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Hessian Ministry of Economy, Transport,
Urban and Regional Development
www.hessen-nanotech.de
Application of Nano-
technologies in the Energy Sector
Hessen – there’s no way around us.
Hessen Nanotech
Application of Nanotechnologies in the Energy Sector Volume 9 of the series Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech
Imprint
Application of Nanotechnologies
in the Energy Sector
Volume 9 of the series Aktionslinie Hessen-
Nanotech of the Hessian Ministry of Economy,
Transport, Urban and Regional Development
Created by:
Dr. Wolfgang Luther
VDI Technologiezentrum GmbH
Zukünftige Technologien Consulting
Graf-Recke-Straße 84
40239 Düsseldorf, Germany
Editorial Staff:
Sebastian Hummel
(Hessian Ministry of Economy, Transport and
Urban and Regional Development)
Dr. Rainer Waldschmidt, Alexander Bracht,
Siemens AG
Markus Lämmer
(Hessen Agentur, Hessen-Nanotech)
Publisher:
HA Hessen Agentur GmbH
Abraham-Lincoln-Straße 38-42
65189 Wiesbaden, Germany
Phone +49 (0)611 774-8614
Telefax +49 (0)611 774-8620
www.hessen-agentur.de
The publisher does not take any responsibility for cor-
rectness, preciseness and completeness of the given
information. Opinions and views expressed in this publi-
cation do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher.
© Hessian Ministry of Economy, Transport,
Urban and Regional Development
Kaiser-Friedrich-Ring 75
65185 Wiesbaden, Germany
www.wirtschaft.hessen.de
Reproduction and reprint – even in parts –
subject to prior written approval.
Design: WerbeAtelier Theißen, Lohfelden, Germany
Print: Werbedruck Schreckhase, Spangenberg, Germany
www.hessen-nanotech.de
August 2008
Illustrations Cover
top: Siemens AG
bottom left: Evonik Degussa GmbH
bottom center: Fraunhofer Institut für solare Energiesysteme
bottom right: BASF
Content
Preface .............................................................................................. 2
Abstract ........................................................................................... 4
1 Introduction into Nanotechnologies ................................. 9
2 Innovation Potentials in the Energy Sector .................. 13
3 Application Potentials of Nanotechnologies
in the Energy Sector ............................................................... 36
4 Practical Examples from Hessen ....................................... 54
5 Research Programs, Funding and
Support Possibilities ............................................................... 65
6 Statements of Associations and Networks
in the Energy Sector ............................................................... 71
7 Annex ............................................................................................. 78
1
Preface
Dr. Alois Rhiel
Hessian Minister of Economics,
Transport, Urban and Regional
Development
The worldwide energy demand is continuously growing and cross-sectional technologies exhibit the unique
and, according to the forecasts of the International potential for decisive technological breakthroughs in the
Energy Agency, it is expected to rise by approx. 50 per- energy sector, thus making substantial contributions to
cent until 2030. Currently, over 80 percent of the primary sustainable energy supply. The range of possible nano-
energy demand is covered by fossil fuels. Although their applications in the energy sector comprises gradual short
reserves will last for the next decades, they will not be and medium-term improvements for a more efficient use
able to cover the worldwide energy consumption in the of conventional and renewable energy sources as well as
long run. Nuclear energy covers a part of the global completely new long-term approaches for energy recov-
energy demand without climatic effects, according to cur- ery and utilization. This NanoEnergy brochure of the
rent assessments, however the supply of nuclear fuels will Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech published by my Ministry
also run short in the foreseeable future. In view of possi- is offering information on these topics. The aim is to
ble climatic changes due to the increase in the atmos- describe which technical solutions can already be applied
pheric CO2-content as well as the conceivable scarcity of today, and for which issues new solution options will be
fossil fuels, it becomes clear that future energy supply can available only in the medium to long run. With this, we
only be guaranteed through increased use of renewable want to trigger off innovation processes urgently required
energy sources. With energy recovery through renewable in Hessian companies and science.
sources like sun, wind, water, tides, geothermy or bio-
mass the global energy demand could be met many
times over; currently however it is still inefficient and too
expensive in many cases to take over significant parts of
the energy supply. Due to the usual adaptation reactions
on the markets, it is foreseeable that prices for fossil fuels
will rise, while significantly reduced prices are expected
Dr. Alois Rhiel
for renewable energies. Already today, wind, water and
Hessian Minister of Economics, Transport,
sun are economically competitive in some regions. How-
Urban and Regional Development
ever, to solve energy and climate problems, it is not only
necessary to economically utilize renewable alternatives
to fossil fuels, but to optimize the whole value added
chain of energy, i.e. from development and conversion,
transport and storage up to the consumers’ utilization.
Innovation and increases in efficiency in conjunction with
a general reduction of energy consumption are urgently
needed in all fields to reach the high aims within the
given time since the world population is growing and
striving for more prosperity. Nanotechnologies as key
2
Key to Sustainable Energy Supply
Prof. Dr. Jürgen Schmid
Chairman of Institut für Solare
Energieversorgungstechnik
(ISET), Kassel
High demands are placed on a strategy for the reorgani- technologies. The future challenge is the integration of
zation of the current energy supply structure: the promising nanotechnological approaches into techni-
The drastic reduction of global CO2-emissions with con- cal innovations for the development of a sustainable
temporaneously high supply reliability requires strategic energy supply up to the commercial implementation, and
changes in the design of future energy systems. Apart their realization as a contribution to cost reduction in
from the enhancement of energy efficiency, mainly the renewable energies to increase efficiency in generation
quick implementation of low-emission technologies has and consumption. To enhance competitiveness and inno-
to be advanced. Renewable energies have a long-term vative strength of Hessian enterprises, intensive coopera-
potential to take over the entire global energy supply. tion with Hessian universities and research facilities may
However, during a transition period, conventional fossil provide essential impulses, in particular by combining the
fuels will have to be utilized and, probably, technologies fields of materials research and energy research.
