Audi future lab: mobility
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www.audi-future-lab-mobility.de
Audi future lab: mobility
www.audi-future-lab-mobility.com
Audi future lab: mobility
Audi future lab: mobility
Dear reader, We are opening new horizons with this holistic think
ing. But that alone is not enough for us. We constantly have our
Our company is pursuing a great aspiration – CO₂-neutral mobility. sights fixed firmly on the major questions of our time: How are the
We are working at speed to develop the necessary technologies world’s major urban areas changing? How will we move in our
in all areas of expertise. These include primarily the topics of future cities in future? And what solutions can we offer through new mo
engines, future energies and urban future – i.e. drives, fuels and bility concepts?
mobility solutions for the major cities of this world. Our designers are offering one answer to these ques
TDI and TFSI engines are fundamental pillars of our tions – with youthful, smart designs like the Audi urban concept
brand and they still offer us significant potential for efficiency. Spyder or the Audi e-bike, both of which deliver new interpreta
A further important aspect of future mobility is drive electrifica tions of Audi ultra and Audi connect. Furthermore, with the Audi
tion. Three of our hybrid models are already on the road. And with Urban Future Initiative, we have also created a global network
our electrified vehicles, too – from the A1 e-tron with range ex of experts with whom we are discussing ideas for the mobility of
tender through concepts with Dual-Mode Hybrid drive to the purely megacities and developing important food for thought. The
electric car – we are currently undertaking test programs in house mobility of the future, as we see it, will be emotional, sustainable
and in the field. We will soon be welcoming the arrival of a low- and multi-faceted.
volume, electric-powered, high-performance sports car; the Audi
R8 e-tron shows how dynamic the future of electromobility is Join us on this journey.
looking. We are pursuing this task with enormous determination.
By the year 2020, we want to be the leading premium manufac
turer of electric vehicles. By then, our hybrid and electric cars will
be enriching the Audi product lineup as regular models with a
forecast overall annual volume measuring in six figures.
In order to realize the vision of CO₂-neutral mobility,
Audi future lab: mobility we are taking into consideration the entire product lifecycle of We are working at speed
Rupert Stadler, Chariman of the Board of Management of Audi AG our cars. Among many possible approaches, we see the develop
ment of new energy sources as a major opportunity for the auto
on all topics – future
The mobility of the future motive future. For this reason, we are establishing the Audi e-gas
project and developing new synthetic fuels in the form of Audi
engines, future energies and
urban future.
will be multi-faceted e-ethanol and Audi e-diesel, the production of which can be com
pletely CO₂-neutral. Rupert Stadler,
Chariman of the Board of Management of Audi AG
2 3
Rightsizing Hybrid technology
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Statement from Axel Eiser
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e-tron technology
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Audi future engines
Audi’s TDI and TFSI engines still offer substantial Audi A1 e-tron fleet testing
→ Page 26
efficiency potential for the mobility of
the future. Driveline electrification is a further
cornerstone.
Predictive efficiency assistant
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Dual-Mode Hybrid
→ Page 28
Electronic biturbo Audi R18 e-tron quattro
→ Page 14 → Page 30
Audi R8 e-tron world record
→ Page 34
4 5
We at Audi will have a major impact on the current shift to new, tomer – everyday usability without sacrifice, powerful electric per
alternative drive concepts. That means that we are meeting the formance, sensible electric range and an exemplary overall eco
many different global requirements in respect of consumption balance. Our e-tron models guarantee enormous electric driving
and emissions with the optimum solution for each situation. And pleasure at low operating costs.
we are doing this by developing sustainable technologies that A few months ago we showed what is possible with
reduce dependence on conventional energy sources electrification – with the world record set by the R8 e-tron on the
TDI and TFSI engines are the powerful foundations Nürburgring Nordschleife and with the overall victory of the
of our brand, on which we will continue to build our position R18 e-tron quattro at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi’s drives of
of leadership. Our 1.8 TFSI and the new 2.0 TFSI have been thor the future – all of them – will be sustainable and highly efficient,
oughly engineered for dynamics, driving fun and low fuel con as well as emotional and dynamic.
sumption in customer usage. A further cornerstone for the mo
bility of the future is electrification, whereby the initial focus
is on our new hybrid models. In the medium term, plug-in-hybrids
(PHEVs) will be the electrified all-rounders in the Audi portfolio.
We are working intensively on the complete chain of
drive technology – on solutions such as new kinds of storage tech
nologies, highly intelligent operating strategies and e-tron
quattro electrified all-wheel drive. The focus of our development
activities is always on those aspects most important to the cus
Audi future engines We at Audi will
Axel Eiser, Head of Development, Engines
have a major impact on
Sustainability and the shift to new,
alternative drive concepts.
emotion in one Axel Eiser,
Head of Development, Engines
6 7
Audi future engines
Rightsizing
Made-to-measure engines
Audi is driving forward progress in its gasoline engines. The term Rightsizing
incorporates a host of innovative technologies. The key is to design
engines with the optimum combination of displacement, power and torque
delivery, fuel consumption and operating characteristics. Cylinder
deactivation in the 4.0 TFSI is one example.
Eight cylinders – Four cylinders – Zero cylinders –
rapid acceleration constant driving stop
All eight cylinders The S8 is running When the vehicle
of 4.0 TFSI are on low load. Cylinders comes to a halt, the
active. Together they 2, 3, 5, and 8 are start/stop system
produce up to deactivated. Fuel con switches off the engine.
382 kW (520 hp) www.audi-future-lab-mobility.com/ sumption drops. This function re‑
cylinder-on-demand
and 650 Nm in the duces CO₂ emissions
Audi S8. significantly.
