity and resource availability (Milner- (Fig. 1). Paper distribution among
Gulland and Akcakaya, 2001). The European countries was overbalanced
most widely used are the kilometric in- towards France (47.5%), Italy (14.8%),
dex of abundance (IKA, Vincent et al., the United Kingdom (9.8%) and Spain
1991), body mass (Maillard et al., (8.2%), while in the rest of Europe pa-
1989; Gaillard et al., 1996; Van Laere pers were lacking or absent (Fig. 2).
et al. 1998), ovulation rate (Liberg et The most common methods were line
al., 1991; Gaillard et al., 1992), fawn transect or distance sampling (22.8%),
production (Boutin et al., 1987; Liberg pellet group counts (17.5%), the CMR
et al., 1991; Vincent et al., 1995), jaw (often involving re-sighting instead of
or hind foot length (Hewison et al., recapture; 14.0%) and the kilometric
1996; Van Laere et al., 1998) and index of abundance (IKA; 12.3%). The
browsing index (Mabille and Neet, other methods were less used even if all
1994; Ballon, 1994; Guibert, 1997). the pooled ecological and biological
Unfortunately, none of them give in- indexes reached 10.7% (Fig. 3). Con-
formation about the population struc- sidering the frequency of use of the dif-
ture, limiting their application for an ferent methods, a tendency to diversifi-
accurate culling plan. cation and experimentation clearly ap-
Finally, a new tendency in roe deer peared through the years, with the pro-
management is to apply, by the Geo- gressive abandonment of expensive and
graphical Information System (GIS), time consuming methods such as the
108Monitoring roe deer populations
drive census and CMR in favour of each) and Italy (4). In the other Euro-
population indexes (Fig. 4). pean countries only one or two meth-
France was the country where the larg- ods have been used (Fig. 5).
est number of methods has been ap- Only for 35 out of 61 papers it was
plied (8), followed by UK, Spain (7 possible to define the habitat where the
Figure 1 - Trend of the papers on monitoring methods of roe deer populations in Europe.
Figure 2 - Distribution of papers on roe deer monitoring methods in the main European
countries.
109Meriggi et al.
census methods were applied. The dif- in particular, line transects, pellet group
ferent habitat types were grouped into counts, CMR and IKA were the most
two macro-habitats: open country
used methods in the former, whereas in
(crops, pastures, grassland, etc.) and
woods. Eleven methods were applied in the latter pellet group counts prevailed
woods, whilst only 6 in open country; (Fig. 6).
Figure 3 - Frequency distribution of the main roe deer monitoring methods.
Figure 4 - Percentage of occurrence of the different roe deer monitoring methods from 1950
to 2004.
110Monitoring roe deer populations
Figure 5 - Percentage of occurrence of the different roe deer monitoring methods in some
European countries.
Figure 6 - Percentage of occurrence of the different roe deer monitoring methods in open
and wooded habitats
111Meriggi et al.
3. Roe deer census methods in Europe 4. Roe deer census methods in Italy
The abundance of roe deer populations In Italy the roe deer is present in 67 out
that are regularly culled has been esti- of 103 provinces (65.0%) and hunting
mated by various methods: in some is allowed in 38 (36.9%), usually by
European countries no census has ever selective criteria except for some north-
been applied, while in other countries eastern provinces (Pordenone, Udine,
sophisticated methodologies have been Treviso, Vicenza, Belluno) were the
used, even for research purposes. The species is also hunted by drives with
most used methods in planning deer dogs (Pedrotti et al., 2001, Apollonio,
culling were the measure of body 2004). Roe deer censuses are con-
weight and jaw length and age estima- ducted in 34 provinces, that is 50.7% of
tion by tooth eruption and consump- the provinces where the species is pre-
tion. The census methods more com- sent and 89.5% of those where the spe-
monly applied were vantage points cies is hunted (Apollonio, 2004).
counts, either complete in open areas or Considering both regional and provin-
according to a sampling design in cial regulations, only in five provinces
wooded areas (Tab. 1). belonging to two regions (Piedmont and
Table 1 - Monitoring methods of roe deer populations applied in some European countries.