for the separation and safe final storage of CO2 in suit-
Against the background of the potential of nanotech-
able deposits. In this case, the transformation process has
nologies in the energy sector, the previous research and
to allow utmost flexibility and economic efficiency for the
development activities altogether seem to have room for
application of individual energy technologies. Utmost
improvement. Therefore, we actively support the very
efficiency of supply systems will be achieved, if preferably
welcome initiative of the Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech of
all fossil and biogenous energy sources are used for the
the Hessian Ministry of Economy to spotlight the issue of
coupled generation of electric current and heat. This also
NanoEnergy with projects, events and this brochure.
includes the possibility of highly efficient exploitation of
coal through coal gasification. The feeding into the natu-
ral gas grid anyway requires the CO2 separation from bio-
gas or the conversion of synthesis gas into methane and
may thus be a first step towards decarbonization. The
almost complete separation of carbon both from synthe-
sis gas and methane and the provision of pure hydrogen
are possible in a later stage without difficulty. The utiliza- Prof. Dr. Jürgen Schmid
tion of nanotechnologies in the most important fields of Institute for Solar Energy Technology
energy supply such as building, transport and traffic, (ISET, Germany)
portable resp. off-grid power applications may contribute
decisively to the solution of these problems. Due to the
existing research and development capacities in universi-
ties and extra-faculty facilities, above all in industry, the
state of Hessen is already well-positioned in nanotech-
nologies and the adjacent fields of material and surface
technologies, microsystems technologies and optical
3
Abstract
Nanotechnologies provide the potential to enhance and the global climate protection policy will be
energy efficiency across all branches of industry and achieved. Here, nanotechnological innovations are
to economically leverage renewable energy pro- brought to bear on each part of the value-added
duction through new technological solutions and chain in the energy sector.
optimized production technologies. In the long run,
essential contributions to sustainable energy supply
Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy
sources change distribution storage usage
Regenerative Gas Turbines Power Transmission Electrical Energy Thermal Insulation
Photovoltaics: Nano-optimized Heat and corrosion protection High-Voltage Transmission: Batterries: Optimized Li-ion- Nanoporous foams and gels
cells (polymeric, dye, quantum of turbine blades (e.g. ceramic Nanofillers for electrical iso- batteries by nanostructured (aerogels, polymer foams) for
dot, thin film, multiple junction), or intermetallic nano-coatings) lation systems, soft magnetic electrodes and flexible, ceram- thermal insulation of buildings
antireflective coatings for more efficient turbine nano-materials for efficient ic separator-foils, application or in industrial processes
Wind Energy: Nano-compos- power plants current transformation in mobile electronics, auto-
ites for lighter and stronger mobile, flexible load manage-
Super Conductors: Optimized
rotor blades, wear and corro- Thermoelectrics ment in power grids (mid term)
high temperature SC‘s based
sion protection nano-coatings Nanostructured compounds on nanoscale interface design Supercapacitors: Air Conditioning
for bearings and power trains (interface design, nanorods) for loss-less power transmis- Nanomaterials for electrodes
etc. sion (carbon-aerogels, CNT, Intelligent management of
for efficient thermoelectrical
metall(-oxides) and elektrolytes light and heat flux in buildings
Geothermal: Nano-coatings power generation (e.g. usage CNT Power Lines: Super con-
for higher energy densities) by electrochromic windows,
and -composites for wear of waste heat in automobiles ducting cables based on micro mirror arrays or IR-
resistant drilling equipment or body heat for personal carbon nanotubes (long term) reflectors
electronics (long term))
Hydro-/Tidal Power: Nano- Wireless Power Transmission: Chemical Energy
coatings for corrosion protection Power transmission by laser,
Fuel Cells Hydrogen: Nanoporous mate-
Biomass Energy: Yield opti- microwaves or electromag- rials (organometals, metal hy-
mization by nano-based pre- Nano-optimized membranes netic resonance based on Lightweight Construction
drides) for application in micro
cision farming (nanosensors, and electrodes for efficient fuel nano-optimized components fuel cells for mobile electronics Lightweight construction ma-
controlled release and storage cells (PEM) for applications in (long term) or in automobiles (long term) terials using nano-composites
of pesticides and nutrients) automobiles/mobile electronics
Fuel Reforming/Refining: (carbon nanotubes, metal-
Nano-catalysts for optimized matrix-composites, nano-
Hydrogen Generation fuel production (oil refining, coated light metals, ultra
Nano-catalysts and new pro- desulphurization, coal lique- performance concrete,
cesses for more efficient faction polymer-composites)
hydrogen generation (e.g. Fuel Tanks: Gas tight fuel
photoelectrical, elektrolysis, tanks based on nano-com-
biophotonic)
Smart Grids
posites for reduction of hydro-
Fossil Fuels Nanosensors (e.g. magneto- carbon emissions Industrial Processes
Wear and corrosion protection resistive) for intelligent and
Combustion Engines Substitution of energy inten-
of oil and gas drilling equip- flexible grid management
sive processes based on
ment, nanoparticles for impro- Wear and corrosion protection capable of managing highly
ved oil yields decentralised power feeds
Thermal Energy nanotech process innovations
of engine components (nano- (e.g. nano-catalysts, self-
composites/-coatings, nano- Phase Change Materials:
assembling processes etc.)
particles as fuel additive etc.) Encapsulated PCM for air
Nuclear Heat Transfer conditioning of buildings
Nano-composites for radiation Efficient heat in- and outflow Adsorptive Storage:
shielding and protection
Electrical Motors based on nano-optimized heat Nano-porous materials (e.g. Lighting
(personal equipment, container Nano-composites for supercon- exchangers and conductors zeolites) for reversible heat
etc.), long term option for ducting components in electro (e.g. based on CNT-composi- storage in buildings and Energy efficient lighting sys-
nuclear fusion reactors motors (e.g. in ship engines) tes) in industries and buildings heating nets tems (e.g. LED, OLED)
Examples for potential applications of nanotechnology along the value-added chain in the energy sector (source: VDI TZ GmbH)
4
Development of Primary Energy Sources Energy Conversion
Nanotechnologies provide essential improvement The conversion of primary energy sources into elec-
potentials for the development of both conventional tricity, heat and kinetic energy requires utmost effi-
energy sources (fossil and nuclear fuels) and renew- ciency. Efficiency increases, especially in fossil-fired
able energy sources like geothermal energy, sun, gas and steam power plants, could help avoid con-
wind, water, tides or biomass. Nano-coated, wear- siderable amounts of carbon dioxide emissions.
