Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression
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Clinical Guide
Assessment
of suicide risk
in people with
depression
The guide was developed by the University
of Oxford’s Centre for Suicide Research to
assist clinical staff in talking about suicide
and assessing suicide risk with people
who are depressed.
© Centre for Suicide Research,
Department of Psychiatry,
University of Oxford.
Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 2
Introduction Contents
This guide is intended for a range of healthcare
professionals, including: 1 About this guide 3
General practitioners and other primary care staff 2 Explaining suicide 4
Mental health workers 3 Risk factors 5
Counsellors
4 How to assess someone 6
IAPT (Increasing Access to Psychological who may be at risk of suicide
Therapies) therapists
5 Involvement of others 8
Accident and Emergency Department staff
Support workers 6 Managing risk 8
7 Frequently asked questions 10
This guide is primarily about assessing risk in adults. and common myths
However, the principles can be applied to younger about suicide
people (although the issues relating to consent
may differ). 8 Resources 12
The guide may also be useful for reviewing care of 9 Risk assessment 14
people, including through Significant Event Analyses. summary of key points
10 Useful contacts 15
11 References 16Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 3
1
About this guide
How was this guide produced? Clinicians working in a range of settings will Suicide of a patient can also have a profound
This guide was informed by the findings of a encounter depressed people who may be effect on professionals involved in their care.
systematic review of risk factors for suicide at risk. For example, approximately 50% of Following a suicide they may be helping
in people with depression1. It was also those who take their own lives will have seen support the people bereaved by the death,
developed with input from experts in primary a general practitioner in the three months dealing with official requirements (e.g.
care and secondary care. before death; 40% in the month beforehand; response to the coroner and other agencies),
and around 20% in the week before death 5 . and at the same time trying to cope with their
Why is this guide needed? Primary care staff are therefore in a particularly own emotional responses.
Suicide is a major health issue and suicide important position in the detection and
prevention is a government priority. In the management of those at risk of suicide. Also,
UK there are nearly 6000 suicide deaths approximately a quarter will have been in Approximately 90% of
per year 2 , and nearly 500 further suicides in
Ireland 3 . Approximately three-quarters of
contact with mental health services in the year
before death 6 .
people dying by suicide
these occur in men, in whom suicide is the have a psychiatric disorder.
most frequent cause of death in those under While most clinicians outside of psychiatric
35 years of age. The most common method of specialties will only experience a few suicides
suicide is hanging, followed by self-poisoning. during their career, it is crucial that they are
vigilant for people who may be at risk. It is
Approximately 90% of people dying by suicide important to recognise that the effects of
have a psychiatric disorder 4 , although this suicide on families can be devastating.
may not have been recognised or treated.
Depression is the most common disorder,
found in at least 60% of cases. This may be
complicated by other mental health issues,
especially alcohol misuse and personality
disorders.Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 4
2
Explaining suicide
Suicide can result from a Suicide pathway model7
range of factors, including,
for example, psychiatric
disorder, negative life events, Family history, Psychological Exposure to Availability of Outcome
psychological factors, alcohol genetic & factors (e.g self-harm/ method
biological pessimism, suicide
and drug misuse, family factors aggression,
history of suicide, physical impulsivity)
illness, exposure to suicidal
behaviour of others, and Method likely
access to methods of self- to be lethal
harm. In any individual case Suicide
multiple factors are usually
involved. Psychiatric Psychological Thoughts of
disorder distress self-harm/
Hoplessness suicide
Self-harm
Method unlikely
to be lethal
Negative life
events
& social
problemsClinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 5
3
Risk factors
No one is immune to suicide. People with
Risk factors Other risk Possible
depression are at particular risk for suicide,
specific factors for protective
especially when factors shown in the table are
to depression consideration factors
present 1 . Previous self-harm (i.e. intentional self-
poisoning or self-injury, regardless of degree of
suicidal intent) is a particularly strong risk factor. – Family history of – Family history of suicide – Social support.
Also, a number of other risk factors for suicide mental disorder. or self-harm.
– Religious belief.
have been identified and should be considered
– History of previous – Physical illness
when assessing depressed individuals. It should be – Being responsible
suicide attempts (this (especially when this
noted that family history of suicide or self-harm is for children (especially
includes self-harm). is recently diagnosed,
particularly important. There are also some factors young children).
chronic and/or painful).
which may offer some degree of protection – Severe depression.
against suicide. – Exposure to suicidal
– Anxiety.
behaviour of others,
– Feelings of hopelessness. either directly or via
– Personality disorder. the media.