Country Census methods
Finland snow-tracking
Sweden snow-tracking, pellet groups
Norway sanitary surveillance on culled animals
Denmark drive census, line transect
United Kingdom drive census, vantage points, pellet groups
France vantage points, sector counts, populations indexes
Germany vantage points
Austria browsing index, direct counts, culling statistics, pellet groups, snow-tracking
Poland drive census, snow-tracking, direct observations.
Czech Republic sector counts in spring
Hungary vantage points, IKA, culling statistics
Bulgaria no census
Romania no census
Serbia vantage points, IKA
Croatia vantage points, IKA.
Slovenia vantage points
Spain no census
112Monitoring roe deer populations
Tuscany) were the periods and methods formed by hunters form March to May
for roe deer census provided. Usually, and planned by the technicians of the
the normative simply refers to technical Hunting Districts. The sampling area
report of the wildlife services or to usually ranges from 4 to 7% of the total
agreement documents with the INFS wooded area of the Hunting District.
(National Institute for Wildlife). Vantage point censuses are performed
Vantage point counts was the most wherever the wood percentage is lower
used census method in all the provinces than 50%, whilst in areas where the
where roe deer culling is allowed. The previous two census techniques are not
drive census was mostly applied in suitable (e.g. Siena, Pisa and Grosseto
Liguria and Tuscany, whilst sector provinces) the IKA and population
counts and spotlight night counts pre- structure are assessed by observations
vailed in alpine areas, where counts are from transects (Tab. 2).
conducted using the roads in the valley Roe deer are hunted also in private es-
bottom or those above the tree-line. In tates; in this case shooting plans are de-
central Italy these techniques are com- cided by the owner under the supervi-
monly used in hunting estates. In some sion of the wildlife services of the
scientific researches line transects, pel- provinces. Censuses are performed by
let group counts and capture-mark- the technicians of either the estate or
resight have been used (Focardi et al., the province, and usually the vantage
2002 a, b, c; Fattorini et al., 2004). points technique or night counts are
adopted. In the province of Pisa, pri-
5. Roe deer census methods in Tuscany vate estates adopt the IKA technique
and, once every three years, the drive
In Tuscany roe deer harvesting is con- census.
ducted by means of quantitative and
qualitative shooting plans. The shoot- DISCUSSION
ing plans, as reported in the regional
regulation, must be based on census In Europe, the scientific and technical
data and all hunters must take part in literature on roe deer census methods
the census activities, under the control and population monitoring has not been
of the wildlife services of the prov- abundant in the past fifty-four years,
inces. Only qualified hunters can take even if some papers may have been ne-
part in culling and all culled individuals glected by mistake from this review,
must be recorded. Nevertheless, only in especially the technical reports, and
some provinces are harvesting data PhD and degree theses that are not al-
analysed to obtain proper information ways easy to locate.
on population structure and dynamics. In the last fifty years, roe deer census
Despite these inconsistencies, popula- techniques have taken two opposite
tion monitoring appears to be excellent paths, as often happens when species
in Tuscany compared to the rest of It- are the object of interest by hunters,
aly. The drive census is the most managers and researchers. Even if re-
adopted method in forest habitats (ex- searchers have improved the accuracy
cept for the province of Prato). It is per- and precision of census techniques,
113Meriggi et al.
managers have often ignored the up- techniques that well fitted the purposes
date, preferring to keep the obsolete of management.
Table 2 - Census methods of roe deer adopted by the province Administrations in Tuscany
region.
