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BULLETIN
Amoco Cadiz Feature
40 years of change(s)
Special Cedre turns 40 N° 37 - June 2018
CONTENTS 03 Editorial
Stefan Micaleff, International Marine Organization
04 Feature
Amoco Cadiz: 40 years of change(s)
5► Oil tanker risk analysis
6► Oil study
7► Preparedness
9► Modelling
10 ► Observation and remote sensing
11 ► In situ and laboratory-based analysis
12 ► Use of dispersants
13 ► In situ burning
13 ► Bioremediation
14 ► Containment and recovery at sea
17 ► Use of sorbents
18 ► Protection of sensitive areas
19 ► Shoreline clean-up
22 ► Volunteer management
23 ► Botanical worksites and environmental expertise
25 ► Oiled wildlife rehabilitation
26 ► Waste management
28 ► Assessment of ecological and economic damages
29 ► Media communication
30 Special: Cedre turns 40
31 ► 40 years of response
33 ► 40 years of preparedness
35 ► 40 years of research and experimentation
37 ► 40 years of documentary resources
Information
BULLETIN
Centre of Documentation, Publication Manager: ISSN: 1247-603X
Research and Experimentation Stéphane Doll Legal deposit: June 2018
on Accidental Water Pollution Editors-in-chief:
Mélusine Gaillard & Christophe Rousseau Cover photo:
N° 37 - June 2018 Stern of the Amoco Cadiz © Nicolas Job /
A Cedre bi-annual publication Formatting and Graphic Design: Annie HEOS Marine
715, rue Alain Colas Tygréat
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Cedre Information Bulletin n°37
2
Major spills, but substantial advances
EDITORIAL
2017 was a key landmark in the history of oil spills, marking the 50th anniversary
of the grounding of the Torrey Canyon oil tanker. This year we commemorate the
40th anniversary of the grounding of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast of
Brittany. These two disasters played a decisive role, as they attracted the whole
world's attention to the catastrophic effects of major spills by oil tankers. More
importantly, they brought about immediate, lasting changes which resulted in a
subsequent clear drop in major ship-source oil spills.
While the Torrey Canyon directly led to the development of the International
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), the Amoco Cadiz triggered the adoption
of the 1978 Protocol relating to this convention. These texts introduced substantial amendments and even
tighter controls. They remain to this day the most important instruments in the prevention of ship-source
pollution.
The Torrey Canyon disaster in 1967 and the work of the international community through IMO also gave rise
to interesting developments on the questions of liability and compensation for oil spill damage, in particular
with the adoption of the Civil Liability Convention (CLC 1969) and the 1971 Fund Convention. After the
Amoco Cadiz ran aground, it only took IMO a few months to gather a sufficient number of ratifications.
This process would probably have been delayed further had this spill not occurred. The experience of the
Amoco Cadiz also contributed to the revision of the international regime in order to reinforce the protection
of victims of oil pollution and encourage more States to participate in this movement. Another aftereffect
of the Amoco Cadiz was the re-examination of international rules on salvage, finally giving rise to the IMO
International Convention on Salvage in 1989.
Created in the aftermath of the Amoco Cadiz disaster, Cedre has proven to be a key stakeholder over
the past 40 years through its R&D and its extensive field experience acquired during major spills. It
has furthered our understanding of the behaviour and fate of oil and has produced outstanding tools
and resources to respond to oil spills. In this complex field, Cedre is today a world renowned centre of
expertise whose pioneering work continues to advance. Cedre strives to support the international maritime
community by regularly providing its expertise and assistance to IMO at technical meetings and to other
countries through capacity strengthening initiatives.
Demand for oil remains high and shipping continues to be the most efficient way of meeting this demand.
The oil tankers sailing the oceans today are equipped with double hulls, double controls, segregated ballast
tanks, inert gas systems and crude oil washing systems, as well as oily water separators which did not exist
forty years ago. These innovations, together with the improvement of navigational aids and many other
aspects relating to ship design, construction and technology, have led to far more demanding standards
for the design and operation of ships. Meanwhile, proactive industry initiatives as well as IMO guidelines
and conventions (safety, ship operation, vetting and reporting, ship management, crew training and
certification) have all helped to shape a safer and cleaner world oil industry.
Thanks to all the measures implemented, oil tanker transport is now safer and cleaner than ever before and
a solid mechanism exists to effectively respond to oil spills and cope with their financial consequences. The
statistics clearly show that these efforts have met with resounding success: since the 1970s, the number of
major oil spills has fallen 90% and the volume of oil spilt has been divided by 100.