– Alcohol abuse and/or – Recent discharge from
drug abuse. psychiatric inpatient
care.
– Male gender.
– Access to potentially
lethal means of self-
harm/suicide.Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 6
4
How to assess someone who may be at risk
The interview setting Asking about suicidal ideas
Assessment should take place in a quiet room Some patients will introduce the topic There is no definitive way to
where the chances of being disturbed are
minimised. Ideally you should meet with the
without prompting, while others may be too
embarrassed or ashamed to admit they
approach enquiring about
patient alone but also see their family/carers/ may have been having thoughts of suicide. suicide but it is essential that
friends, together or alone, as appropriate. However the topic is raised, careful and this is assessed in anyone
In general, open questioning is advisable sensitive questioning is essential. It should
although it may become necessary to use be possible to broach suicidal thoughts in who is depressed.
more closed questions as the consultation the context of other questions about mood
progresses and for purposes of clarification. symptoms or link this into exploration of
There is no definitive way to approach negative thoughts (e.g. “It must be difficult
enquiring about suicide but it is essential that to feel that way – is there ever a time when
this is assessed in anyone who is depressed. it feels so difficult that you’ve thought about
death or even that you might be better off
There may be circumstances under which dead?”). Another approach is to reflect back
assessment is conducted by telephone. This to the patient your observations of their non-
will clearly place limitations on the assessment verbal communication (e.g. “You seem very
procedure (e.g. access to non-verbal down to me”. “Sometimes when people are
communication). However the principles of very low in mood they have thoughts that life
assessment are the same. Where feasible, a is not worth living: have you been troubled by
face-to-face assessment is recommended. thoughts like this?”).Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 7
4
How to assess someone who may be at risk
You may want to ask about a number of – Do they have the means for a suicidal act Sometimes patients with few risk factors may
topics, starting with more general questions (do they have access to pills, insecticide, nevertheless make the clinician feel uneasy
and gradually focusing on more direct firearms…)? about their safety. The clinician should not
ones, depending on the patient’s answers. ignore these feelings when assessing risk,
This must be done with respect, sympathy – Is there any available support even though they may not be quantifiable.
and sensitivity. It may be possible to raise (family, friends, carers…)?
the topic when the patient talks about
negative feelings or depressive symptoms. It There is increasing evidence that visual It is important to pay heed to
is important not to overreact even if there is
reason for concern. Areas that you may want
imagery can strongly influence behaviour.
Therefore it is worth asking whether a person
non-verbal cues and intuitive
to explore include: has any images about suicide (e.g. “If you feelings about a person’s
think about suicide, do you have a particular level of risk.
– Are they feeling hopeless, or that life is not mental picture of what this might involve?”).
worth living? While assessment of risk factors for suicide in
people with depression and more generally
– Have they made plans to end their life? (see sections 6 and 7) can inform evaluation
of risk, it is also important for the clinicians
– Have they told anyone about it? to pay heed to non-verbal clues and their
intuitive feelings about a person’s level of risk.
– Have they carried out any acts in
anticipation of death (e.g. putting
their affairs in order).Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 8
5 6
Involvement of others Managing risk
Where practical, and with consent, it is recommended When a patient is at risk of suicide this information should
that clinicians inform and involve family, friends or other be recorded clearly in the patient’s notes. Where the
identified people in the patient’s support network, where clinician is working as part of a team it is important to
this seems appropriate. This is particularly important share awareness of risk with other team members. Out-
where risk is thought to be high. of-hours emergency services need to be able to access
information about risk easily.
Family and social cohesion can help protect against
suicide. It is often useful to share your concerns about It is advisable to be open and honest with patients about
suicide risk, since family, friends and carers may be your concerns regarding the risk of suicide and to arrange
unaware of the danger and can frequently offer support timely follow-up contact in order to monitor their mental
and observation. They can also help by reducing access state and current circumstances.
to lethal means, for example by holding supplies of
medication and hence lowering the risk of overdose. Patients should be informed how best to contact you
in between appointments should an emergency arise.