8 9
1 Flexible –
5.7 l/100 km – Audi has been a pioneer of progress in spark-ignition engines respectively when operating under partial load. This solution is
1 the inlet manifold for many years. At the end of the 1970s, it launched its first turbo a variant of the new rightsizing strategy, aimed at create the right
with the dual in‑ powerful efficiency charged gasoline engine, a sporty five-cylinder. The next mile balance between displacement and forced induction.
jection system and
the valve gear stone followed in 1995 with the 1.8-liter four-cylinder turbo and, A central focus in rightsizing is the ongoing develop
In the Audi A4 and
of the 1.8 TFSI. A5 Coupe, the 1.8 TFSI in 2004, the brand placed itself at the very forefront of the com ment of forced induction. Audi engineers want to further optimize
emits just 134 grams petitive field with TFSI technology, the combination of forced in torque and its dynamic build up, especially in the lower rev range.
of CO₂ per km, duction and gasoline direct injection. Some highly promising starts have already been made here, with
yet generates a sporty
The strategy of downsizing – the replacement of dis two-stage forced induction concepts delivering considerable in
125 kW (170 hp).
placement with forced induction – delivered substantial increases creases in performance. The materials used in the turbochargers
in torque. It enabled the development engineers to “downspeed” include extremely heat-resistant steel alloys and turbines made
i.e. to use gearboxes with long ratios for improved fuel consump from titanium aluminide.
tion. Audi continues to pursue this successful approach, with In the further development of forced induction tech
2 Intelligent –
2 the innovative key competitors just beginning to follow suit. nology, especially when it comes to increased charge pressure,
rotary disc valve The EA 888 four-cylinder engine family that made its there is also an opportunity to apply new combustion processes. Of
manages debut in 2006 marks a further advancement in TFSI technology. particular interest here are low-pressure exhaust gas recircula
coolant flow.
Now in its third iteration, the 1.8 and 2.0-liter units are packed tion (LP EGR) and the so-called Miller and Atkinson cycles, which
with hi-tech solutions. Among them are the Audi valvelift system enable an extended expansion phase. Both technologies increase
(AVS), the exhaust manifold integrated into the cylinder head, efficiency significantly under medium and high load. At the other
the turbocharger with an electric wastegate actuator, the innova end of the spectrum, under partial load, homogenous charge
tive thermal management with electric coolant control and the compression ignition (HCCI), lean combustion and variable valve
combination of direct injection with inlet manifold injection. control offer new opportunities to raise efficiency even further.
Overall, these solutions deliver impressive results. In In the development of spark-ignition engines, a major
the A4 with manual transmission, the 1.8 TFSI with 125 kW role is also played by fuels of the future, such as Audi e-gas or
3 New – (170 hp) consumes an average of just 5.7 liters of fuel per 100 km Audi e-ethanol. The classic fields of internal friction, engine ma
3 the exhaust – equating to CO₂ emissions of 134 grams per kilometer. The A4 terials and thermal management complete the range of tasks
manifold is
integrated into the
from 2000 with the 1.8 T and an output of 110 kW (150 hp) emit being worked on by engineers. The extensive application of new
cylinder head. ted 197 grams of CO₂ per km. Improvements across many areas technologies will deliver a further significant reduction in the
contribute to this progress. However, the most significant come consumption of TFSI engines – in the range of around 15 percent
from the engine. by 2020. The brand aims to offer a mid-size sedan with a TFSI
The latest Audi innovation also has a noticeable impact engine that has CO₂ emissions of less than 100 grams per kilome
on efficiency – the cylinder-on-demand (COD) system. In the new ter by the end of the decade.
4.0 TFSI and 1.4 TFSI engines, it shuts off four and two cylinders
11
Audi future engines The open road can be full of surprises – signs indicating speed off the gas – even at higher speeds – the TFSI is decoupled and
Predictive efficiency assistant limits or residential areas can appear suddenly over the crest of a deactivated; only the electric motor provides slight braking in
hill, forcing the driver to brake. In conventional vehicles, how order to charge the lithium-ion battery.
Farsightedness for driveline www.audi-future-lab-mobility.com/
predictive-efficiency-assistant
ever, braking means that kinetic energy is converted into heat. It
would be far more efficient if the driver could start to deceler-
In future, a comparable function could also be possible
in conventional drives. Audi is working on a technology bearing
management ate earlier and coast down to the speed limit in a more controlled
manner – which would mean knowing what lies ahead.
the acronym iHEV. On lifting off the gas, the engine is deactivated
and later reactivated smoothly and comfortably by a belt-driven
Precisely this capability is the focus of the predictive starter-generator. Components like power steering, air conditio
efficiency assistant (PEA), one of Audi’s advanced development ning and the brake servo unit are electrified, drawing their ener‑
projects. Its objective is to use the route information from the gy from a powerful 48-volt vehicle electrical system.
Audi is working on new, intelligent technologies to reduce fuel consumption
navigation system for drive management. The new major expan In cooperation with the predictive efficiency assistant,
even further. The predictive efficiency assistant uses data from the navigation system
sion level of the MMI Navigation plus incorporates not only speed iHEV vehicles can take full advantage of their entire fuel con
to enable the car to slow down in an anticipatory manner.
limits but also gradient data. This enables the drive manage sumption potential, as comparative drives with a technology mule
ment system to determine how the stretch should be driven. It is have indicated. The A7 Sportback 3.0 TFSI iHEV completed sev
supported by the adaptive cruise control, which monitors the eral drives along a 61 km stretch of winding, out-of-town road in
traffic ahead. The PEA also takes into account the current vehicle normal everyday driving conditions. On the tests without data
mass and possible add-on extras like roof boxes or similar items. support, the driver covered 28 percent of the route with the engine
The predictive efficiency assistant advises the deactivated. With data support active, this proportion rose to 43
driver when he can commence a comfortable coasting sequence percent, while fuel consumption dropped by around 10 percent.
that will not hinder other road users behind him. The indication Driving time was lengthened by just two minutes.
2 can appear in the driver information system display or via a haptic In future, the networking functions of Audi connect
signal like a pulse sent through the gas pedal. Alternatively, the can ensure that the predictive efficiency assistant uses up-to-
3 driver can also simply use the coasting capabilities of the adaptive the-minute data. If an Audi identifies a speed limit with its video
Audi A7 Sportback cruise control. camera, at a newly established construction site for example, it
1 4 Depending on vehicle and equipment, coasting can sends it via the cell phone network to a server in the Audi comput
3.0 TFSI iHEV 5
occur with the driveline coupled, i.e. conventional trailing throttle, er center. There, the information is validated and sent out to
or decoupled, i.e. freewheeling. Some A3 and Q3 variants come all suitably equipped vehicles driving the same route – a concrete
1 12-volt battery
2 12-volt vehicle electric system equipped with a freewheeling function; depending on the engine usage example for forthcoming car-to-x technology.