Stefan Micaleff,
Director of the Marine Environment Division, International Maritime Organization
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37 3
years of change(s)
Amoco Cadiz
FEATURE
Amoco Cadiz
years of change(s)
T
he sinking of the Amoco Cadiz off the coast of Brittany
in March 1978 was one of the worst oil spills the world
has ever known. Ever since, the public sphere, private
sector and voluntary associations have been striving to
ensure that the legacy left by this major leads to con-
crete advances. This feature article aims to encapsulate 40 years
© Verney/French Ministry of Agriculture
of progress and developments in the field of response to marine
spills in France.
© Cedre
Oil tanker risk analysis
I
n order to assess the risk of marine gradually shifted from the countries with Organization in terms of shipbuilding,
oil spills, numerous factors must be high consumption to crude oil producing shipping regulations and controls, the
taken into account, in particular: countries. The maritime transport of refined creation of special zones and finally crew
>
The evolution of the world oil products, and in particular light fuels, training has paid off.
economy and consequently of the has therefore greatly risen.
Christophe Rousseau, Cedre g
oil market and the quantities of oil In terms of spills from oil tankers, an
transported. increase was recorded until the beginning
> The evolution of the fleet, in terms of the of the 1980s, followed by a sharp drop with
number, size, age and design of ships. the renewal of the fleet, with the exception
> Throw in human errors, adverse weath- of the Castillo de Bellver incident (1983 in
er conditions, structural damage and you South Africa). A further rise in spills with the
have the main parameters of the equa- ageing of the fleet peaked in 1991 with the
tion. Haven spill (Italy). Since then, an ongoing
gradual downward trend in oil tanker spills
How has the situation has been recorded.
evolved over the past four
decades? Why are oil tankers no longer
We have seen an overall expansion of
the main source of spills?
the world fleet and increase in the Most likely because since the Torrey Canyon
goods transported. Oil has followed this and the Amoco Cadiz, the prevention policy
trend. A share of refining activities has orchestrated by the International Maritime
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37 5
years of change(s)
Amoco Cadiz
© Cedre
Oil study
E
very spill sparks off a series the sediment load increase steadily and ware, thus providing supplementary infor-
of questions on the behaviour affect the behaviour of the pollutant. The mation in addition to the product's initial
and fate of the crude oil, con- product may adhere to sediment parti- characteristics. In the absence of such stud-
densate or refined product cles and gradually sink, ultimately settling ies, such software programmes can never-
released. When spilt at sea, on the seabed where it will remain if no theless be used to predict these changes, in
they undergo various process- clean-up operations are implemented. If particular by approximating them with sim-
es which alter their properties and which the pollutant is washed up onto the shore, ilar oil products available in their databas-
are collectively referred to as "weathering". whether in the intertidal or supratidal zone, es. Pilot-scale tests (for instance in Cedre's
Some of the main such processes are evap- the same weathering processes as in the flume tank) performed on a few litres of
oration, emulsification, dispersion and pho- open sea, together with biodegradation, product and by recreating offshore condi-
to-oxidation. These processes occur natural- will gradually alter the composition of the tions prove to be more realistic. These tests
ly due to sea surface agitation generated by stranded oil. Over the subsequent months tend to be more accurate in the case of
the combined action of the wind, currents and years, the initially sticky, liquid oil will products with a particularly low or inversely
and waves, as well as to exposure of the oil become increasingly viscous to ultimately a very high viscosity, where laboratory tests
to the sun's rays. solidify to resemble a tar-like product. The hit their limits.
The specific chemical composition and intensity of the natural degradation pro-
cesses will be greater on thin layers of pol- Julien Guyomarch
physical properties of each oil thus evolve
lutant, less than 5 mm thick. In such cases, & Ronan Jézéquel, Cedre g
throughout the weathering process. Light
fractions gradually evaporate, the density natural clean-up of the environment could
increases, part of the oil disperses through- lead to the gradual disappearance of patch-
out the water column while the share es of pollutant. If the oil takes the form of
remaining at the water surface emulsifies deposits or crusts several dozen millimetres
and is photo-oxidised by the UV rays. The thick, it may persist for several decades,
oil generally becomes increasingly vis- especially if it is trapped in riprap or buried
cous, thus forming a new pollutant which under a layer of sediment.