resistant drill probes, for example, allow the opti- Higher power plant efficiencies, however, require
mization of lifespan and efficiency of systems for the higher operating temperatures and thus heat-resis-
development of oil and natural gas deposits or geot- tant turbine materials. Improvements are possible,
hermal energy and thus the saving of costs. Further for example, through nano-scale heat and corrosion
examples are high-duty nanomaterials for lighter protection layers for turbine blades in power plants
and more rugged rotor blades of wind and tide- or aircraft engines to enhance the efficiency through
power plants as well as wear and corrosion protec- increased operating temperatures or the application
tion layers for mechanically stressed components of lightweight construction materials (e.g. titanium
(bearings, gear boxes, etc.). Nanotechnologies will aluminides). Nano-optimized membranes can
play a decisive role in particular in the intensified use extend the scope of possibilities for separation and
of solar energy through photovoltaic systems. In climate-neutral storage of carbon dioxide for power
case of conventional crystalline silicon solar cells, for generation in coal-fired power plants, in order to
instance, increases in efficiency are achievable by render this important method of power generation
antireflection layers for higher light yield. First and environmentally friendlier in the long run. The
foremost, however, it will be the further develop- energy yield from the conversion of chemical energy
ment of alternative cell types, such as thin-layer solar through fuel cells can be stepped up by nano-struc-
cells (among others of silicon or other material sys- tured electrodes, catalysts and membranes, which
tems like copper/indium/selenium), dye solar cells results in economic application possibilities in auto-
or polymer solar cells, which will predominantly mobiles, buildings and the operation of mobile elec-
profit from nanotechnologies. Polymer solar cells are tronics. Thermoelectric energy conversion seems to
said to have high potential especially regarding the be comparably promising. Nano-structured semi-
supply of portable electronic devices, due to the rea- conductors with optimized boundary layer design
sonably-priced materials and production methods contribute to increases in efficiency that could pave
as well as the flexible design. the way for a broad application in the utilization of
waste heat, for example in automobiles, or even of
Medium-term development targets are an efficiency
human body heat for portable electronics in textiles.
of approx. 10 % and a lifespan of several years. Here,
for example, nanotechnologies could contribute to
the optimization of the layer design and the mor-
phology of organic semiconductor mixtures in com-
ponent structures. In the long run, the utilization of
nanostructures, like quantum dots and wires, could
allow for solar cell efficiencies of over 60 %.
(Source: Siemens AG)
5
Low-loss Power Transmission and Smart Grids
Regarding the reduction of energy losses in current In the long run, even hydrogen seems to be a prom-
transmission, hope exists that the extraordinary elec- ising energy store for environmentally-friendly
tric conductivity of nanomaterials like carbon nan- energy supply. Apart from necessary infrastructural
otubes can be utilized for application in electric adjustments, the efficient storage of hydrogen is
cables and power lines. Furthermore, there are nan- regarded as one of the critical factors of success on
otechnological approaches for the optimization of the way to a possible hydrogen management.
superconductive materials for lossless current con-
Current materials for chemical hydrogen storage do
duction. In the long run, options are given for wire-
not meet the demands of the automotive industry
less energy transport, e.g. through laser, microwaves
which requires a H2-storage capacity of up to ten
or electromagnetic resonance. Future power distri-
weight percent.
bution will require power systems providing
dynamic load and failure management, demand-dri-
ven energy supply with flexible price mechanisms as
well as the possibility of feeding through a number
of decentralized renewable energy sources. Nan-
otechnologies could contribute decisively to the
realization of this vision, inter alia, through nano-sen-
sory devices and power-electronical components
able to cope with the extremely complex control and
monitoring of such grids.
Energy Storage
The utilization of nanotechnologies for the enhance-
ment of electrical energy stores like batteries and Nanostructured
super-capacitors turns out to be downright promis- heat protection
layers for
ing. Due to the high cell voltage and the outstanding
gas turbines
energy and power density, the lithium-ion-
technology is regarded as the most promising vari-
ant of electrical energy storage. Nanotechnologies
can improve capacity and safety of lithium-ion-
High temperature
batteries decisively, as for example through new
superconductors for
ceramic, heat-resistant and still flexible separators motors and
and high-performance electrode materials. The com- generators in ships
pany Evonik pushes the commercialization of such
systems for the application in hybrid and electric
vehicles as well as for stationary energy storage.
Nano-optimized
fuel cells for
automobiles and
transport vehicles
Nanomembranes
for separation of
carbon dioxide in CCS
(Carbon Capture and
Storage) power plants
Nanocrystalline mag-
netic materials for
efficient components
in current transfor-
mation and supply
(e.g. transformers,
electric meters etc.)
6Various nanomaterials, inter alia based on economic point of view, are also adsorption stores
nanoporous metalorganic compounds, provide based on nanoporous materials like zeolites, which
development potentials which seem to be econom- could be applied as heat stores in district heating
ically realizable at least with regard to the operation grids or in industry. The adsorption of water in zeo-
of fuel cells in portable electronic devices. Another lite allows the reversible storage and release of heat
important field is thermal energy storage. The (see practical example Viessmann, p. 60).
energy demand in buildings, for example, may be
significantly reduced by using phase change mate-
rials such as latent heat stores. Interesting, from an
Scenario with examples for future application possibilities of nanotechnologies in the energy sector
(Design: VDI TZ GmbH; Photo credits: Siemens, BASF, Evonik, Bayer, FHG-ISE, Rewitec, GKSS, Magnetec, FH Wiesbaden)
Lithium-ion-batteries
Nanoporous for stationary
Carbon nanotubes as
hydrogen storage energy storage or as
high-tensile con-
materials for power unit for
struction materials e.g.