3 DC/DC transformer 48/12 volt and gearbox configuration, it saves more fuel than trailing throt
4 Lithium-Ion battery 48 volt tle. The hybrid models in the A6, A8 and Q5 ranges often coast en
5 Belt-driven starter/generator
tirely without engine drag torque. If the driver takes his foot
12 13
Audi future engines Almost a quarter of a century ago, Audi delivered a major boost Instead of a turbine driven by the flow of exhaust
Electric biturbo to diesel engine development worldwide. 1989 saw the debut in gases, the new component incorporates a small electric motor
the Audi 100 of the first direct injection compression ignition that runs the compressor rotor up to a very high speed in an
Power at the lowest revs engine with turbocharging and electronic control, since when the
TDI has enjoyed an impressive and ongoing success story.
extremely short space of time. The electrically driven compressor,
which looks very similar to a conventional turbocharger from the
The full potential of forced induction is particularly outside, is positioned downstream of the turbocharger and
evident in combination with the diesel engine. It increases perfor charge-air cooler and is bypassed under most operating conditions.
With the electric biturbo, Audi is taking another major step mance and reduces consumption and emissions considerably; However, when the energy on the turbine side is low, the bypass
forward in its TDI engines. In this forward-looking compared with earlier naturally aspirated engines, this is down valve closes and the charge air is directed into the electrical com
technology an additional compressor assists the turbocharger sizing at its very best. As a factor of displacement, TDI engines pressor, where it is compressed for a second time.
in the lower rev range. have increased their output by more than 100 percent and torque The effect of the new concept is impressive. When
1
by 70 percent since 1989; within the same period, emissions pulling away and accelerating at very low revs, torque build-up
2
have fallen by 95 percent. takes place significantly earlier, meaning that a high level of
The latest development iteration from Audi is the 3.0 pulling power is quickly on call in every situation. Under full accel
TDI biturbo – it delivers 230 kW (313 hp) and a maximum torque eration from a standstill, the electric biturbo delivers an ad
of 650 Nm between 1,450 and 2,800 rpm. It has a specific power vantage of around two vehicle lengths in the first three seconds
output of 77.5 kW (105.5 hp) per liter. Yet, in the A6 it con compared with a conventional engine.
3 sumes an average of just 6.4 liters of fuel per 100 km and emits The energy required to drive the electric compressor
169 grams of CO₂ per km. is derived largely from recuperation under trialing throttle condi
All turbocharged internal combustion engines share tions, making it consumption neutral. A further key feature of
one characteristic – that turbochargers are driven by energy from the concept is the flexible and compact charge line; its heat capa
the exhaust gas. For this reason, the charge pressure, and thus city is reduced as a result, ensuring that the catalytic convertor
4 torque, does not begin to rise sharply at the lowest end of the rev quickly reaches operating temperature following cold start.
3.0 TDI with range until exhaust gas energy increases.
The electric biturbo, however, offers a significant
electric biturbo improvement. Specialists from Audi’s Advanced Diesel Engine De
velopment department in Neckarsulm have built and calibrated
1 Turbocharger
2 Diesel particulate filter a 3.0 TDI with this configuration. The conventional turbocharger
6
3 Throttle valve operates together with a supplementary, electrically driven
4 Electrically driven compressor compressor. This facilitates a rapid build-up of charge pressure
5 Bypass valve 5
and high torque from the very lowest revs, independent of the
6 Charge-air cooler
available exhaust gas energy.
14 15
Audi future engines The parallel driveline that Audi uses in its current hybrid models
Hybrid technology is a highly efficient concept with a modular construction. The only
difference across the three models – Audi Q5 hybrid quattro,
Four-cylinder consumption A6 hybrid and A8 hybrid – is that the SUV features all-wheel drive,
while the power is transmitted to the front wheels only in the
with six-cylinder power sedans. Total system output is 180 kW (245 hp), while overall
torque stands at 480 Nm.
Drive is handled by a 2.0 TFSI with 155 kW (211 hp)
and an electric motor with up to 40 kW and 210 Nm of torque. The
Audi offers full hybrids with lithium-ion batteries in three power from both units is transmitted by an extensively modi
vehicle classes. The A6 hybrid, the A8 hybrid and the A5 hybrid quattro 2
fied, eight-speed tiptronic without a torque converter. In its place
use a parallel driveline – a highly efficient concept. is the disc-shaped electric motor combined with a multi-plate
1 clutch, which forms the connection between the motor and the
TFSI. It operates precisely, smoothly and quickly in all situations.
3 4 The energy storage medium is a lithium-ion battery
system that weighs just 36.7 kilograms; it has an energy rating of
1.3 kWh and an output of 39 kW. Depending on requirements,
it can be air-cooled in one of two ways – via air extracted the from
the vehicle interior or via a cooling system coupled to the air
conditioning. This technology maintains the battery temperature
within the required limits across a wide range of scenarios and
facilitates a electric range of up to three kilometers at a constant
speed of 60 km/h. The top battery-powered speed of 100 km/h
The electric motor also sets a new benchmark.
The compact and lightweight power electronics,
in the hybrid driveline which are water-cooled like the electric motor, convert the direct
current from the battery into alternating current. The power
1 Cooling jacket
2 Rotor electronics have an integrated DC converter that connects the
3 Stator electric components on the 12-volt vehicle network to the
4 Decoupler high-voltage network.
16 171 The multi-tasker –
The hybrid The brake servo unit is also supplied by an electric
1 the Audi Q5 hybrid vacuum pump; a complex control strategy adapts the braking pro
quattro is the sporty driveline cess to electric driving and energy recuperation. The air condi
SUV for all kinds
of road and track. tioning compressor has an electric drive, while an electric auxilia
1 Eight-speed hybrid transmission
2 Electric motor with decoupler ry heater rounds of the heating system. In the final reckoning,
3 Connectors for high-voltage wiring the hybrid-specific components add less than 130 kilograms of
4 2.0 TFSI extra weight.
5 Turbocharger
The three hybrid models are as refined as they are
6 Charge-air cooler
efficient. The sprint from zero to 100 km/h takes between 7.1
2 The flagship – and 7.7 seconds, while top speed stands at between 225 and 240
2 the Audi A8 hybrid sets km/h. Average fuel consumption is just 6.2 to 6.9 liters per 100
benchmarks in
the luxury class with
kilometers – equating to CO₂ emissions ranging from 145 to 159
its efficiency. grams per kilometer.