is more persistent in the environment. Its Different experimental methods can be
behaviour is often different to that of the used to simulate these processes, which
product initially spilt. Understanding these are necessarily complicated to reproduce
transformations is a key element in assess- as they occur simultaneously and influence
ing the potential impacts and optimising the each other. Laboratory-scale tests have the
response strategy in the event of a spill. advantage of generating data which can be
Nearer to the shoreline, interactions with entered into weathering simulation soft-
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37
6
© Cedre
Preparedness
O
n 18th March 1967, the Tor- management was revised, placing the Mar-
rey Canyon ran aground near itime Prefect in charge of activating and
the Isles of Scilly and spilt implementing the POLMAR plan as well as
100,000 tonnes of crude oil of coordinating offshore response actions.
into the Channel, opening This same text established the creation of
Europe's eyes to the reality Cedre and outlined its primary missions.
of a risk that had thus far lain dormant. The Tanio spill in 1980 was the opportunity
On 18th March 1967, the Torrey Canyon ran to test the utility of this specialised organ-
aground near the Isles of Scilly and spilt isation. France also acquired protective,
100,000 tonnes of crude oil into the Chan- recovery and shoreline clean-up equipment
nel, opening Europe's eyes to the reality of which was stored and maintained at POL-
a risk that had thus far lain dormant. The MAR stockpiles.
French marine pollution contingency plan, In the 1980s, the POLMAR onshore and off-
dubbed 'POLMAR', saw the light of day a shore plans were developed by the Prefects
few years later following an interministerial with active support from Cedre. Sensitivity
instruction dated 23rd December 1970. The atlases and shoreline protection plans were
response and actions implemented by the established, along with the reinforcement
authorities to manage the consequences of of POLMAR stockpiles.
this spill lay the groundwork for the guiding
principles of the French organisation. > A shockwave
© Cedre
For nearly twenty years, no major spills
> From hatching to fledgling came to remind us of the need to be well
The first POLMAR onshore plans were devel- prepared. When the Erika sank in December
oped. The plan for Finistère was activat- 1999, the POLMAR onshore plans of three of Boom deployment training
ed in 1976 when the Olympic Bravery ran the five departments affected were obso-
aground on Ushant Island. The Prime Minis- lete. New instructions drawing on the les- between all players, mobilisation of exper-
ter was the sole person responsible for this sons learnt from the Erika were published tise, such as that of Cedre, as well as rein-
plan, meaning that it was rather awkward in 2001 and 2002. Their main provisions forced preparedness with more frequent
to implement and hindering the execution included the definition of the pre- and exercises (once a year for each coast; every
of the preventive measures outlined. In post-spill missions of State services, rein- 3 years for each department).
1978, in the ministerial instruction dated forced coordination between the sea and In 2006, the POLMAR texts were supple-
12th October 1978, this overly centralised shore, emphasis of the cooperation required mented with the post-Prestige instruction,
→
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37 7
after this oil tanker broke in two in Novem- recommendations including the importance
ber 2002 off the coast of Galicia, causing a of revising the 2002 POLMAR instructions.
major oil spill In this context, Cedre provides ongoing
in Spain and the worst ever to hit the Aquit- assistance to the French authorities in the
aine coast. This instruction aimed to reduce revision of their ORSEC/POLMAR onshore
years of change(s)
requisitioning times by accelerating the plan, as well as the running of exercises
establishment of public contracts for spill and training courses for decision-makers
response (clean-up, waste treatment, etc.). and field operators. For instance, in 2017,
Cedre, alongside Cerema and in behalf of
> Reaching maturity the relevant administrations, jointly ran 13
With the post-Erika update of the POLMAR training courses for 12 departments (main-
plan revision guide, produced by Cedre, a land and overseas France) and trained near-
tremendous update effort was launched: 19 ly 800 people.
of the 25 shoreline departments in mainland
> Inland waters
Amoco Cadiz
France released their new POLMAR onshore
plan, almost all of the POLMAR onshore and In the same way, the management of spills
offshore plans for overseas France were in inland waters (rivers, watercourses and
updated and the three coasts (Channel, lakes) was organised through specialised
Atlantic and Mediterranean) totalled over- inland water contingency plans based on a
hauled their plans. A reflection process circular from 1972, amended in 1985. Most
supported by scientific studies led to the of these plans are around twenty years old
response strategy in sensitive tropical are- and are only updated in terms of resource
as, such as mangroves and coral reefs, also preservation and the water supply to pop-
being revised. ulations in the event of a spill affecting
drinking water. A study conducted in 2008
>Changes in the emergency for the French Directorate for Civil Protec-
response organisation tion aimed to compare shoreline and inland
The civil protection reform between 2004 water issues. This study identified new chal-
and 2005 led to a new emergency response lenges to be faced by the authorities, the
'ORSEC' system, which was integrated in the relevant administrations and Cedre.