fuel cell vehicles hybrid/electric cars
for rotor blades of
wind power stations
or as material for low-
loss cables/power lines
Polymer solar cells
for large-scale
applications in
buildings or for
mobile electronics
Dye solar cells
as decorative
facade elements
in buildings
Nanostructured
thermoelectric
materials for
power supply of
mobile electronics
Nanostructured wear
protection layers for OLED for large-
machine components scale displays and
with a high mechani- lighting devices
cal load (e.g. engines,
bearings, drilling
equipment)
7Energy Use
To achieve sustainable energy supply, and parallel realizable through tribological layers for mechanical
to the optimized development of available energy components in plants and machines, as commer-
sources, it is necessary to improve the efficiency of cially marketed by REWITEC from Lahnau (cf. practi-
energy use and to avoid unnecessary energy con- cal example on page 61). Building technology also
sumption. This applies to all branches of industry provides great potentials for energy savings, which
and private households. Nanotechnologies provide could be tapped, for example, by nanoporous ther-
a multitude of approaches to energy saving. Exam- mal insulation material suitably applicable in the
ples are the reduction of fuel consumption in auto- energetic rehabilitation of old buildings. In general,
mobiles through lightweight construction materials the control of light and heat flux by nanotechnolog-
on the basis of nanocomposites, the optimization in ical components, as for example switchable glasses,
fuel combustion through wear-resistant, lighter is a promising approach to reducing energy con-
engine components and nanoparticular fuel addi- sumption in buildings (cf. brochure Uses for Nan-
tives or even nanoparticles for optimized tires with otechnologies in Architecture and Civil Engineer-
low rolling resistance (cf. brochure Automotive Nan- ing).
otechnologies). Considerable energy savings are
Conclusion
In view of a globally increasing energy demand, When replacing fossil fuels, not only their function
threatening climatic changes due to continuously as energy source, but also as energy store has to
increasing carbon dioxide emissions, as well as the be taken into account, for instance in the automo-
foreseeable scarcity of fossil fuels, the development tive sector. Here, alternatives must be found for the
and provision of sustainable methods for power long-term storage of energy and its availability at
generation belong to the most urgent challenges short notice and in an efficient infrastructure. The
of mankind. Massive effort at political and eco- move into hydrogen economy and the increased
nomical level is required to basically modernize the utilization of biofuels are discussed as solutions for
existing energy system. Growing efficiency and new the future, which, however, require considerable
methods through nanotechnological know-how investments and technological leaps, inter alia on
may play a key role for the required innovation in the basis of nanotechnologies. Further challenges
the energy sector. Nanotechnological components of the energy sector are the optimization and inte-
provide potentials for the more efficient utilization gration of mobile energy supply systems for the
of energy reserves and the more economical devel- operation of wireless electronic devices, tools and
opment of renewables. This brochure provides a sensors, which have become a key factor in mod-
number of examples for possible applications and ern industrial society.
developments in which Hessian enterprises and
To enable the immediate practical implementation
research facilities are actively involved.
of nanotechnological innovations in such a broad
When implementing nanotechnological innova- field like the energy sector, an interbranch and
tions in the energy sector, the macroeconomic and interdisciplinary dialog with all players involved will
social context must not be lost sight of. The design be required. This brochure wants to contribute to
of a future energy system requires long-term invest- building a bridge and providing generally under-
ments in research activities based on realistic standable information for coordinated and target-
potential assessments and the careful adaptation oriented acting in politics, economy and society.
of the individual supply chain components. In case
of renewable energy production by wind or solar
energy, for example, it has to be considered that
power generation occurs discontinuously and
energy stores have to be provided as buffers to
balance the fluctuating demand.
81 Introduction into Nanotechnologies
Nanotechnologies are worldwide regarded as key tinct definition, than they describe interdisciplinary
technologies for innovations and technological and cross-sector research approaches, for example
progress in almost all branches of economy. Nan- in electronics, optics, biotechnology or new materi-
otechnologies refer to the target-oriented technical als, using effects and phenomena which are only
utilization of objects and structures in a size in the found in the nano-cosmos.
range of 1 and 100 nm. They are less seen as basic
technologies in the classic sense with a clear and dis-
1.1 Definition of Nanotechnologies
Up to now, there is no internationally accepted defi- logical processes as such are not basically new, but
nition of nanotechnologies. First approaches are cur- often represent further developments of proven pro-
rently being worked out by the International Stan- duction and analysis techniques. Nano-effects had
dardization Organization (ISO) (cf. brochure Nano- already been used in the Middle Ages, for instance,
Standardization). The topical area of nanotechnolo- for the red staining of church windows by finely dis-
gies, however, does not reveal itself through formal tributed gold colloids or for the hardening of Dam-
definitions, but through the description of basic prin- ascene steel of sword blades by carbon nanotubes,
ciples and research approaches playing a decisive without being aware of the physicochemical princi-
role in this connection. On the one hand, in nan- ples. Thus, the essence of nanotechnologies is the
otechnologies, engineering with elementary units of controlled utilization of nano-scale structures, the
biological and inorganic nature, i.e. atoms and mol- understanding of the principles effective at molecu-
ecules, is applied as if working with a lego-kit (“bot- lar level and the technological improvement of mate-
tom-up strategy”). On the other hand, even struc- rials and components.
tures measuring only one thousandth of the diame-
ter of one hair can be created by means of size
reduction (“top-down strategy”). This problem is
comparable to the challenge of writing the whole
road network of Germany, true to scale, on a finger-
nail– and faultlessly, of course. Partially, nanotechno-
Nanotechnologies describe the creation, analysis and application of structures, molecular
materials, inner interfaces and surfaces with at least one critical dimension or with manu-
facturing tolerances (typically) below 100 nanometers. The decisive factor is that new
functionalities and properties resulting from the nanoscalability of system components
are used for the improvement of existing products or the development of new products
and application options. Such new effects and possibilities are predominantly based on
the ratio of surface-to-volume atoms and on the quantum-mechanical behavior of the
elements of the material.