3
The three Audi hybrid models can run on the engine
alone, on electric drive only and in hybrid mode; they can also
recuperate energy while braking and provide boost under high load
5
2 4 – which means both units running together. The driver can select
from three programs – the EV mode gives priority to electric drive,
3 The business program D provides efficient control for both power units and
3 sedan – S mode is set up for sporty driving.
the Audi A6 hybrid
boasts a compelling,
state-of-the-art 1 6
technology concept.
www.audi-future-lab-mobility.com/
18 audi-hybrid-technology 19The power meter City traffic – The most important display instrument is the power
the Audi hybrid meter. Its needle presents the total system output on a scale
in the cockpit models can
of zero to 100 percent. A further instrument visualizes the battery
drive on electricity
alone up charge status. In parallel, the color display of the driver infor
1 Ignition switched off
2 Heavy braking to 60 km/h. mation system and the monitor of the MMI Navigation plus pres
3 Recuperation zone ent the power flow and operating conditions in the form of ele
4 Charge status display for the gant graphics.
traction battery 7
8 Audi can look back on more than 20 years of experi
5 Vehicle ready for use
6 Electric driving zone Open road – ence in hybrid technology. The first generation of the Audi duo – a
7 Limit for cut-in of TFSI in 2.0 TFSI runs under technology study based on the Audi 100 Avant – made its debut
EV mode optimum load.
as far back as 1989. A five-cylinder gasoline engine drove the
8 TFSI under full load
9 front wheels, while a nine-kilowatt electric motor provided power
9 TFSI and electric motor
working together 6 to the rear wheels as required. The energy storage medium was
nickel-cadmium batteries. A second duo variant based on an Audi
100 Avant quattro followed two years later.
In 1997, Audi became the first European automaker
Acceleration – to put a hybrid vehicle into low-volume production – the Audi duo
5 under boost con‑ based on the A4 Avant. It was driven by a 1.9-liter TDI with 66 kW
ditions, the en‑
gine and electric motor
(90 hp) and an electric motor with 21 kW fed by a lead gel battery
work together. in the rear. Both units sent their power to the front wheels.
Like both of the previous studies, the low-volume duo
was based on the plug-in concept. Its battery could be charged
4
from an electricity outlet and the motor was able to recover energy
during deceleration. Running on battery power, the Audi duo
3 Recuperation – reached a top speed of 80 km/h and 170 km/h with the TDI unit.
under deceleration,
the electric
motor acts as a
2 generator and
recuperates energy.
1
20 21Audi future engines
1 Powerful drive – The Audi R8 e-tron, the first low-volume electric vehicle to be pro
1 the combined
e-tron technology duced by Audi, is an uncompromising, high-performance sports
output of the Audi
e-tron quattro
car. Its two electric motors deliver an output of 280 kW (381 hp)
The future will be dynamic is 236 kW (320 hp). and 820 Nm of torque. All of the energy comes from the large
lithium-ion battery that stores 48.6 kWh. The Audi R8 e-tron com
pletes the sprint from zero to 100 km/h in 4.6 seconds, achieves
an electronically limited top speed of 200 km/h and covers a range
The term e-tron covers all Audi cars that can drive for longer of around 215 km.
distances on electricity alone. The brand is working on all aspects The Audi A2 concept technology study is also a pure‑
of the issue and with different approaches – from pure 2 Excellent ly electric car. The spacious four-seater brings together the
2 handling –
electric drive through plug-in hybrids to the electric quattro driveline. e-tron philosophy and ultra-lightweight design with the network
the location of the
9.4 kWh battery
ing ideas of Audi connect; steering and braking are operated
in the center tunnel purely electrically (by-wire). The show car is prepared for the con
benefits the venient inductive charging technology known as Audi wireless
agility of the Audi charging (AWC).
e-tron quattro.
The Audi A3 e-tron concept, on the other hand, is con
ceived as an efficient parallel plug-in hybrid. Its 1.4 TFSI de‑
livers 155 kW (211 hp), while the electric motor produces 20 kW,
with both drives connected to the front wheels. With its capacity
of 12 kWh, the lithium-ion battery offers a range of around 50 km
in electric drive mode. The Audi A3 e-tron will enter series pro
duction as a plug-in hybrid in 2014, followed a little later by the Q7
and A4. Early 2012 also saw Audi present the Audi A6 L e-tron
The Audi concept as a study.
e-tron quattro
The technology show Intelligent concept –
case based on TFSI engine and
the Audi A5 boasts a motor up front, second
compelling mix of motor at the rear
dynamism and tech axle with the battery
nology. in between.
22 231 Pioneering – An interesting alternative to the parallel hybrid con
1 the Audi A3 e-tron cept is to divide the power of the engine and electric drive between
concept is a notchback
sedan with a
the axles. The e-tron quattro study based on the Audi A5 adheres
plug-in hybrid drive. to this principle. Two powerful electric motors complement the
2.0 TFSI at the front of the vehicle – one is attached to the front
axle and the other to the rear. As a plug-in hybrid concept, the
Audi e-tron quattro can be charged at a household power outlet.
The dynamic Audi e-tron Spyder is also a plug-in hy
brid, albeit with a different approach. Its powerful heart is a
2 Smart detail –
2 the charge connector three-liter, bi-turbocharged TDI with a power output of 221 kW
incorporates a (300 hp). Mounted behind the passenger cabin, it drives the rear
status display. The bat wheels. Two electric motors with a combined output of 64 kW
tery stores 12 kWh.
(87 hp) and 352 Nm of torque send their drive to the front wheels.
The LMP1 prototype R18 e-tron quattro, which
was the confident victor of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, has a largely
similar construction. A mid-mounted V6 TDI with a displace
ment of 3.7 liters sends 375 kW (510 hp) to the rear wheels. The
3 Elegant – front wheels can be periodically and for a short time driven elec
3 the interior is finished trically with 75 kW (102 hp) each. The energy for this drive, which
in white, with dis‑
plays created speci
is recuperated from braking, comes from a flywheel energy stor
fically for the hybrid age device.
drive. The compact A1 e-tron, on the other hand, is an urban
specialist with an additional range extender. Its electric motor
sends a peak output of 75 kW (102 hp) to the front wheels and its
range in electric mode is around 50 km. A Wankel rotary engine
in the rear with a displacement of 254 cm³ and 15 kW (20 hp)
The Audi facilitates cross-country trips by charging the 12 kWh battery via
e-tron Spyder a generator.
Large V6 TDI at the
rear, at the front are two
electric motors
with a combined output
of 64 kW (87 hp).