If the person is not competent to give consent 8, the You should encourage them to let you know if they feel
clinician should act in the patient’s best interests. This is likely worse or the urge to act upon their suicidal thoughts
to involve consultation with family, friends or carers 9. increases. Patients should also be given details of who to
contact out of hours when you are not available. Where
appropriate, reception or administrative staff may need
to be alerted that a patient should be prioritized if they
make contact.Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 9
6
Managing risk
It is important to assess whether patients Active treatment of any underlying depressive Regular and pro-active follow-up is highly
have the potential means for a suicide illness is a key feature in the management of recommended.
attempt and, if necessary, to act on this: for a suicidal patient and should be instigated as
example, only prescribing limited supplies of soon as possible. Clinicians seeing suicidal patients should
medication that might be taken in overdose consider access to peer support and
and encouraging family members, friends or If the risk of suicide in a patient seen in primary supervision. When a clinician experiences the
carers to dispose of stockpiled medication. care is high, particularly where depression death of a patient by suicide they should seek
Medicines that are particularly dangerous in is complicated by other mental health support and advice to help cope with this.
overdosage include tricyclic antidepressants, problems, referral to secondary psychiatric
especially dosulepin, paracetamol and services should be considered. In many areas
opiate analgesics. Restricting access to other there are crisis teams which can respond
lethal means (e.g. shotguns) should also quickly and flexibly to patients’ needs and Active treatment of any
be considered. can arrange appropriate psychiatric support
and treatment.
underlying depressive
Some internet sites can be a helpful source illness is a key feature in
of support for patients, but there are also
pro-suicide websites and those which advise
Many clinicians will make informal
agreements with patients about what
the management of a
about lethal means. Patients should be asked they should do if they feel unsafe or things suicidal patient.
if they have been accessing internet sites deteriorate. More formal signed agreements
and, if so, which ones. are not recommended as there is a lack of
evidence regarding their efficacy, and their
Suicide and self-harm can be contagious. legal status in the event of a suicide is unclear.
It is worth enquiring about exposure to such
behaviours, including in family, friends and in
the media, and the patient’s reactions to this.Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 10
7
Frequently asked questions & common myths
Does enquiry about suicidal thoughts Are there any rating scales I can When should I ask about suicide?
increase a patient’s risk? use to quantify risk? All patients with depression should be
No. There is no evidence that patients There are many rating scales which attempt asked about possible thoughts of self-harm
are suggestible in this way. In reality many to quantify risk but none are particularly useful or suicide. As already noted, there is no
patients are relieved to be able to talk about in an individual context. They tend not to take evidence to suggest that asking someone
suicidal thoughts. account of the circumstances in which a about their suicidal thoughts will give them
person may be experiencing suicidal ideation “ideas”, or that it will provoke suicidal
Do antidepressants increase the and are reliant upon self-report. behaviour. When this is best asked will vary
risk of suicide? from patient to patient (see section 4: Asking
The risk of increasing suicidal thoughts and They should therefore be used with caution about suicidal ideas).
gestures following commencement of an and only as an adjunct to a clinical assessment.
antidepressant has received considerable Some measures of level of depression are useful
media coverage. The current consensus is (e.g. PHQ-9, Beck Depression Inventory), some
that there may be a slightly increased risk of which include items on hopelessness and There is no evidence that
among those under the age of 25, where
closer monitoring is required. However, the
suicidality. Such a measure is best used at each
patient visit in order to help monitor progress
enquiry about suicidal
active treatment of depression is associated (the patient might be asked to complete this in thoughts increases a
with an overall decrease in risk. The most advance or in the waiting room). person’s risk.
successful way of reducing suicide risk is to
treat the underlying depressive illness, and to
monitor patients carefully, especially during
the early phase of treatment.Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 11
7
Frequently asked questions & common myths
The patient doesn’t want me to inform their The patient is always expressing suicidal
family, friends or carers that they have had ideation. When should I worry? Sharing your concerns with
suicidal thoughts. What should I do?
This is a difficult situation as family, friends and
Chronic suicidal ideation most commonly
occurs in people with long-term/severe
the patient in an empathic
carers play an important role in helping to depression or personality disorders. This group manner will allow them to
support depressed individuals and in keeping of people is at higher risk of suicide in the long feel listened to and allow you
them safe. It is always worth exploring why the term. While it can be difficult to distinguish
patient is reluctant for others to be informed circumstances when ideation may transform to both agree a plan to try
as you may be able to address some of their into action it is important to try identify any and keep them safe.
concerns. Offering to be present when they factors that may significantly destabilise
inform close ones can be helpful. Unless there the situation - for example, a relationship
is imminent risk you cannot breach patient breakdown, loss of a key attachment figure,
confidentiality so ultimately you may have alcohol and/or drug misuse, or physical illness.
to respect their wishes.