POLMAR plans. The fire brigade remained Natalie Monvoisin
the Prefect's strong right arm in the emer- & Emmanuelle Poupon, Cedre g
gency response phase. Final shoreline clean-
up operations and waste treatment were
handed over to private sector professionals.
To handle major maritime incidents, the
instruction of 28th May 2009 emphasises
the fact that ORSEC arrangements should
be prepared in cooperation and implement-
ed in close coordination to ensure the con-
sistency of response operations across the
whole zone potentially affected by the spill.
>
Review of the POLMAR
onshore preparedness
arrangements
Fifteen years after the last major oil spill
hit France, the French environment minis-
try – which implements a wide range of spill
response measures (including purchasing,
maintaining and storing response equip-
ment), finances Cedre and provides tech-
nical support through Cerema (the French
centre of studies and expertise on risks,
environment, mobility and land-use plan-
ning) – commissioned a review of the POL-
MAR onshore organisation to assess its effi-
ciency. The expert report was released on
23rd November 2017. It comprised twelve
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37
8
Modelling
Drift forecast map for the slicks identified during the Erika spill dated 25/12/1999
P
ollutant drift and behaviour of MOTHY and has been operational since ocean multi-forcing which allows the uncer-
models are an integral com- February 1994. tainty of environmental data (wind, current)
ponent of the array of spill to be integrated by overlaying the results of
In 1996, collaboration was instigated
response tools. They can be different models on the same map.
between Météo France and Cedre. An assis-
used to predict the movement Since 2016, MOTHY has benefited from
tance agreement was concluded where-
of the oil according to the atmospheric forcing from the new fine mesh
by Cedre is able to call on the services of
metocean conditions. The increased accu- regional models AROME for overseas French
Météo France under any circumstances to
racy of these forecasts and the observations territories and the high resolution ocean
obtain weather forecasts for a given area
from these data has played a considerable forcing of the new MERCATOR system.
and to activate the MOTHY model. This
role in the evolution and reliability of drift
model can also be used for backtrack sim- In 2018, following a research contract with
models. Thanks to advances in this field,
ulations, for instance to identify the origin the French Naval Hydrographic and Oceano-
the geographical areas covered have been
of pollution hitting the shoreline, or in the graphic Service (SHOM) and work conducted
extended across France and around the
case of containers fallen overboard. MOTHY by Institute of Research for Development
world with an increasing resolution and an
is regularly upgraded by Météo France's (IRD) in Nouméa, a new very high resolution
ever finer meshing.
engineers in Toulouse. It was used success- version of MOTHY for current calculation in
The French national meteorological service fully during the Erika spill in 1999 and the New Caledonia's lagoon is set to be imple-
Météo France began to work on this issue in Prestige spill in 2002. mented.
the early 1970s, in the wake of the Torrey
Canyon spill. A simple yet robust tool was From 2007, the accuracy and geograph- MOTHY is considered to be France's official
successfully developed then used during the ic scope of the MOTHY system have been operational model. Other commercial and
Tanio spill in 1980. In the 1980s, the subject improved with the inclusion of the cur- institutional models exist and can be used
lay dormant. Admittedly, no major spills hit rents analysed and forecast by operational for mainland and overseas France. In the
the French coasts during this period. Work oceanography systems such as MERCATOR event of a potential oil spill, it is strongly
resumed in the early 1990s. Calculation and MFS. recommended that different models be run
methods had evolved and operational use In 2013, two new components were added and the results compared.
of ocean models had become possible. The to the services offered by MOTHY, name- Pierre Daniel, Météo France
current slick drift model goes by the name ly probabilistic atmospheric forecasts and & Vincent Gouriou, Cedre g
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37 9
years of change(s)
Amoco Cadiz
© Cedre
Observation and remote sensing
W
hen the Amoco Cadiz more limited detection equipment. and coordinated by the French aerospace
sank, Sweden was the lab ONERA. The results obtained through
POLMAR planes currently use the conventional
only country to have an this project, which aimed to identify sen-
equipment available in most remote sensing
aerial surveillance pro- sors able to detect and characterise chem-
aircraft, notably side-looking airborne radar
gramme which included icals, are promising. This project is now
and optical infra-red and ultraviolet sensors.
remote sensing equip- finished, but there is still a long way to go.