Province Type of hunting area Census method Period
Drive census March-May
Arezzo Hunting districts
Vantage points March-May
Drive census -
Hunting districts
Vantage points Late spring
Firenze
Vantage points Late spring
Private estates
Spotlight census -
Drive census April
Hunting districts
Vantage points April
Drive census April-June
Pisa
Vantage points March-April
Private estates
Spotlight census February
Line transects April
Drive census March-April
Livorno Hunting districts
Vantage points March-April
Pistoia Hunting districts Drive census -
Drive census -
Massa-Carrara Hunting districts
Vantage points -
Drive census -
Lucca Hunting districts
Vantage points -
Drive census April
Hunting districts
Vantage points April
Drive census April-June
Siena
Vantage points March-April
Private estates
Spotlight census February
Line transects April
Drive census March-April
Hunting districts Vantage points April
Line transects April
Grosseto
Drive census March-April
Private estates Vantage points April
Spotlight census February-March
Prato Hunting districts Vantage points -
114Monitoring roe deer populations
After the pioneering papers from the selective pressure and suffer high mor-
Danish school in the fifties, which tality rates; as a matter of fact the sex-
highlighted the high risk of underesti- ratio is strongly shifted towards fe-
mating deer populations by the most males in many natural population, even
frequently used census methods, a pe- if local variability is high (Clutton-
riod of stasis lasted until the second Brock, 1991). Therefore reliable census
half of the 1980s. Then the frequency data are fundamental to prevent selec-
of publications increased and became tive hunting from altering the structure
considerable in the first years of the and life-history traits of natural popula-
1990s. At the same time, the census tions (Gadgil and Bossert, 1970;
methods adopted and verified increased Dhondt, 1991).
in number, and biological indicators In some countries scientific research
have been developed for monitoring has been greater compared with the
roe deer populations. European mean. In particular, 80% of
This trend could be explained by a papers were published in only four
combination of different factors: a) the countries - France, Italy, the United
increase of the European deer popula- Kingdom and Spain. These countries
tions and the consequent rise of man- are those where selective hunting is of
agement and economic interest, b) the recent tradition and deer populations
increase of knowledge on roe deer bi- have showed a marked increase, proba-
ology and of the concern about their bly stimulating the research.
proper management, c) the increasing Notwithstanding the increasing knowl-
consciousness about the unreliability of edge of roe deer biology and the ex-
traditional census methods for hunting perimentation of improved monitoring
management, d) the necessity of har- methods, it seems that in management
vest programs for reducing deer dam- practices innovations have been rarely
age and browsing pressure and e) the adopted and accepted throughout
need of less expensive and more accu- Europe (e.g. France and United King-
rate census methods. dom). Unfortunately, harvesting pro-
In the last ten years, managers have grams are still too much based on hunt-
discovered that every harvest program ers’ knowledge and traditions and re-
that does not respect the natural struc- ferred to low-scale geographical units,
ture, in terms of age and sex classes, of without adopting objective census
each population can have huge effects methods (Pollock et al., 2000).
on population dynamics and recruit- In Italy, in spite of the lack of proper
ment (McIntosh et al., 1995). Recently, regulations, it seems that roe deer man-
population genetics have shown that a agement has reached an acceptable
high percentage of individuals are not level, all shooting plans being based on
involved in reproduction, only few census data. Unfortunately, no census
adults playing an important role in an- is performed where roe deer hunting is
nual recruitment (Clutton-Brock, forbidden. Among all regions, Tuscany
1988). is top ranking in the organization and
Moreover, adult males, as happens in diffusion of roe deer censuses, even if
all polyginic species, are under a strong there is high local variability. A large
115Meriggi et al.
difference is evident comparing the Andersen J. 1953. Analysis of the Danish
provinces where selective hunting roe deer population based on the ex-
started first (e.g. Siena and Arezzo) termination of the total stock. Danish
with the others. In the former, a larger Rev. Game Biol., 2: 127-155.
Andersen J. 1962. Roe deer census and
portion of territory is sampled, many
population analysis by means of a
hunters participate in the census activi- modified marking-release technique.
ties, biometrics and fecundity data of In: Le Cren E.D. and Holdgate M.W.
culled animals are collected, while in (eds), The exploitation of natural ani-
the provinces where selective hunting mal population. Blackwell Scientific
started in recent years census opera- Publications, Oxford, 72-82.
tions should be improved and biomet- Andersen R., Duncan P. and Linnell J.D.C.
rics data are not collected. 1998. The European roe deer: the biol-
The census methods adopted appear to ogy of success. Scandinavian Univer-
sity Press, Oslo, 373 pp.
be effective for management purposes,
Andersen R., Linnell J.D.C. and Aenes R.
even if sometimes they may be difficult 1995. Roe deer in an agricultural land-
to organize and apply. This is particu- scape. Final report. NINA Fagrapport,
larly true for the drive census that is 10: 1-80.
time-expensive and scarcely efficient in Apollonio M. 2004. Gli ungulati in Italia :
terms of the area covered. status, gestione e ricerca scientifica.