24 25Audi future engines The extended fleet testing in Munich that Audi ran with the first Findings indicate that most of the A1 e-tron users
Audi A1 e-tron fleet testing units of the A1 e-tron has covered more than 50,000 km. The had to develop a degree of trust in the new technology at the start
test program ended in September 2012, with important findings of the test program, especially when learning to take full ad
Trendsetter for on customer usage habits, the charging infrastructure and vehi
cle performance already established.
vantage of the range in electric drive mode. However, this did not
take long and several drivers also went on motorway trips
sustainable mobility The fleet test consisted of two phases. Phase one was
based on a group of drivers who charged their cars at public sta
that took them well outside the Munich metropolitan area – they
used the A1 e-tron in much the same way as they had the A1 1.4
tions or their workplace; phase two concentrated on users who TFSI before it.
charged the A1 e-tron in their own garages at home. Both phases After a short time, the participants felt very much at
were preceded by a pilot phase in which each participant drove ease with the electrically powered compact car and its driving
an A1 1.4 TFSI as a reference vehicle in order to be able to draw feel. They saw themselves as trendsetters for a new, clean mobi
direct comparisons between gasoline and electric drive. lity. With its peak output of 75 kW (102 hp), the electric motor
at the front of the car delivered powerful acceleration and, on lon
The Audi A1 ger trips, the 254 cm³ Wankel engine in the rear recharged the
12 kWh battery via a generator.
e-tron Over the course of the test program, the proportion
of driving done in electric mode increased from 76 to 91 percent,
The compact car goes
its own way – with an with energy costs sinking continuously for the participants. The
electric motor up front sustainably produced electricity that charged the Audi A1 e-trons
and a small Wankel within the Munich area and the low quantity of fuel required for
engine in the rear as a
running the range extender resulted in energy costs spanning
range extender.
four to seven Euro per 100 kilometers depending on the individu
al driving profile.
Audi will continue its testing with the A1 e-tron – the
company is participating in the “Schaufenster Elektromobilität”
(Electromobility Showcase) program that starts at the beginning
of 2013 and is being promoted by the Federal Ministry of Edu
cation and Research. Audi’s involvement will be in the model
regions of Bavaria/Saxony, Berlin-Brandenburg and Baden-Würt
The Audi A1 e-tron with its range extender is a city specialist. The brand with temberg, addressing different focal topics in each.
the four rings has undertaken an extended fleet test with it in Munich.
26 27Audi future engines Dual-Mode Hybrid A highly promising approach that Audi is pursuing in electromo Electric drive is possible up to a speed of 130 km/h.
Dual-Mode Hybrid bility is the Dual-Mode Hybrid. The project is currently in its early As of around 55 km/h, the drive system allows the TFSI and the
concept development stages, with testing having commenced on initial generator (EM 1) to link directly with the driveline. In this hybrid
Next-generation The new Audi hybrid
system operates
prototypes based on the A1. The drive layout is unusually lean –
comprised primarily of an internal combustion engine, two elec
mode, the control unit decides whether the individual drives
work together for optimum efficiency or optimum performance,
hybrid drives in accordance with the
driving situation in
tric motors and a single-speed transmission.
The engine is a three-cylinder TFSI with a displacement
as required. Upward of the 130 km/h mark, drive is handled
largely by the engine. If necessary, the EM 1 electric motor can pro
a number of different
of 1.5 liters developed specifically for the task. Derived from the vide support to boost system output, for instance, or reduce
modes.
two-liter four-cylinder, it generates an output of 95 kW (130 hp) fuel consumption.
and 200 Nm of torque. The three-cylinder is connected to a disc- Within this strategy, the driver can select a more
The hybrid drive that Audi is developing under the heading
shaped electric motor (EM 1) that functions principally as a economical or sportier setting. At city speeds, he can also use an
Dual-Mode Hybrid offers a great deal of potential. It is lean, powerful,
starter and generator. It produces a peak output of around 50 kW EV button to activate electric drive. Regardless of operating
comfortable and efficient.
(68 hp) and up to 210 Nm of torque. mode, the driving feel is similar to that of a battery-electric car –
Electric traction is handled by the second electric the driver experiences neither gearshifts nor noticeable switches
motor (EM 2), which produces a peak output of 85 kW (116 hp) between engine and motors.
and a maximum torque of 250 Nm. The single-speed gearbox In the Dual-Mode Hybrid concept vehicles built by
makes it possible to manage the mechanical connection between Audi based on the A1, system output totals 130 kW (177 hp) and
the engine/generator assembly and the rest of the driveline via acceleration from zero to 100 km/h is dealt within less than
a dog clutch. nine seconds. The 17.4 kWh battery is mounted largely beneath
The Dual-Mode Hybrid concept offers a variety of dif the rear bench and delivers an electric range of around 90 km.
ferent operating modes. From pulling away up to a speed of Average fuel consumption is approximately 1.0 liters per 100 km
55 km/h, i.e. in city traffic, drive is generally handled by the EM 2. and CO₂ emissions are 23 grams per kilometer.
In the event that the battery has insufficient energy for the task,
the system switches temporarily to series operation, whereby the
engine and generator (EM 1) produce electrical energy.
www.audi-future-lab-mobility.com/
dual-mode-hybrid 29Audi future engines
1 Downforce – With the R18 e-tron quattro, Audi has realized a drive techno
1 the large spoiler
Audi R 18 e-tron quattro logy that is utterly without compare in motorsport. Powerful and
makes the rear end
extremely stable,
efficient propulsion is delivered to the rear axle by a 3.7-liter
The Le Mans winner even when braking
from a top speed
V6 TDI engine with more than 375 kW (510 hp) and over 850 Nm
of torque. Its power is transmitted by a six-speed gearbox made
of more than 300 from ultra-lightweight carbon-fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP).
km/h.
Located at the front axle is the innovative motor
With the R18 e-tron quattro, Audi introduced a radical new hybrid generator unit (MGU), developed by Audi in cooperation with
technology into motorsport – and won first time out. its system partners. A generator and a transformer convert
energy recovered during braking into direct current. It, in turn,
drives a rotating mass storage device located in the cockpit
next to the driver. The power accelerates a flywheel made from
2 Guide element –
2 the long fin is sti‑ ultra-lightweight CFRP and running in a vacuum to speeds of
pulated in the regula up to 45,000 rpm.
tions for the 24 On exiting the bend, the driver can then draw the
Hours of Le Mans.
energy back out of the storage device. It feeds into the MGU’s two
electric motors that drive the front wheels with up to 150 kW
(204 hp) – for a short time, the Audi R18 TDI becomes a quattro
with four driven wheels. In order to limit the scope of this ad
vantage, the organizers of the 24 Hours of Le Mans restricted use
of the MGU to speeds of more than 120 km/h, a maximum en
ergy of 500 kilojoules and seven stretches of the track.