The Beechcraft King Air 350 ER which are set
ment: a plane equipped with side-looking In terms of the detection of gases emitted
to replace the Cessna 406 shortly with be fit-
airborne radar, another with infrared and by ships, a very interesting project, COMP-
ted with complementary equipment.
ultraviolet sensors. MON, funded by the European Union and
In France, LNE (the National Laboratory for France does not only invest in equipment, conducted by countries in northern Europe,
Metrology and Testing) started an observa- the development of crews' skills is also again led to very encouraging conclusions.
tion programme in 1978 with a Cessna Cara- essential. Since 1993, Cedre has been
Finally ranking among the major improve-
van equipped with an infrared sensor. organising an aerial observation training
ments since the sinking of the Amoco Cadiz
course for the French Navy, customs and
In the 1980s, this equipment became com- is the CleanSeaNet Satellite Service, a
MRCCs (Maritime Rescue Coordination Cen-
monplace across Europe, at the initiative programme set up by EMSA which collects
tres). Cedre is also a member of the team
of each individual State and with technical radar images from several satellites, analy-
of trainers in this field set up by the Europe-
support from the Bonn Agreement Working ses them and transmits them to the Member
an Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA).
Group on Operational, Technical and Sci- States within 30 minutes. The system has
entific Questions Concerning Counter-Pol- Cedre published a first operational guide been up and running since 2007 and is a val-
lution Activities (OTSOPA). This agreement on this issue in 1980. Several subsequent uable resource for rapidly obtaining images
between the 8 countries bordering the editions have been published, culminating of vast areas, on which anomalies, poten-
North Sea was signed in 1969, but was in in the guide being selected as a reference tially oil slicks, are identified. For France,
fact not activated until after the Ekofisk document by IMO. this service is available for the mainland
rig blowout (in 1977) and the Amoco Cadiz and the French West Indies.
While airborne oil detection equipment is
spill. One of the issues addressed by the
widely understood and employed, consider- Finally, EMSA has also acquired drones, still
OTSOPA Working Group, to which Cedre con-
able progress remains to be made in terms in trial phase, which may potentially be
tributes, is the aerial detection of marine
of the detection of other compounds, in able to detect oil, HNS and gases.
pollution.
particular those covered by Annex II (nox-
In France, it is Customs that are specifical- ious liquid substances) and Annex IV (gases) Anne Le Roux, Cedre g
ly in charge of aerial observation of marine of the MARPOL 73/78 Convention.
pollution and, for this purpose, have spe- Many research projects are conducted
cialised "POLMAR" Cessna 406 planes fitted in this field. Cedre has been working on
with remote sensing equipment. The French chemicals since the 1980s ("Pollutmar" cam-
Navy aircraft conduct regular pollution paigns). Far more recently, we were part-
detection and observation surveys, whether ners in the POLLUPROOF project, funded by
for spills or operational discharge, but have the French national research agency (ANR)
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37
10 © Cedre
In situ and laboratory-based analysis
T
he scientific literature pub- mation technology, greatly expanding their The field of water analysis has seen many
lished in the years following use. The first application which comes to developments to improve chemical water
the Amoco Cadiz spill high- mind is the identification or confirmation quality monitoring in the marine environ-
lights the headway made in of the origin of a spill, through comparison ment, in particular in relation to the Water
the field of analytical chem- with a sample taken from the environment Framework Directive. Micro-sample prepa-
istry and the assessment of where there is a suspected source of con- ration systems (SBSE, SPME, SPE…) have
the impacts of such pollution on the quality tamination. Analytical techniques have little greatly lowered the quantification thresh-
of marine waters. For instance, the semi- evolved since the early 2000s, but a major olds, while allowing large-scale sampling
nar held in Brest in November 1979 on the pan-European effort has been implemented, thanks to the automation of extraction
consequences of the Amoco Cadiz oil spill in particular through the Oil Spill Identifi- procedures. These solvent-free techniques
included reports of contaminant concen- cation Network (OSINET) to define common are also a more environmentally-friendly
trations which are currently detected and criteria for interpreting analysis results. solution.
quantified at thresholds 1000 times lower. The results of such analyses can be used to Passive sampling systems can be left in the
This example cannot however be general- confirm the type of contamination, by dif- environment for several days and thus accu-
ised, as the advances made vary greatly ferentiating human inputs (anthropogenic) mulate the pollution. The values measured
from one area to another. from natural background contamination are low and represent an average over sev-
In situ contamination measurements use (biogenic). It is even possible to distinguish eral days.
fluorometric techniques, the basic prin- accidental contamination caused by an oil
All this progress should not however over-
ciples of which have remained relatively spill from chronic contamination.
shadow the phase that is sometimes wrongly
unchanged. Similarly, measurements of Above and beyond such qualitative or considered to be less technical: the collec-
dissolved aromatic compounds continue to semi-qualitative approaches, considerable tion and preservation of a representative
be general determinations which do not progress has been made since the 2000s in sample, without external contamination.