Hystrix It. J. Mamm., 15: 21-34.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ballon P. 1994. Relations forêts/cervidés -
Vers une meilleure gestion. Informa-
tions techniques du Cemagref, 96(5):
This research was part of the project 1-8.
“La verifica e innovazione dei metodi Ballon P., Guibert B., Maizeret C. and
di censimento del capriolo” that was Boutin J.M. 1991. Contribution à la
funded by Tuscany Region and by the mise au point de nouvelles méthodes
Provinces of Arezzo and Pisa, and co- de gestion des populations de che-
ordinated by M. Apollonio (University vreuil. Application au massif des
of Sassari). Landes de Gascogne. "Etudes" du
CEMAGREF, Département Forêt, sé-
rie forêt n° 6, Annales 90: 173-185.
REFERENCES
Blant M. 1987. Dynamique de population,
condition et constitution du chevreuil
Aenes R., Linnell J.D.C., Perzanowski K., (Capreolus capreolus L. 1758) dans
Karlsen J. and Odden J. 1998. Roe les cantons de Neuchatel et Vaud
deer as a prey. In: Andersen R., Dun- (ouest de la Suisse). Unpublished
can P. and Linnell J.D.C. (eds), The Ph.D. Thesis, University of Neuchâtel,
European roe deer: the biology of suc- Switzerland.
cess. Scandinavian University Press, Blant M. 1991. Reproduction in roe deer
Oslo, 139-159. populations in Western Switzerland.
Alvarez Jimenez G. 1988. Problemas Proceedings of the 18th IUGB Con-
associados a la aplicacion del transecto gress, Krakow, 185-188.
lineal para el cenzo de las problacion Boisaubert B. and Stoquert M. 1975. Recen-
de cervidos en un biotopo medi- sement de cervidés. Unpublished re-
terraneo (Quintos de Mora, Montes de port, Office National de la Chasse, Pa-
Toledo). Ecologia, 2: 233-249. ris, 6 pp.
116Monitoring roe deer populations
Boisaubert B., Vassant J. and Delorme D. tions de chevreuils. Cemagref Note
1979. Contribution a la mise au point technique n° 51, 64 pp.
d’une méthode de recensement appli- Clutton-Brock T.H. 1988. Reproductive
cable à l’espèce chevreuil (Capreolus success. Chicago University Press,
capreolus) vivant en milieu forestier. Chicago.
Bull. Mens. ONC, N°sp.sc.Tech, 93- Clutton-Brock T.H. 1991. Sort and wise
205. use of ungulate populations. Gibier
Boscardin Y. 1999. Les méthodes de dé- Faune Sauvage, 8: 309-317.
nombrement des populations de che- Crépin F., Bouteiller R., Gaillard J.M. and
vreuils. Bull. Mens. ONC, 244: 17-21. Delorme D. 1999. Dénombrement des
Boutin J.M., Gaillard J.M., Delorme D. chevreuils en milieu ouvert: résultats
and Van Laere G. 1987. Suivi de et application à la gestion des popula-
l'évolution de la fécondité chez le tions. Bull. Mens. ONC, 244: 78-82.
chevreuil par l'observation des Danilkin A.A. and Hewison A.J.M. 1996.
groupes familiaux. Gibier Faune Sau- Behavioural ecology of Siberian and
vage, 4: 255-265. European roe deer. Chapman & Hall,
Buckland S.T., Anderson D.R., Burnham London.
K.P. and Laake J.L. 1993. Distance De Crombrugge S.A. 1969. Modes de re-
sampling: Estimating Abundance of censement du cerf (Cervus elaphus L.)
Biological Populations. Chapman and en Belgique et portée pratique. Pro-
Hall, London. ceedings of the IX th IUGB Congress,
Burnham K.P., Anderson D.R. and Laake Moscow, 298-306.