91.2 Nanoeffects as a Basis for Product Innovations
In contrast to coarser-structured materials, nanoma- biology, nanomaterials play a decisive role, too,
terials dispose of drastically modified properties since nearly all biological processes are controlled
concerning physical, chemical and biological fea- by nanoscale structural components such as nucleic
tures. Physical material properties of a solid, such as acid, proteins etc. The structuring of complex bio-
electric conductivity, magnetism, fluorescence, hard- logical systems, like cells and organs, occurs accord-
ness or strength change fundamentally in accor- ing to the self-organization principle, where individ-
dance to the number and arrangement of the inter- ual molecules are assembled to larger units on the
acting atoms, ions and molecules. In contrast to basis of chemical interactions and molecular recog-
macroscopic solids, electrons in a nanocluster can nition mechanisms. In the history of evolution, nature
only adopt certain “quantisized” energy states influ- succeeded in realizing extremely complex reaction
enced by the number of interacting atoms. mechanisms, such as photosynthesis, due to the
highly efficient interaction of such “molecular
This results in characteristic fluorescence properties
machines”. This is the basis for life on earth and also
which vary strongly with the size of the cluster. A cad-
for today’s energy supply, which is mainly based on
mium telluride particle of 2 nm, for example fluo-
the utilization of fossil energy supplies generated by
resces green light, while a particle of 5 nm fluoresces
photosynthesis during the history of earth.
red light. Such quantum dots principally allow a sig-
nificant enhancement of the quantum yield of solar
cells and thus of their conversion efficiency. Even
chemical material properties depend much on the
arrangement and structuring of atoms and mole-
cules. Nanostructuring usually achieves significantly
higher chemical reactivity, since materials broken
down to nanoscale substructures show a strongly
increased ratio of reactive surface atoms to inert par-
ticles in a solid. In a particle with a diameter of 20
nm, for example approx. 10 % of the atoms are on
the surface, while in a particle of 1 nm the ratio of
reactive surface atoms amounts to already 99 %. In
100
Fraction of surface atoms (%)
80
60
The smaller the particle, the larger the
40
portion of particles present on the
reactive surface of the particle (blue) in
contrast to the more inert center of the
20
particle (red). With particle sizes between
1 nm and 20 nm, the ratio of surface
particles to total number of particles
0
varies considerably. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
particle diameter (nm)
10Although the total energy yield of photosynthesis is Thus, nanostructuring provides new possibilities for
relatively low (despite a high quantum yield in the intelligent material design, with the possibility of com-
reactive center of the photosynthesis complex of bining the desired material properties and adjusting
approx. 97 %, altogether less than 1 % of the radiated them to the respective technical application purpose.
light energy is being transformed into chemical
For the energy sector, inter alia, the examples listed in
energy), this may serve as a paradigm for future tech-
the following overview are of interest.
nical energy conversion systems, for example for
Organic Photovoltaics. This applies in particular to the
production through self-organizing processes from
elementary basic modules as well as to high function
stability and regenerability.
Chemical Optical
a More efficient catalysts in fuel cells or for the a Optimized light absorption properties of solar
chemical conversion of fuels through extended cells through quantum dots and nanolayers in
surfaces and specific catalyst design. stack cells.
a More powerful batteries, accumulators and a Anti-reflection properties for solar cells to
supercapacitors through higher specific elec- increase energy yield of solar cells.
trode surfaces. a Luminescent polymers for the production of
a Optimized membranes with higher tempera- energy-efficient organic light diodes.
ture and corrosion resistance for application in
Electronic
polymer electrolyte fuel cells or separators in
lithium-ion-batteries. a Optimized electron conductivity through carbon
nanotubes and nano-structured superconductors.
a Nanoporous materials for the storage of
hydrogen, e.g. metal hydrides or metalorganic a Electric insulators through nano-structured fillers
compounds. in components of high-voltage power lines.
a Enhanced thermoelectrica for more efficient
Mechanical
power generation from heat through nano-struc-
a Improved strength of construction materials tured layer systems.
for rotor blades of wind power plants.
Thermal
a Wear-resistant nanolayers for drill probes,
gear boxes and engine components. a Nano-structured heat protection layers for
turbine blades in gas and aircraft turbines.
a Optimized separability of gas membranes for
the separation and deposition of carbon diox- a Improved heat conductivity of carbon
ide from flue gases of coal-fired power plants. nanotubes for optimized heat exchangers.
a Gas-tight polymer nanocomposites for the a Optimized heat stores based on nanoporous
reduction of hydrocarbon emissions from materials (zeolites) or microencapsulated
vehicle tanks. phase-change storage.
a Nanofoams as super-insulation systems in
building insulation which are capable of effi-
ciently minimizing the convective heat trans-
port even at small thickness of the insulation
layer, due to the nanoporous structure.
111.3 International Status Quo
In 2006, the investments in the field of nanotech- In the medium to long term, nanotechnologies will
nologies amounted to approx. 12.4 bn $ with public also have considerable commercial influence in the
and private investments of approx. 6.4 bn $ resp. 6 fields of car manufacturing, Life Science and tradi-
bn $ being more or less balanced. The private invest- tional branches of industry like construction engi-
ments are attributable to company investments with neering and textile industry. Although the enormous
5.3 bn $ and to Venture Capital Investment with economic importance of nanotechnologies as key
approx. 0.7 bn $ (Source: Lux Research 2007). With and interdisciplinary technologies is undisputed, the
regard to private investments, the USA is in the lead, economic potential of nanotechnologies is hardly
closely followed by Asia and clearly ahead of quantifiable. This is due to the fact that nanotech-
Europe. Regarding public investments however, nology as an “enabling technology” sets in at a rela-
Europe (European Commission and member coun- tively early stage of the value added chain, i.e. at the
tries) with approx. 1.7 bn $, the USA (at federal and optimization of components/intermediate products,
state level) with approx. 1.9 bn $ and Japan with e.g. through nanoscale coatings or nanostructured
approx. 975 m $ belong to the three leading regions materials. Usually, these components account only
in nanotechnologies worldwide. Other countries, in for a small part of the finished end products (con-
particular in Southeast Asia, China and India increase sumer and investment goods). Frequently, the mar-
their commitment considerably and close up quickly. ket value of nanotechnological components in the
This enormous public commitment is driven by the added value of the end product cannot be exactly
high expectations regarding the overall economic determined. However, without the application of
benefit in the form of turnovers and employment nanotechnological procedures and components,
directly related to nanotechnological developments. products of many industrial branches would not be
competitive (e.g. hard disc storage units, computer
In international comparison, Germany is well posi-
chips, ultra-precision optics, etc.).
tioned in nanotechnologies. With regard to public
R&D expenses and patent applications in nanotech-
nologies, Germany ranks third worldwide. Concern-
ing nanoscientific publications, Germany was also
ranking third in the last years, but meanwhile it has
been displaced in rank by China and is now forth.