Should I tell the patient that I am
concerned they are at risk?
In general a collaborative approach is
advisable. Sharing your concerns with the
patient in an empathic manner will allow
them to feel listened to and allow you to
both agree a plan to try and keep them
safe. If psychosis is a prominent feature of the
presentation this may be more difficult and
may require urgent psychiatric care.Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 12
8
Resources
Sources of help for patients, family, friends and carers
General CALM (Campaign Against Living Miserably) Healthtalkonline: bereavement due to suicide
A website which offers support for distressed A website which explores themes around
Samaritans Tel: 08457 90 90 90
people, especially young men bereavement, with illustrative interviews
http://www.samaritans.org
http://www.thecalmzone.net/what-is-calm/ with bereaved people
NHS 111 Tel: 111 http://www.healthtalkonline.org/Dying_and_
Papyrus
http://www.nhs.uk/111 bereavement/Bereavement_due_to_suicide
Support for young people with suicidal thoughts
NHS Choices: depression http://www.papyrus-uk.org/support/for-you Self-help books
http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/depression
For relatives, friends and carers Gilbert, P. (2009). Overcoming depression:
NHS Choices: suicide A guide to recovery with a complete self-help
Mind: how to support someone who is suicidal
http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/suicide programme. London: Robinson.
http://www.mind.org.uk/help/medical_and_
Royal College of Psychiatrists: Depression alternative_care/how_to_help_someone_ Veale, D., & Willson, R. (2007). Manage your
http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/ who_is_suicidal mood: How to use behavioural activation
mentalhealthinfoforall/problems/depression. techniques to overcome depression.
Papyrus
aspx London: Robinson.
Support for parents
Therapeutic http://www.papyrus-uk.org/support/for-parents Westbrook, D. (2005). Managing depression.
Mind: how to cope with suicidal feelings Oxford: OCTC Warneford Hospital.
Bereavement by suicide
http://www.mind.org.uk/help/diagnoses_ Williams, J. M. G. (2007). The mindful way
Help is at hand
and_conditions/suicidal_feelings through depression: Freeing yourself from
A resource for people bereaved by suicide
Beyond Blue: depression chronic unhappiness. New York: Guilford Press.
and other sudden, traumatic death. Can be
http://www.beyondblue.org.au/index. downloaded from: Butler, G., & Hope, R. A. (1995). Managing
aspx?link_id=89 http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/ your mind: The mental fitness guide.
Healthtalkonline: depression groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/@ps/ Oxford: Oxford University Press.
A website which explored themes around documents/digitalasset/dh_116064.pdf
depression, with illustrative interviews
http://www.healthtalkonline.org/mental_
health/DepressionClinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 13
8
Resources
Information for professionals
NICE guidance on management of National suicide prevention strategies NICE guidance on management of self-harm
depression
Preventing suicide in England: a cross- Self-harm: The short-term physical and
Depression: the NICE guideline on the government outcomes strategy to save psychological management and secondary
treatment and management of depression in lives (2012) prevention of self-harm in primary and
adults (updated edition) http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Consultations/ secondary care
http://www.nice.org.uk/CG90 Liveconsultations/DH_128065 http://www.nice.org.uk/CG16
Depression in children and young people: Talk to me: A national action plan to reduce Self-harm: The NICE guideline on longer-term
identification and management in primary, suicide and self harm in Wales 2008-2013 management
community and secondary care http://www.wales.gov.uk/splash?orig=/ http://www.nice.org.uk/CG133
http://www.nice.org.uk/CG28 consultations/healthsocialcare/talktome
Further reading
Practical guidance for professionals Choose life: National strategy and action plan
Kutcher, S. P., & Chehil, S. (2007). Suicide
to prevent suicide in Scotland
Mind: Supporting people with depression risk management: A manual for health
http://www.chooselife.net/
and anxiety. professionals. Malden, Mass: Blackwell.
A guide for practice nurses Protect Life: a shared vision. The Northern
http://www.mind.org.uk/assets/0001/4765/ Ireland Suicide Prevention Strategy and
MIND_ProCEED_Training_Pack.pdf Action Plan (2012- March 2014)
http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/
phnisuicidepreventionstrategy_action_
plan-3.pdf
Reach out: Irish National Strategy for Action
on Suicide Prevention 2005-2014
http://www.nosp.ie/reach_out.pdfClinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 14
9
Risk assessment summary of key points
All patients with depression should be assessed for possible
risk of self-harm or suicide.