Audi’s
winner
← The R18 e-tron
quattro with starting
number 1 won the
24 Hours of Le Mans.
31The Audi R 18 In qualifying, André Lotterer put the 900 kilogram “By combining e-tron quattro with ultra-lightweight
R18 e-tron quattro with the starting number 1 on pole position. design we were able to bring a completely new technology to the
e-tron quattro “It drives like it’s on rails,” enthused the man from Duisburg starting grid and win first time out,” said Rupert Stadler, Chair
after completing a fast lap in 3:23.787 minutes. On Sunday, in the man of the Board of Management of AUDI AG, after the race. “This
1 Engine/generator unit on the front axle
2 Rotating mass storage device race itself, the Audi with chassis number R18-208 crossed the proves the outstanding technical expertise of our engineers.”
3 V6 TDI with 3.7-liter displacement line as the victor at 3.00 p.m. after 378 laps and 5151.762 km. Winning with innovation is something of a tradition at Audi. In
4 Transmission casing from CFRP with titanium inserts Second place went to the R18 e-tron quattro driven by Dindo Ca 2001, the brand with the four rings won in Sarthe with its then
pello, Tom Kristensen and Allan McNish with one lap less. The brand-new TFSI engine; in 2006 it stunned onlookers with the first
two Audi R18 ultras with TDI-only drive rounded off the brand’s tri Le Mans triumph for a TDI engine.
umph in places three and five – the eleventh overall Le Mans vic “We have been intensely involved in the regulations
tory from 14 starts since 1999. and they have taken a major step in the right direction,” comments
The fuel consumption figures of Lotterer/Fässler/ Head of Audi Motorsport Dr. Wolfgang Ullrich. “They promote
Tréluyer underscore the potential of Audi’s hybrid technology. The the development of new technologies that are also relevant
winners were considerably faster than the year before – with an for series production, which is precisely why we are so committed
average speed of 214.468 km/h compared with 201.266 km/h. to Le Mans.”
Nevertheless, their R18 e-tron quattro consumed around ten As of 2014, the cards will be shuffled once more for
percent less fuel than the R18 TDI from 2011. the endurance classic. The new regulations will see the organizers
3 specify an amount of energy from which every participant must
derive the absolute maximum; and there will be greater freedom
2
in respect of engines and hybrid systems. The objective is to
4 reduce fuel consumption by a further 30 percent. Audi is already
looking forward to the next challenge.
1
www.audi-future-lab-mobility.com/
32 r18-e-tron-quattro 33Audi future engines Audi R8 e-tron world record Audi under full power In June 2012, the Audi R8 e-tron set the fastest time for a series-production vehicle with electric drive on the Nürburgring Nordschleife. Professional racing driver Markus Winkelhock drove it round the track in 8:09.099 minutes. 34 35
1 Before the start – The R8 e-tron, with which Audi set a new world record on the
1 Markus Winkelhock Nürburgring Nordschleife in June 2012, is identical in every way
concentrates
on the task at hand.
to the series-production model that is scheduled for market
launch at the end of the year. Its ultra-lightweight bodyshell is
made largely from an aluminum ASF (Audi Space Frame) and
CFRP components. It is thanks in large part to this construction
that the high-performance sports car has a dry weight of just
1,780 kilograms, despite its substantial battery.
Both electric motors in the R8 e-tron send a total
of 280 kW (381 hp) of power and 820 Nm of torque to the rear
wheels. They can be controlled individually to enable targeted
torque vectoring – the transfer of forces in accordance with driving
2 Data procedure –
2 final check in the dynamics. The R8 e-tron completes the sprint from zero to 100
pit lane on the km/h in 4.6 seconds, while its top speed is limited to 200 km/h.
Nordschleife right This limit was increased to 250 km/h for the record-breaking lap,
before the start.
which the high-performance sports car completed on cup tires.
The T-shaped lithium-ion battery is mounted in the
center tunnel and transversely in front of the rear axle. The 48.6
kWh of energy stored within are sufficient for around 215 kilome
ters in everyday use. However, on the extremely demanding
20.832 km of the Nürburgring Nordschleife, on which a conven
tional high-performance car consumes up to 65 liters of gasoline
per 100 km, the charge was sufficient for two fast laps. Recupe
16:56.966 min – ration was enormously helpful here, with the electric motors func
tioning as potent generators under deceleration, taking the
fast double lap load off the electromechanical wheel brakes on the rear axle al
most entirely.
Markus Winkelhock
with the Audi R8 e-tron
at Brünnchen, a
difficult combination
of bends.
36 371 Crossing the line – Alongside the fast single lap on the Nordschleife,
1 the times for the R8 completed in 8:09.099 minutes, the R8 e-tron achieved yet an
e-tron are new
records for electrically
other top result with professional racing driver Markus Winkel
powered series- hock at the wheel. Limited to 200 km/h and with series-production
production vehicles. tires, the high-performance sports car completed two consecu
tive laps in 16:56.966 minutes. “The record drives were a unique
experience for me,” reported Winkelhock afterward. The 32
year-old from Schwabia has an extremely tough comparative
benchmark – the Audi R8 LMS ultra, in which he won the 24-hour
race on the Nürburgring in May 2012 together with Marc Bas
seng, Christopher Haase and Frank Stippler.
“Obviously, the R8 e-tron is a series-production car
2 Celebration –
2 Project leader Ralf without aerodynamic assistance,” commented Winkelhock.
Schelchshorn “But it possesses tremendous sporting qualities with its low center
and racing professional of gravity and rearward weight distribution. And the torque the
Winkelhock share
electric motors lay down coming out of the tight bends is un
their joy.
believable – even if they hardly make any noise, which was a com
pletely new experience for me at the start.”
8:09.099 min –
fast single lap
The Nordschleife has 73
bends and gradients
www.audi-future-lab-mobility.com/
of up to 17 percent over a
38 r8-e-tron-world-record distance of 20.832 km. 39Statement from Reiner Mangold
→ Page 42
Audi future energies Interview with Heinz Hollerweger
→ Page 54
Clean drive energy will play a major role in the
sustainable mobility of the future, which is why Audi
is pushing forward with the development Audi e-ethanol and Audi e-diesel
→ Page 50
and production of climate-friendly synthetic fuels.