J.L. 1980. Estimation of density from Denis M. 1985. Quelques méthodes pra-
line transect sampling of biological tiques pour l’estimation de l’effectif
populations. Wildl. Monogr., 72: 1-202. d’une population de chevreuils (Ca-
Burnham K.P., Anderson D.R. and Laake preolus capreolus L.). Proceedings of
J.L. 1981. Line transect estimation of the XVIIth IUGB Congress, Brussels,
bird population density using a Fou- 979-989.
rier series. Studies in Avian Biology 6: Dhondt A.A. 1991. Density dependence,
446-482. teta selection and the exploitation of
Caughley G. 1977. Analysis of vertebrate animal populations. Gibier Faune
populations. John Wiley and Sons, Sauvage, 8: 297-307.
London. Duncan P. 1998. Managing roe deer and
Cederlund G., Bergqvist J., Kjellander P., their impact on the environment: max-
Gill R.M.A., Gaillard J.M., Boisa- imizing the net benefits to society. In:
ubert B., Ballon P. and Duncan P. Andersen R., Duncan P. and Linnell J.
1998. Managing roe deer and their D. C. (eds), The European roe deer:
impact on the environment: maximiz- the biology of success. Scandinavian
ing the net benefits to society. In: An- University Press, Oslo, 337–372.
dersen R., Duncan P. and Linnell Ellenberg H.1975. Beitrage zur Okologie des
J.D.C. (eds), The European roe deer: Rehes. Phd Thesis, Munich, 275 pp.
the biology of success. Scandinavian Fandos P., Fernandez J.M., and Palomero
University Press, Oslo, 337–372. G. 1990. Censo de corzo en un sector
Cederlund G., Bergqvist J., Kjellander P., de la reserva nacional de caza de
Gill R.M.A., Gaillard J.M., Boisa- Sajaliebana. Informe por la diputacion
ubert B. and Ballon P. 1984. Mé- regional da Cantabria, Universidad de
thodes de recensement des popula- Cantabria.
117Meriggi et al.
Fattorini L. 2000. Statistical estimation of winter in two contrasting populations.
abundance in wild ungulate popula- J. Wildl. Manage., 60: 29-36.
tions. Proceedings of the Congress Gaillard J.M., Lebreton J.D., Pontier D.
“Gestione degli ungulati selvatici: and Landry P. 1992. Demographic
problemi e soluzioni”. Università de- sensitivity and population manage-
gli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, 50-64. ment: an application to roe deer
Fattorini L. and Pisani C. 1999. Metodi di (Capreolus capreolus). Proceedings of
campionamento per le indagini am- the 18th IUGB Congress, Krakow, 2,
bientali. Facoltà di Economia "R. Go- 547-550.
odwin", Università degli Studi di Sie- Gazzola A., Bertelli I., Avanzinelli E.,
na, Siena, 213 pp. Tolosano A., Bertotto P. and Apollo-
Fattorini L., Pisani C. and Sforzi A. 2004. nio M. 2005. Predation by wolves
The estimation of wild ungulate (Canis lupus) on wild and domestic
abundance using sample area surveys: ungulates of the western Alps, Italy. J.
an application to Maremma Regional Zool., 266: 205-213.
Park. Satistical Methods & Applica- Gill R.M.A. 1990. Monitoring the status of
tions, 13: 197-212. European and North American cervids.
Focardi S., Isotti R., Pelliccioni E.R. and Ian- GEMS Information Series N°8, Global
nuzzo D. 2002a. The use of distance Environment Programme, Nairobi,
sampling and mark-resighting to estimate Kenia, 277 pp.
the local density of wildlife populations. Gill R.M.A., Johnson A.L., Francis A.,
Environmetrics, 13: 177-186. Hiscoks K. and Peace A.J. 1996.
Focardi S., Isotti R., Tinelli A. 2002c. Line Changes in roe deer (Capreolus ca-
transect estimates of ungulate popula- preolus L.) population density in re-
tions in a Mediterranean forest. J. sponse to forest habitat succession.
Wildl. Manage., 66: 48-58. For. Ecol. Manage., 88: 31-41.
Focardi S., Pelliccioni E.R., Petrucco R., Gill R.M.A., Thomas M.L. and Stocker D.
Toso S. 2002b. Spatial patterns and 1997. The use of portable thermal im-
density dependence in the dynamics aging for estimating deer population
of roe deer population in central Italy. density in forest habitats. J. Appl.