The strengths of Germany comprise the well-devel-
oped R&D infrastructure and the advanced level of
research and development in various disciplines of
nanotechnologies, as in nanooptics, nanomaterials,
nanoanalytics and nanobiotechnology. With cur-
rently 700 enterprises involved in development,
application and sales of nanotechnological prod-
ucts, there is an industrial basis for the utilization of
the research results. With more than 100 enterprises,
the state of Hessen belongs to the strongest regions
with regard to the economic realization of nan-
otechnology in Germany. In many branches of econ-
omy, nanotechnological know-how already con-
tributes decisively to economic competitiveness – in
particular in the mass markets of electronics, chem-
istry and optical Industry.
122 Innovation Potentials in the Energy Sector
Energy “powers“ our life; it provides our living space showing also the highest growth rates, while the
and working environment with pleasant tempera- energy consumption in the industrial sector declined
tures and lightness, it feeds production plants, urban in the last years.
infrastructure as well as the multitude of our elec-
At a global level, however, an increase in all sectors
tronic assistants in everyday life and enables almost
is forecasted, with the highest growth rates being
unlimited mobility around the globe. The worldwide
expected in Non-OECD countries like China and
energy demand increases continuously and, accord-
India. It is obvious that for the long-term coverage
ing to forecasts of the International Energy Agency,
of this increasing energy demand, a radical change
it will rise from currently approx. 12,000 MTOE (mil-
in the energy sector is required, which means a
lion tons oil equivalents) up to more than 18,000
development away from previously dominating fos-
MTOE until 2030 (approx. 750 exajoule =
sil fuels towards the enhanced utilization of renew-
750.000.000.000.000.000.000 Joule). The major
able energy sources. The threatening climatic
driver for this sharp increase in energy consumption,
change caused by rising carbon dioxide emission
and thus also in the worldwide carbon dioxide emis-
and the foreseeable scarcity of fossil fuels leaves no
sion, is in particular the backlog demand of upcom-
other choice than to further push the urgently
ing economies like China and India, which more and
needed innovations in the energy sector. This
more adapt their energy consumption to that of the
applies both to the enhanced development of
industrial nations and mostly use fossil fuels. The
renewable energy sources and to the entire value-
largest share in global energy consumption is attrib-
added chain including energy recovery from primary
utable to the industrial sector, followed by transport
energy sources, conversion, storage, distribution as
and traffic, households and other business enter-
well as the use of energy.
prises (services, trade etc.). However, there are big
regional differences regarding energy consumption
and the development in the individual sectors. In
industrial nations like Germany, for instance, trans-
port holds the top position in energy consumption
300
Transport Households Services Industry
Energy consumption 1018 Joule
250
Forecast of the world-
200 wide energy demand by
sectors (source: Energy
150 Information Administra-
tion: International
100 Energy Outlook 2007)
50
0
2004 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
132.1 Potentials of Primary Energy Sources
With about 80 %, the fossil fuels coal, crude oil and Currently the global share in renewable energies
natural gas cover the main part of the current global amounts to about 15 %, with energy recovery from
energy demand. Current scenarios for the develop- biomass being clearly in the lead. It is followed by
ment of the future energy demand go on the water power and geothermal energy, while wind and
assumption that the share of fossil fuels in the world- solar power together account for a share of below
wide supply will remain nearly unchanged until one percent. The following figure represents the
2030. This trend can only be countered by massive global state of the year 2004 in relation to the total
global effort and investments in the field of renew- primary energy supply, i.e. current and heat supplies
able energies and by energy saving measures. The as well as fuels.
European Union sees itself in a pioneer role and has
set the ambitious target to achieve a binding share
of renewables in the overall EU-energy consumption
of 20 %, a reduction of the EU-wide greenhouse
gases by 20 % and an increase in energy efficiency
by 20 % by 2020.
Tide
Coal Renewables Other 0,5 % 0,004 %
25,2 % 13,1 % Wind
0,064 %
Share of different
energy sources in the
global primary energy
supply in the year Oil Solar
2004 (source: Energy 34,3 % 0,039 %
Information Adminis-
tration, Annual Energy Hydro
Review 2006)
2,2 %
Gas Nuclear Biomass Geothermal
20,9 % 6,5 % 10,4 % 0,41 %
There are great regional differences regarding to the power demand they are hardly noticeable in the total
utilization of renewables. In Germany, the share of amount. Thus, the ambitious objective of the Federal
renewable energy sources in the total energy con- Government, to cover half of the total power
sumption is currently at approx. 9 % and thus below demand in Germany by renewables until 2050, is still
the global average, a fact mainly due to the low uti- a distant prospect. Such objectives will only be
lization of biomass for energy supply in comparison realizable through new approaches and technologi-
to less industrialized nations. However, there had cal breakthroughs, which enable a considerable
been a sharp upward trend in the utilization of improvement in efficiency in the supply of renew-
renewable energy sources in Germany during the ables and the development of significant efficiency
last years, especially in the field of electric power potentials throughout the whole value-added chain
supply. Due to a very dynamic development in the of the energy sector.
wind energy sector, its share in the total energy sup-
ply in Germany amounts already to more than 5 %.