Ecobalance
→ Page 56
The Audi e-gas project
→ Page 44
Audi A3 Sportback TCNG
→ Page 48 Sustainable energies
→ Page 58
40 41Within the automotive industry, Audi is striving to achieve the which we can use to power CNG cars like the new A3 Sportback
leading role in the sustainable management of all resources – a TCNG. With the e-gas project, it is about more than a new kind
major objective is overall CO₂-neutral premium mobility. We of fuel – its principle of electricity/gas coupling is facilitating the
also want in future to offer sporty and emotional cars that cause energy shift in the fuel tank.
no further damage to the environment. We are also pursuing further highly promising con
In order to achieve this objective, we look far beyond cepts to replace gasoline and diesel with completely new biofuels
tailpipe emissions; we cast a very wide net when drawing up that are independent of energy plants and that trap greenhouse
our ecobalances. Alongside the purely operational phase, we also gas CO₂ during the production process. Together with specialist
take into consideration the manufacturing and recycling of the partners, we have been working for some time on the production
vehicle, as well as the complete fuel chain, which is becoming in of synthetic ethanol, Audi e-ethanol, and synthetic diesel, Audi
creasingly important. The operation of electrically driven cars, e-diesel. With these initiatives, we continue to pursue our aim of
like our e-tron models for example, is only truly advanced when harmonizing ecology with the economy.
the electricity that they use is derived from renewable energy.
With the Audi e-gas project, we are building a com
plete chain of sustainable energy sources. It starts with energy
from wind power and carbon dioxide from a biogas facility that is
absorbed during energy conversion. The end products are re
newably generated electricity, hydrogen and synthetic Audi e-gas,
Audi future energies
Reiner Mangold, Head of Sustainable Product Development
Ecology and economy
in harmony Within the automotive industry,
we are striving to be the
leader in sustainable resource
management.
Reiner Mangold,
Head of Sustainable Product Development
42 431 Wind energy – 3 Electrolysis – 5 Gas network –
Audi future energies
the starting point for the electrolysis plant, the e-gas is stored in
The Audi e-gas project
the Audi e-gas pro‑ which is operated by the public gas net‑
ject is renewably gene wind power, splits work and can therefore
A chain of sustainable rated electricity. water into oxygen and
hydrogen.
also supply house‑
holds and industry with
2 Power grid – energy from renew‑
energy sources the wind energy
is fed into the public
4 Methanation –
the hydrogen reacts
able sources.
power grid. with carbon dioxide in a 6 CNG filling station –
methanation plant. the increasing propor
The result: e-gas (syn tion of e-gas promotes
By 2013, the Audi a-gas project will make the brand with the four rings the first automaker thetic natural gas). climate-friendly
worldwide to have built a whole chain of sustainable energy sources. long-distance mobility.
1
2
5
3
4
6
Renewable energy –
the starting point
for sustainable electric
mobility is renewably www.audi-future-lab-mobility.com/
44 generated electricity. e-gas-project 45Electrolysis The Audi e-gas facility in Werlte, northern Germany, which The CO₂ comes from a biogas plant that is fed not with Audi’s involvement in initiatives addressing the pro
Audi is currently building in cooperation with its partner firm energy plants but with organic waste, thus avoiding the conflict duction of clean electrical energy comes under the heading of
SolarFuel, will be the world’s first industrial-scale installation with food production. The CO₂ used is a waste product that would Audi e-power. In April 2010, Audi joined the international consor
1 Renewable energy
2 Oxygen (O₂) to generate synthetic natural gas from CO₂ and renewable electric otherwise enter the atmosphere. The Audi e-gas facility bonds tium Desertec Industrie Initiative (Dii GmbH). Its long-term
2
3 Water (H₂O) ity. It runs on renewable electricity from sources such as wind the CO₂ into the fuel, making Audi e-gas a climate-neutral fuel. goal is to generate climate-friendly solar energy in the deserts of
4 Hydrogen (H₂) and solar power or biomass. The facility, with its rated input of When it is subsequently burned in the engine, the amount of CO₂ North Africa and the Middle East. Audi is the only automaker
around 6,000 kW, will use primarily wind power when there is released is exactly the same as the amount previously bonded worldwide to be part of the consortium as an associated part
a temporary excess, thus helping to solve one of the core issues into the fuel in the e-gas facility. ner, with the brand’s initial involvement being in the establishment
impacting the shift to alternative energy. Audi e-gas is an energy-rich fuel that is chemically of the necessary framework conditions and the associated
At the facility in Werlte, the first process step uses identical to fossil methane, the primary constituent of natural infrastructure.
electrolysis to convert renewable electricity into hydrogen (Audi gas, and is ideally suited to powering internal combustion engines. The sun shines in the deserts of the Middle East and
4 e-hydrogen), the fuel for future fuel-cell cars like the Audi Q5 Starting in 2013, the facility in Werlte will produce a planned North Africa alone with 630,000 TWh of energy every year – which
HFC. Two high-pressure cylinders store the hydrogen in this tech 1,000 tonnes of methane per year, thus binding 2,800 tonnes of equates to 30 times the amount of electricity generated world
1 3 nology prototype at a pressure of 700 bar; a polymer-electro‑ CO₂. This renewably generated Audi e-gas is sufficient to run wide in 2010. In the sunniest regions of the earth, solar power
lyte membrane fuel cell (PEM) with a power output of 98 kW sup 1,500 Audi A3 Sportback TCNGs CO₂-neutrally for 15,000 kilome stations on an area of 83,000 square kilometers – around the size
plies the energy for the electric drive. Together, the two electric ters per year. In 2015, Audi intends to launch a second TCNG of Austria – would theoretically be sufficient to satisfy all cur
motors deliver 90 kW and 420 Nm of torque. model based on the A4. rent global electricity needs.
However, as the necessary hydrogen supply infra In the medium term, the German energy economy The industrial initiative has set itself the target of,
structure is not yet in place, Audi is addressing this problem could also benefit from the concept of the Audi e-gas project by 2050, meeting most of the power needs of North Africa
Methanization through a further innovative process step. When the hydrogen is because it answers the question of how electricity produced in an and the Middle East, and a smaller proportion of European needs
combined with CO₂ in the methanization facility downstream environmentally friendly manner can be stored efficiently and with electricity generated from solar and wind power. Audi
of the electrolysis the result is synthetic, renewable natural gas – independent of location. If there is plenty of wind blowing, excess sees enormous potential within the project for a sustainable en
1 Hydrogen (H₂) 2
2 Carbon dioxide (CO₂) Audi e-gas. This can then be fed directly into the natural gas electricity can be converted into Audi e-gas and stored in the ergy supply.