provide concentration values for individual the determination of low concentrations of
compounds. These techniques continue to compounds associated with oil spills, in par- Julien Guyomarch, Cedre g
be a valuable source of information in the ticular PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocar-
hours and days following a spill. It is hence bons). Complex matrices such as biological
in the field of long term monitoring that tissues sometimes make it tricky to confirm
advances have been the greatest. the presence of target molecules, given the
The democratisation, beginning in the high number of interferences. More elab-
1990s, of gas phase chromatography analy- orate mass spectrometry techniques (high
sis systems coupled with mass spectrometry resolution or tandem mass spectrometry)
detection (GC-MS) considerably improved can be used for instance to determine the
the accuracy of the diagnosis following an concentration of bioaccumulated PAHs with
oil spill. These systems benefited from the greater certainty.
combined progress of electronics and infor-
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37 11Use of dispersants
T
he first chemical products that may be potentially more sensitive to
analogous to dispersants and dispersed oil than floating oil or where their
years of change(s)
used in oil spill response were dilution in the water column is not optimal,
detergents. Responders used in particular at an insufficient distance from
them in response to the Tor- the shoreline or in shallow waters. In terms
rey Canyon spill in 1967 to of the intrinsic toxicity of dispersants, the
clean oiled rocks as well as to fragment chemical formulas currently on the market
slicks drifting in inshore waters. However, have successfully passed the toxicity tests
the first assessments of these operations for the marine environment and are not
showed high mortality rates in certain pop- persistent as they are biodegradable.
ulations of marine organisms, counteract- Although dispersants were not used in
Amoco Cadiz
ing the benefit of their use despite their France during the most recent oil spills,
proven efficiency. The ecotoxicity studies they are nevertheless an integral compo-
launched highlighted the toxicity of the sol- nent in the array of oil spill response strat-
vents contained in these detergents, mainly egies.
PAHs, which were held responsible for these
Stéphane Le Floch, Cedre g
mortalities. Based on the results observed
in terms of shoreline clean-up, the UK
authorities recognised the benefit of these
products in oil spill response on the condi-
tion that their toxicity towards the marine
ecosystem was reduced and, to this end, set
up a research programme to optimise their
formulation.
During the Amoco Cadiz spill, dispersants
were applied, but only in an exploratory
capacity to understand their potential for
response. While their efficiency was again
recognised, recommendations were rap-
idly made on the application techniques
to be used and the storage of these prod-
ucts aboard response vessels. It appeared
necessary to optimise spraying procedures
to increase the surface area of slicks that
could be treated in a single application
and to reduce the number of trips back to
base for restocking. Several research pro-
grammes were therefore initiated and one
of the outcomes was the development of
spraying arms fitted with special nozzles
allowing the quantity of dispersant applied
to be controlled by square metre of oil. The
dispersant-oil ratio (DOR) was thus defined.
In the following years, over and above these
purely practical aspects, the French gov-
ernment asked Cedre to define a dispersant
test procedure to prevent the use of inap-
propriate and potentially toxic formulations
on the market. Thus in 1988 the French
procedure, still in force today, emerged.
It includes the three following tests: an
© US Coast Guard
efficiency test (NF T 90-345), a toxicity
test on the marine shrimp Crangon crangon
(NF T 90-349) and a biodegradability test
(NF T 90-346). Then in the 1990s, the limits
for dispersant use on the French coastline
were defined to prohibit their use in areas
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37
12In situ burning Bioremediation
I B
n situ burning (ISB) is a response ioremediation covers all the
technique which consists in igniting techniques used to decon-
an oil slick at the spill site. Although taminate an oiled site by
this technique appears attrac- accelerating the natural deg-
tive given its low cost, high yield, radation of the pollutant by
short oil elimination times and low micro-organisms. This option
quantity of waste generated, it has never is viewed relatively positively by the
been fully accepted in the range of "con- general public in comparison with other
ventional" spill response techniques due clean-up processes such as the excava-
to the difficulty involved in its deploy- tion of sediments for treatment off-site.