Sharp growth rates were also achieved in photo-
voltaics, although with a total share of 0.5 % in the
14The total potential of fossil fuels available on earth 40 to 60 years for crude oil, natural gas and uranium,
is assessed at approx. 5.500 MTOE, with 60 % attrib- and at approx. 200 years for coal. These figures vary
utable to coal, approx. 30 % to natural gas and continuously according to the development of the
approx. 10 % to crude oil. In principle, this amount worldwide consumption and progresses in explo-
of energy suffices to meet the global energy ration and production technologies. With regard to
demand for some centuries. It has to be considered crude oil, however it will be necessary to revert, to
however that, a large part of the global crude oil and an increasing extent, to non-conventional sources
natural gas resources cannot be efficiently utilized like heavy oil, oil sand or oil shale, the development
with conventional methods. The statistical range of of which entails high costs and environmental
already developed resources is assessed at approx. impacts.
16%
14,3%
2005 2006 2007
11,9%
12%
10,3%
Market shares of renew-
9,1%
ables in Germany
8%
2005-2007 (source:
8% 7%
6,5% 6,6% 6,6% German Federal
6% Association of Renew-
5,4%
able Energies 2008)
3,6%
4%
0%
Share of Share of Share of Share of
Power consumption Heat consumption fuel consumption total energy consumption
100
billion kilowatt hours
8
80
8,9
7,3
6,6
5 3
60 6,4
2,5 6,2
Hydro
4,5 2,2
1,3 Wind
Photovoltaics
38,5 Energy supply through
40 Biomass solid
27,2 30,7 renewable energy sources
Biogas in Germany 2005–2007
Other Biomass (source: German Federal
20 Association of Renewable
Energies 2008)
21,5 21,6 21,7
0
2005 2006 2007
152000 2050 2100 2150
Range of conventional Reserves
fuels in years (source: Oil
German Federal Institute conventional 43 67
for Geosciences and Natu-
Resources
conventional
ral Resources, BGR, 2007
+ non-conv. 62 157
www.bgr.bund.de)
reserves: assured deposits
which can be exploited
Gas
economically with existing conventional 64 149
technology conventional
64 756
resources: ascertained + non-conv.
deposits, which can not be
exploited economically Coal
with existing technology
resp. presumed not local- Hard Coal 207 1425
ized deposits
Soft Coal 198 1264
conventional: economi-
cally exploitable with cur-
rent extraction technology
unconventional: need for Uranium 42 527
new extraction technolo-
gies for economical
exploitation
0 50 100 150 >200 >1000 Years
The potential of renewable energy sources is surface in Central Europe, for example, is limited to
unequally higher. Especially through direct utiliza- a maximum of approx. 1000 Watt per square meter.
tion of the sun’s radiation energy the global energy Further constraints on the utilization of renewable
demand could be met many times over. Wind and energies are the inconsistent energy yield in
tidal energies also provide considerable potentials. dependence of environmental influences, low effi-
From today’s view, however the technically and eco- ciencies in energy conversion as well as cost-inten-
nomically usable part of it is negligible, above all sive production methods and materials.
due the low energy density and the limited number
of economically usable locations. The energy yield
from the incidence of solar radiation on the earth’s
16Fossil fuels Renewables
Global reserves/resources Global energy potential per year
Global potential of
available renewables
and fossil fuels
1: Data referring to
global energy con-
sumption of 390 EJ in
1997, data from M.
Fischedick, O. Langniß,
J. Nitsch: „Nach dem
Ausstieg – Zukunftskurs
Erneuerbare Energien“,
S. Hirzel Verlag, 2000
348 155 60 1 3 5 20 200 2850
2: Data source: German
Energy potential/Global Federal Institute for
Energy potential/Global
annual energy consumption1 annual energy consumption1 Geosciences and
Natural Resources
Energy potential Thereof conven- Energy potential technologically utiliz-
Reserves/Resources2 tionally utilizable2 (amount of energy p. a.)2 able (state of the art)2
Coal ~ 135.000 EJ Solar radiation ~ 1.111.500 EJ ~ 1.482 EJ
Natural gas ~ 60.400 EJ ~ 12.000 EJ Wind energy ~ 78.000 EJ ~ 195 EJ
Crude oil ~ 23.000 EJ ~ 9.800 EJ Biomass ~ 7.800 EJ ~ 156 EJ
Geothermal ~ 1.950 EJ ~ 390 EJ
Global energy demand 2006: ~ 470 EJ
Hydro/tide power ~ 1.170 EJ ~ 78 EJ
A prerequisite for a significant growth in energy sup- will play a key role. Long-term scenarios forecast that
ply through renewable energy sources are consid- by 2100, the utilization of solar energy will meet
erable cost reductions, for example by efficient more than 50 % of the global energy demand.
economies of scale in the further development of Whether there will be further options, as for example
low-cost production methods and increased effi- for a technically and economically realizable utiliza-
ciencies through technological innovations. In the tion of nuclear fusion, is still open at this point.
long run, there will be no alternative to an optimized
tapping of the potentials of renewable energy
sources. Especially, the utilization of solar energy
through solar cells and solar-thermal power plants
17Annual primary energy consumption [GWh]
1600 Others
1400 Solar thermal
1200 Photovoltaics
Wind energy
1000
Biomass
800
Hydro power
600
Scenario of the devel- Nuclear
opment of global
400 Natural gas
energy demand
(source: www.solar- 200 Coal
wirtschaft.de)
0 Crude oil
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2100
2.2 Innovation Potentials along the
Energy Value-Added Chain
To secure global power supply in the long run, it is logical innovations, especially in the energy sector,
not only necessary to develop existing energy depends to a large extent on the political, econom-
sources as efficiently and environmentally friendly as ical and social environment and general conditions.
possible, but also to minimize energy losses arising The answer to the question which technological
during transport from source to end user, to provide development will finally find acceptance, is thus
and distribute energy for the respective application determined, above all, by economical necessities
purpose as flexibly and efficiently as possible and to and political and social parameters, apart from the
reduce energy demand in industry and private technological feasibility.
households. Each sector of the value added chain
bears potentials for optimization which could be
tapped through the application of nanotechnolo-
gies. All in all, the implementation of nanotechno-
Measured values for energy units
The internationally acknowledged measurement Conversion factors:
for energy is Joule (kg · m2/s2). Common units in Kilowatt hour 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
the energy sector are also kilowatt hours, hard Hard coal units (HCU) = 29.3 MJ
coal units, tons of oil equivalents (TOE) or, in the Ton of Oil Equivalent (TOE) 1 TOE = 41.87 GJ
Anglo-Saxon region, the British thermal unit British thermal unit (Btu) 1 Btu = 1.05506 kJ
(Btu).