3 Water (H₂O) network and stored there. public gas network – with its 217 terrawatt hours of capacity, it is The brand with the four rings wants to use some of
4 e-gas (CH₄) by far the largest energy storage facility in Germany. The energy the electricity from the Desertec project to produce and drive its
can then be fed as and when required from the gas network back e-tron vehicles. In parallel to this, excess solar electricity can,
into the electricity grid. when necessary, be stored in the gas network. Another approach
The potential of electricity/gas coupling to store being pursued by Audi e-power is its involvement with a com‑
wind or solar power in large quantities can provide powerful im pany that manufactures components for solar power stations – a
1 3 4 petus to the renewable energy movement. The Audi e-gas technology that enables flexible electricity production.
project can easily be carried over to all countries with natural gas
networks.
46 47Audi future energies The Audi A3 Sportback TCNG presents in every way the state-of- The engine is the all-new 1.4 TFSI, which, together
Audi A3 Sportback TCNG the-art in gas drive technology, beginning with the storage of with the injection system and catalytic converter, is specifically
the fuel. Its two pressure tanks beneath the floor of the luggage adapted to run on gas. With 81 kW (110 hp) and 200 Nm of
Clean and versatile compartment each have a capacity of eight kilograms of com
pressed natural gas (CNG); they mainly occupy the former location
torque, it accelerates the A3 Sportback TCNG to a top speed of
more than 190 km/h. The five-door premium compact is packed
of the spare wheel. with the full scope of Audi’s technological expertise. Ultra-light
The tanks store the gas at a pressure of more than weight design technology helps to achieve its low weight, while the
The Audi A3 Sportback TCNG, due for launch in 2013, can run 200 bar and, in keeping with Audi’s ultra-lightweight design prin infotainment and driver assistance systems set benchmarks in
on sustainably generated Audi e-gas in a groundbreaking combination ciple, weigh around 70 percent less than conventional steel the segment.
of ecology, economy and hi-tech. tanks, with each of them saving around 27 kilograms. They feature The highly efficient Audi A3 Sportback TCNG con
a new kind of matrix construction – a layer of gas-impermeable sumes just 3.6 kilograms of CNG or e-gas per 100 km – the latter
polymer forms the inner wall, a second layer of carbon-fiber rein refers to the fuel generated in the Audi e-gas project using elec
forced polymer (CFRP) ensures extremely high stiffness and a tricity from wind power. Fuel costs for the customer are extremely
1
third layer of glass-fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) provides se low, while CO₂ emissions remain below 100 grams per km. In
curity against external damage. High-strength epoxy resin serves the well-to-wheel balance, which considers the overall ecologi
as the bonding agent for the composite materials. cal impact, CO₂ emissions running on Audi e-gas are less than
A second highlight of the Audi A3 Sportback TCNG is 30 grams per km.
the electronic gas pressure regulator. The compact and light The plan is to enable customers of the Audi A3 Sport
3 weight component reduces the pressure at which the gas flows back TCNG to book the amount they fill up at public CNG stations
from the tanks in two stages to around five to nine bar. This en in Germany through a balance system similar to the one in ex
sures that the pressure in the gas rail and in the gas injection valves istence for eco-electricity. When paying for the e-gas, the quantity
is always at the correct pressure – low for efficient driving in the bought is booked via a special fuel card to a central register and
low rev range, higher when the driver demands power and torque. offset against the total amount fed into the natural gas network
2
Audi A3 If the pressure in the tank drops below 10 bar, the from the e-gas production facility.
engine management switches automatically to gasoline opera
Sportback TCNG tion. Power and torque are unaffected. The Audi A3 Sportback
4
TCNG is bivalent and can cover more than 400 km on gas and a
1 Electronic gas pressure regulator
2 Gas lines further 780 km on gasoline, achieving the same overall range as
3 Filler caps for natural gas a TDI. Two displays in the instrument panel keep the driver in
and gasoline formed of the amount of fuel in the two tanks. The fuel fill points
4 Gas pressure vessels made from
are both located beneath the same flap.
CFRP composite material
48 49Audi future energies The problem has been familiar for a long time, but it has yet to The process is relatively simple: Liquid fuels are pro
Audi e-ethanol and Audi e-diesel be solved: The combustion of conventional petroleum fuels pol duced from CO₂ and process water with the help of solar energy.
lutes the atmosphere by releasing carbon dioxide into it. Ethanol At the heart of this process are photosynthetic microorganisms,
Fuels for sustainable mobility and diesel made from renewable raw materials such as maize
and rapeseed generally achieve a better environmental balance,
each one with a diameter of about three thousandths of a millime
ter. Instead of using photosynthesis to produce new cells, how
because the plants have already previously absorbed the CO₂ that ever, these microorganisms continually produce fuel. In the pro
is released when they are combusted. But such fuels are costly cess, they utilize the sunlight and CO₂ from industrial waste from
Audi is promoting the development of new CO₂-neutral fuels. The underlying and compete with food agriculture – so they do not represent a sources such as factories and saltwater or wastewater. There is
technology is completely new: Microorganisms utilize solar energy to produce synthetic long-term solution in a world whose population continues to grow no need to use agricultural land or clean drinking water.
ethanol and synthetic diesel from carbon dioxide and water. increasingly rapidly. From this technology, Audi e-diesel and Audi e-ethanol
A radically new approach is needed to produce fuels are produced. The e-ethanol project delivers a product that has
for future CO₂-neutral mobility. Audi is working on such a solution the same chemical properties as conventional bioethanol; its de
in the framework of a partnership with Joule, a USA-based com cisive advantage is that it is produced without biomass. For ve
pany. Joule produces fuels in a patented process that utilizes spe hicles that can use E85 fuel, it may be used as an admixture to fos
cial microorganisms in a highly scalable modular system (Solar sil-fuel gasoline at percentages of up to 85 percent.
Converter®).
4
1 2
Production of
e-diesel and e-ethanol
1 Water input
3 2 Processing plant
3 SolarConverter®
for fuel production
4 CO₂ input
50 51You can also read