Oecologia, 130: 411-419. Ecol., 34: 1273-1286.
Gadgil M. and Bossert W. 1970. Life his- Guibert B. 1997. Une nouvelle approche
tory consequences of natural selec- des populations de chevreuils en forêt;
tion. American Naturalist, 104: 1-24. l’indice de pression sur la flore. ONF
Gaillard J.M., Boisaubert B., Boutin J.M. Bull. Techn., 32: 5-13.
Hewison A.J.M., Vincent J.P., Bideau E.,
and Clobert J. 1986. L'estimation d'ef-
Angibault J.M. and Putman R.J. 1996.
fectifs à partir de capture-marquage-
Variation in cohort mandible size as an
recapture: application au chevreuil
index of roe deer (Capreolus capreo-
(Capreolus capreolus). Gibier Faune lus) densities and population trends. J.
Sauvage, 3:143-158. Zool., 239: 573-581.
Gaillard J.M., Boutin J.M. and Van Laere Kurt F. 1991. Das Rehwild in der Kultur-
G. 1993. Dénombrer les populations landschaft. Verlag Paul Parey. Hambo-
de chevreuils par l'utilisation du Line urg and Berlin. 284 pp.
transect. Etude de faisabilité. Rev. Liberg O., Johansson A., Lockowandt S.
Ecol. (Terre Vie), 48: 73-85. and Wahlström K. 1991. Density ef-
Gaillard J.M., Delorme D., Boutin J.M., fects in roe deer demography. Tran-
Van Laere G and Boisaubert B. 1996. sactions of the XXth IUGB Congress,
Body mass of Roe Deer fawns during Gödöllö, Hungary, 1: 125-130.
118Monitoring roe deer populations
Lincoln F.C. 1930. Calculating waterfowl bility in northern Italy. Ecography, 19:
abundance on the basis of banding re- 287-295.
turns. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Meriggi A., Brangi A., Schenone L. and
Circular 118, 4 pp. Signorelli D. In press. La dieta del lu-
Lubow B.C., White G.C. and Anderson po (Canis Lupus) in Italia in relazione
D.R. 1996. Evaluation of a linked sex alle variazioni d’abbondanza degli un-
harvest strategy for cervid popula- gulati selvatici. Atti del Convegno
tions. J. Wildl. Manage., 60: 787-796. “Ricerca scientifica e strategie per la
Mabille A. and Neet C. 1994. Roe Deer conservazione del lupo in Italia” Bolo-
density estimation by the line transect gna 24 Novembre 2006.
method. In: Wotschikowsky U (ed.), Milner-Gulland E.J. and Akcakaya H.R.
Proceedings of the 2nd European roe 2001. Sustainability indices for ex-
deer Meeting, Brixen, 133-136. ploited populations. Trends Ecol. &
Maillard D., Boisaubert B. and Gaillard Evol., 16:686-692.
J.M. 1989. La masse corporelle: un Mitchell B., Rowe J.J., Ratcliffe P.R. and
bio-indicateur possible pour le suivi Hinge M. 1985. Defecation frequency
des populations de chevreuil. Gibier in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in
Faune Sauvage, 6: 57-68. relation to the accumulation rates of
Mattioli L., Apollonio M., Mazzarone V. faecal deposits. J. Zool., 207: 1-7.
and Centofanti E. 1995. Wolf food Okarma H. 1995. The trophic ecology of
habits and wild ungulate availability wolves and their predatory role in un-
in the Foreste Casentinesi National gulate communities of forest ecosys-
Park, Italy. Acta Theriol., 40: 387- tems in Europe. Acta Theriol., 40: 335-
402. 386.
Mattioli L., Capitani C., Avanzinelli E., Pedrotti L., Dupré E., Preatoni D. and Toso
Bertelli I., Gazzola A. and Apollonio S. 2001. Banca dati ungulati. Status,
M. 2004. Predation by wolves (Canis distribuzione, consistenza, gestione,
lupus) on roe deer (Capreolus capreo- prelievo venatorio e potenzialità delle
lus) in north-eastern Apennine, Italy. popolazioni di ungulati in Italia.