ment and the release of a large quantity In the case of spill response, these oper-
of combustion products (gases, soot) into ations should be implemented following
the atmosphere. This response technique final clean-up operations at the spill site,
has been a source of controversy since to avoid the major logistical implications
the late 1960s, when it was first tested of the transport of equipment, personnel
(1967, Torrey Canyon) though unsuccess- and waste. During conventional biore-
fully. Until 2010, the deliberate use of mediation operations, populations of
this technique to respond to a real spill indigenous hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria
was only reported once, during the Exxon develop in large numbers in the presence
Valdez spill (1989). Due to climate condi- of oil and, as it is broken down, the pop-
tions and decision-making processes, only ulations decrease in number to return to
a 75-minute test burn was successfully their initial level. This process ultimate-
performed, while the following attempts ly results in the production of biomass,
proved inefficient due to the emulsifica- carbon dioxide and water. Biostimulation,
tion of the oil. bioaugmentation and even phytoremedia-
Yet ISB has been the focus of numerous tion techniques, although commonly used
studies conducted both in the laborato- on contaminated soil in industrial areas,
ry and during experiments, often in the are not often applied in the natural envi-
Arctic, an environment particularly well ronment in the event of oil spills.
suited to this technique. The low temper- In 40 years of research, a large number of
© US Coast Guard
atures delay the oil weathering process laboratory-based and in situ experiments
by prolonging the presence of volatile have been performed and have resulted in
compounds. Furthermore, the presence the production of numerous guides on this
of blocks of ice at the water surface nat- issue. Among the lessons learnt from the
urally contains slicks. The more recent scientific studies, specialists now agree
Deepwater Horizon blow-out (2010, Gulf that bioaugmentation based on the seed-
of Mexico) and the 400 burns organised ing of a contaminated site with a special-
during this spill provided extensive field In situ burning during the Deepwater Horizon ly developed bacterial consortium is not
experience, helping to improve scien- spill (2010) an effective solution given the immedi-
tific knowledge ate competition with
and optimise "In 40 years of research into bioremediation, a large indigenous bacteria,
the equipment in favour of the lat-
required. For
number of laboratory-based and in situ experiments ter populations. The
certain States or have been performed and have resulted in the produc- biostimulation process
decision-makers, is preferable for biore-
ISB should now be
tion of numerous guides on this issue." mediation operations
promoted from its in an open environ-
status as an alternative technique to that ment such as a shoreline. Today, many
of a conventional technique for response clearly identified biostimulation agents
at sea, to join ranks with dispersion and are available to increase the nutrient lev-
mechanical recovery. els at the contaminated site in order to
significantly enhance the biodegradation
process and accelerate decontamination.
Ronan Jézéquel, Cedre g Ronan Jézéquel, Cedre g
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37 13years of change(s)
Amoco Cadiz
© Cedre
Containment and recovery at sea
S
ince the Amoco Cadiz spill, reg- > Chartering specialised oil Since the 1990s, the majority of efforts
ulatory changes aimed at pre- spill response vessels (OSRVs) to improve recovery capacities at sea, at
venting oil tanker spills have for HFO spills least in Europe, have focused on chartering
contributed to the significant The Erika spill in December 1999 confirmed or purchasing multipurpose vessels fitted
drop in major spills worldwide. the feasibility and merits of containment with response equipment suited to highly
In French waters, over the past and recovery at sea. Despite severe sea and viscous substances (for recovery, storage,
40 years, spills exceeding 1000 tonnes have weather conditions, meaning that only 3 transfer and detection). In France, certain
been rare, and those under circumstances in days of operations could be carried out in vessels have been adapted to improve their
which containment and recovery operations 3 weeks, and despite the very high viscos- efficiency on HFO slicks. For instance, giv-
could be implemented at sea rarer still. The ity of the fuel spilt, making pumping par- en the difficulties encountered during the
main spills offering interesting feedback in ticularly difficult, over 1,100 tonnes of oil Erika and Prestige spills, the French vessels
terms of the efficiency and limits of the was recovered. This was not an insignificant Alcyon and Ailette were fitted with rigid
techniques and equipment deployed and the result when considered in light of the dura- sweeping arms, in addition to their Transrec
identification of improvement opportunities tion and cost of operations to clean up the weir skimmers and Hiwax skimming heads.
are therefore those of the Erika oil tanker shoreline affected by the rest of the car- The BSAD Argonaute, with a 1500 m3 stor-
in 1999 (Bay of Biscay) and the Prestige oil go. This result greatly benefited from the age capacity, has been chartered by the
tanker in 2002 (off Cape Finisterre). These excellent cooperation between European French Navy since 2004.