Risk factors for suicide identified through research studies are:
In assessing patients’ current suicide potential, the
Risk factors Other risk Possible
following questions can be explored:
specific factors for protective
to depression consideration factors – A
re they feeling hopeless, or that life is not worth living?
– H
ave they made plans to end their life?
– Family history of – Family history of suicide – Social support. – H
ave they told anyone about it?
mental disorder. or self-harm.
– Religious belief. – H
ave they carried out any acts in anticipation of death
– History of previous – Physical illness (e.g. putting their affairs in order)?
– Being responsible for
suicide attempts (this (especially when this
children (especially – D
o they have the means for a suicidal act (do they
includes self-harm). is recently diagnosed,
young children). have access to pills, insecticide, firearms…)?
chronic and/or painful).
– Severe depression.
– Is there any available support (family, friends, carers…)?
– Exposure to suicidal
– Anxiety.
behaviour of others, – W
here practical, and with consent, it is generally a
– Feelings of hopelessness. either directly or via good idea to inform and involve family members and
the media. close friends or carers. This is particularly important
– Personality disorder.
where risk is thought to be high.
– Alcohol abuse and/or – Recent discharge from
psychiatric inpatient – W
hen a patient is at risk of suicide this information should
drug abuse.
care. be recorded in the patient’s notes. Where the clinician
– Male gender. is working as part of a team it is important to share
– Access to potentially
awareness of risk with other team members.
lethal means of self-
harm/suicide. – R
egular and pro-active follow-up is highly
recommended.Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 15
10
Useful contacts
This page can be printed and given to your patient. You
may wish to add any relevant local telephone numbers.
NHS 111 MIND
Website: http://www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/ Website: http://www.mind.org.uk/
AboutNHSservices/Emergencyandurgentcareservices/ Email: info@mind.org.uk
Pages/NHS-111.aspx Telephone: 0300 123 3393.
Mind helplines are open Monday to Friday,
Telephone: 111.
9.00am to 6.00pm.
Available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
Calls are free from landlines and mobile phones.
SAMARITANS Local numbers/notes
Website: http://www.samaritans.org
Email: jo@samaritans.org
Telephone: 08457 90 90 90.
Available 24 hours a day.
PAPYRUS
Website: http://www.papyrus-uk.org/support/for-you
Telephone: 0800 068 41 41.
The helpline is open every day of the year;
on weekdays from 10am - 5pm
and 7pm - 10pm and during the
weekends from 2pm - 5pm.
Advice for young people who may have suicidal
thoughts, and parents and carers.Clinical Guide: Assessment of suicide risk in people with depression 16
11
References
1
Hawton, K., Casañas i Comabella, C., Haw, C. and Saunders, K. (2013)
Risk factors for suicide in individuals with depression: A systematic review. Journal of
Affective Disorders, 147, 17-28. This is a review of 19 studies worldwide in which risk factors This guide was developed at the Centre for
have been examined. Suicide Research at the University of Oxford
2
Office for National Statistics: Suicides in the United Kingdom, 2012 Registrations by Professor Keith Hawton, Carolina Casañas i
www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_351100.pdf Comabella, Dr Kate Saunders and Dr Camilla
3
National Office for Suicide Prevention, Ireland http://www.nosp.ie/ Haw, with the following general practitioners: Dr
4
Lönnqvist, J. (2000). Psychiatric aspects of suicidal behavior: depression. Kate Smith, Dr Deborah Waller and Dr Ruth Wilson,
In: Hawton, K., and van Heeringen, K. (2000). The International Handbook of Suicide and with the assistance of several other clinicians
and Attempted Suicide. New York: Wiley. with a range of professional backgrounds. It has
5
Pirkis, J. Burgess, P. (1998). Suicide and recency of health care contacts. been funded by the Judi Meadows Memorial
A systematic review. British Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 462-474.
Fund and Maudsley Charity.
6
Five-year report of the National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Homicide by People with
Mental Illness (2006) http://www.medicine.manchester.ac.uk/mentalhealth/research/suicide/
prevention/nci/reports/avoidabledeathsfullreport.pdf
7
Adapted with permission from: Hawton, K., Saunders, K. E. A. and O’Connor, R. C. (2012).
Self-harm and suicide in adolescents. Lancet, 379, 2373-2382.
8
General Medical Council confidentiality guidance (2009)
http://www.gmc-uk.org/guidance/ethical_guidance/confidentiality.asp
9
Mental Capacity Act http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/9/contents
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