J. Zool., 264: 249-258. Biologia e Conservazione della Fauna,
Mayle B.A., Putman R.J. and Wyllie I. 109: 1-128.
Petersen C.G.J. 1896. The yearly immigra-
2000. The use of trackway counts to
tion of young plaice into the Limfjord
establish an index to deer presence.
from the German sea. Rep. Dan. Biol.
Mammal Rev., 30: 233-237.
Station 1895, 6: 1-77.
McIntosh R., Burlton F.W.E. and
Pielowski Z. 1984. Some aspects of popu-
McReddie G. 1995. Monitoring the
lation structure and longevity of field
density of roe deer Capreolus capreo- roe deer. Acta Theriol., 29: 17-33.
lus population subjected to heavy Pollock K.H., Nichols J.D., Brownie C. and
hunting pressure. For. Ecol. Manage., Hines J.E. 1990. Statistical inference
79: 99-106. for capture–recapture experiments.
Meriggi A. and Lovari S. 1996. A review Wildl. Monogr., 107: 1-97.
of wolf predation in southern Europe: Pollock K.H., Nichols J.D., Simons T.R. and
does the wolf prefer wild prey to li- Sauer J.R. 2000. The design of large
vestock? J. Appl. Ecol., 33: 1561- scale wildlife monitoring studies. Pro-
1571. ceedings Atti del V Convegno Interna-
Meriggi A., Brangi A., Matteucci C. and zionale su Metodi Quantitativi per le
Sacchi O. 1996. The feeding habits of Scienze Applicate - Inferenza su Popo-
wolves in relation to large prey availa- lazioni Biologiche. 1-15.
119Meriggi et al.
Radeloff V.C., Pidgeon A.M. and Hostert Biol., 7: 1-205.
P. 1999. Habitat and population mod- Van Laere G., Maillard D., Boutin J.M. and
elling of roe deer using an interactive Delorme D. 1998. Le suivi des popula-
geographic information system. Ecol. tions de chevreuils des méthodes tradi-
Model., 114: 287-304. tionnelles d’estimation aux indicateurs
Ratcliffe P.R. 1987. Red deer population biologiques. Proceedings XXI Col-
changes and the independent assess- loque francophone de Mammalogie,
ment of population size. Symp. Zool. Amiens, Oct. 1997.
Soc. Lond., 58: 153-165. Vincent J.P., Bideau E., Hewison A.J.M.
Ratcliffe P.R. and Mayle B.A. 1992. Roe and Angibault J.M. 1995. The influ-
Deer Biology and Management. For. ence of increasing body weight, kid
Comm. Bull., 105: 1-28. production, home range and winter
Seber G.A.F. 1982. The estimation of an- grouping in roe deer. J. Zool., 236:
imal abundance and related parame- 371-382.
ters. Griffin, London. Vincent J.P., Gaillard J.M. and Bideau E.
Seber G.A.F. 1992. A review of estimating
1991. Kilometric index as biological
animal abundance. IInd International
indicator for monitoring forest roe deer
Statistical Review, 60: 129-166.
populations. Acta Theriol., 36: 315-
Staines B.W. and Ratcliffe P.R. 1987. Es-
328.
timating the abundance of red deer
(Cervus elaphus L.) and roe deer (Ca- Von Berg F.C. 1979. Zahltreiben zum Er-
preolus capreolus L.) and their cur- fassen von Wilddbichten. Allgemeiner
rent status in Great Britain. Symp. Forstzirtschrifte, 44/45: 1200-1201.
Zool. Soc. Lond., 58: 131-152. Von Raesfeld F. 1985. Das Rehwild. Ver-
Strandgaard H. 1967. Reliability of the Pe- lag Paul Parey, Hambourg and Berlin,
tersen method tested on a roe-deer 392 pp.
population. J. Wildl. Manage., 4: 643- Zejda J. 1984. Road strip transects for es-
651. timating field roe deer density. Folia
Strandgaard H. 1972. The roe deer (Ca- Zool., 33: 109-124.
preolus capreolus) at Kälø and the fac- Zejda J. 1985. Field transects for roe deer
tors regulating its size. Dan. Rev. Game census. Folia Zool., 34: 209-215.
120You can also read