Prefixes for decimal powers:
k (kilo) = 103, M (mega) = 106 , G (giga) = 109
T (tera) = 1012, P (peta) = 1015, E (exa) = 1018
18Energy Supply Chains
Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy
sources change distribution storage usage
Politics Society/Environment
• Legislation (renewables, heat insulation • Energy and raw material costs • Climate change
ordinance, nuclear energy laws, • Competition structure • Environmental protection
immission protection, competition law ...) (monopolies/cartels) • Air pollution/
• taxes, subsidies • Private investments/write offs radiation protection Value-added chain
(gas, coal, biofuel, solar ...) (infrastructure) • Public technology and environmental
• International climate protection agreements • Capital market (VC, interest rates) acceptance
and general condi-
• Research funding • Economic trends (world, regional) • labor market trends
(solar, fuel cells, nuclear fusion ...) tions in the energy
sector
Framework Conditions
2.2.1 Development of Primary Energy Sources
Photovoltaics
The world market for solar energy is assessed at turnover of approx. 4 bn Euro (source: Federal Asso-
approx. 16 bn $ in 2007 and will presumably reach a ciation of the Solar Industry). Independent of these
volume of 30 bn $ by 2010 (source: CSLA). In the last impressing figures, the production of solar energy is
year, two-digit growth rates were achieved in the currently still not competitive. Due to high material
booming photovoltaics market, especially in Japan, costs and insufficient quantity of components resp.
Germany and the USA, which are expected to con- assembly elements for solar modules, the produc-
tinue also in the years to come. Studies by German tion costs of solar energy in Germany are more than
Shell and the European Photovoltaic Industry Asso- three times higher than for conventional power
ciation (EPIA) and Greenpeace go on the assump- plants.
tion that in already two or three decades, solar tech-
nology will be able to supply 20 % to 30 % of the
energy required worldwide. In Germany, approx.
50.000 people are employed and about 150 com-
panies are working in the solar industry achieving a
19World market 30
30 (bn. $) Cadmium Silicon
telluride (ribbon materials)
2,7 % 2,6 %
25 24 Silicon
Silicon (multi-
Left: World market
(amorphous) crystalline)
solar energy (source: 20 19 4,7 % 46,5 %
CLSA study “Solar
Power” July 2004) 16
Copper/
15 13 Indium/
Diselenid
Silicon
10 0,2 %
10 (mono-
7 crystalline)
Right: Market shares 49,4 %
of different solar cell 5
types worldwide in
2006 (source: Photon 0
International March 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
2007)
Photovoltaics will achieve a broad breakthrough, Today’s market dominating technology, which uses
independent of state subsidies, only if it is possible to monocrystalline or multicrystalline silicon wafers,
economically equip large surfaces with solar cells. hardly allows cost reduction through technological
This requires not only an efficiency increase in energy improvements and mass production. The major con-
conversion, but first and foremost also less expensive straint here is the high raw material price of the high-
materials and production processes, which could be purity crystalline raw silicon, which, owing to bottle-
enabled through the application of nanotechnolo- necks in production, has risen by 500 % since 2004.
gies. Thus, in the medium to long run, promising market
potentials will result from the further development of
alternative cell types such as thin-layer solar cells
(inter alia, of silicon or other material systems like
copper/indium/selenium), dye solar cells or polymer
solar cells.
The 64-megawatt parabolic trough Off-grid power supply through solar
power plant “Nevada Solar One“ in the plants is profitably applicable especially
US-state of Nevada, on stream since June in economically underdeveloped
2007, supplies approx. 129 million kilo- regions, as for example in some regions
watt hours (kWh) of solar energy each of Indonesia (source: Schott).
year (source: Schott).
20Type of solar cells Wafer based Thinfilm Electrochemical Electrochemical
Basic structure and effi-
ciency of current solar
cell types (source: HMI:
Results of the workshop
Structure “Nanotechnology for
sustainable power sup-
ply”, November 29-30,
2007, Berlin). Further
information on solar
Materials Crystalline Amorphous Silicon Dye solar cells, Fullerenes (C60)
cell types: www.fv-
Silicon CIGS nanoporous conjugated
sonnenenergie.de/fors
cadmium telluride titanium dioxide polymers
chung/forschungsthe-
Efficiency men/photovoltaik
(State of the art) 25 % 19 % 10 % 5%
Nanotechnology companies in the field of material cient encapsulation of cells, which are important
and module production can substitute a great deal prerequisites for economic mass production. Nan-
of the added value of conventional silicon cells resp. otechnologies also contribute to the optimization of
tap additional market potentials through drastic cost conventional crystalline silicon solar cells which
reductions. Mainly polymer solar cells are said to dominate the photovoltaics market with a market
have a high potential especially for the supply of share of 90 %. Here, increases in efficiency may be
portable electronic devices, due to their cheap achieved by nanostructured anti-reflection layers,
materials and production processes as well as their which provide higher light yield.
flexible design. Further application potentials are
Such anti-reflection glasses have already been com-
provided for self-sustaining and mobile product-
mercially marketed and show high growth rates for
integrated applications in traffic-control systems,
application not only in photovoltaics but also in
safety and telecommunication systems as well as at
solarthermy (see page 24).
off-grid sites in developing and newly industrialized
countries for locations with high solar radiation.
Medium-term development targets regarding poly-
mer solar cells are an efficiency of approx. 10 % and
a lifespan of several years, for which, however, basic
progress in the understanding of function and influ-
ence of nanomorphology of organic semiconduc-
tors is required. Also required are new concepts to
achieve cost-effective electrode materials and effi-
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