improvement opportunities mainly concern countries which pooled their resources, in However, in the field of OSRVs, a major ini-
the recovery of very viscous heavy fuel oil, compliance with regional agreements acti- tiative was introduced in Europe, through
which raises different issues to those of the vated following the Sea Empress spill for EMSA, and a significant budget was allo-
major crude oil spills which had previous- example. In the case of the Prestige spill cated to contracting private societies to
ly occurred in France or its neighbouring in 2002, in which part of the oil drifted in maintain an operational European fleet of
countries (Braer in 1993 and Sea Empress in the Bay of Biscay, over 20,000 tonnes of various vessels (supply vessels, cable ships,
1996, both in the UK). In terms of mechan- emulsion (i.e. around 25% of the spill) was icebreakers, etc.) fitted with specialised
ical recovery, the most significant changes recovered by the fleet of European OSRVs spill response equipment. The specifications
triggered by past experience in France have mobilised. This significant result was dou- issued for these contracts took into account
mainly focused on enhancing the capacity bled thanks to the involvement of a fleet of the lessons learnt from the most recent
to respond to spills of viscous substances, vessels of opportunity (fishing vessels in this spills, including the Erika and the Prestige,
against the broader backdrop of numer- case) equipped with trawl nets and surface and comprised a heavy fuel oil recovery
ous HFO spills across the globe (Nakhodka nets (in addition to some lighter tools). This capacity in rough seas. In addition to this
in Japan, 1997; New Carissa in the Unit- response equipment, although rather "low fleet of vessels, EMSA also maintains two
ed States, 1999) and analysis of shipping tech", proved to be relatively well suited to spill response equipment stockpiles, one for
trends, elements which have contributed to the situation. the Baltic Sea and the other the North Sea.
the improvement of appropriate technical
solutions.
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37
14> R&D projects relating to > Development of new contain- ed States and Canadian Coast Guards (with
ships capable of recovering ment/recovery concepts specific programmes such as Joint Viscous
heavy fuel Oil Pumping System (JVOPS), in Denmark at
Over the past 40 years, while many Europe-
Despite investments made in OSRVs, DESMI's facilities, in France at Cedre's facil-
an countries have been striving to develop
research and development into new tech- ities, in Finland at Larmor's facilities, etc.
stockpiles of equipment for response at sea,
niques have been relatively limited, except In France, this principle adapted from oil
including pumping and skimming equipment,
perhaps as concerns the use of remote sens- industry technologies was tested for appli-
they are mainly restricted to the existing
ing to guide ships. In France, a few days cation in oil recovery at sea by Cedre and
technologies and equipment available on
after the Erika spill, the Ministry of Industry IFP.
the market as nearly no national initiatives
launched a call for projects to improve the In the 2000s, vapour/hot water injection
exist to develop original at-sea recovery
response capacity at sea under such circum- systems at the pump intake and annular
concepts. The market would appear to be
stances. Four proposals for designing ORSVs water injection at the pump outfall ulti-
too limited to encourage industry to fund
were thus funded. Less than 3 years later, mately led to a remarkable increase in the
significantly innovative research. Over the
following the sinking of the Prestige, the pump rate of viscous oil.
past 20 years, Japan was one of the few
two most promising of these were submit- countries in which new pumping concepts Mechanical skimmers
ted to the European Commission in response for viscous substances have been developed
In terms of the recovery of highly viscous
to a similar call for projects. One of them and tested, based on the experience of the
oil, many weir, belt and belt brush skimmers
(the Oil Spill Harvester or OSH project) was Nakhodka (1997), in particular a concept
have been tested. Additional progress has
funded to develop a specialised catama- involving vapour jets and vacuum suction
been made through the use of belt or brush
ran. This project came to an end in 2008, designed and tested by the Port and Airport
adapters fitted to weir skimmers, improving
concluding that the concept was feasible in Research Institute (PARI). In most cases, the
the overall recovery rate and selectivity. In
terms of the recovery and storage of viscous developments proposed by the manufac-
Scandinavia in particular (for instance Nor-
products (even in rough seas), but was not turers are more improvements to existing
way and Sweden), evaluations have led to
economically viable. It also included the systems or techniques than novel concepts.
the production of offshore skimmers subse-
design and trial of a brush skimmer module.
quently integrated in new offshore response
> Testing and improving tech- units. In France, trials have been conducted
> Increased mobilisation of niques and equipment at Cedre's facilities (above-mentioned Euro-
vessels of opportunity pean project OSH), as well as tests, at the
As mentioned above, the total quantity of Pumps
request of the French authorities, to com-
fuel oil recovered at sea following the Pres- In the field of pump technology, improve-
pare the performances of smaller systems.
tige spill was doubled thanks to the involve- ments have been made across the globe
ment of numerous fishing vessels, equipped over the past 20 years, notably to Archime- Surface nets
with unspecialised tools such as trawl nets, des screw pumps, commonly used in oil spill In the early 1980s, surface trawl net sys-
brailers, scoop nets, wire mesh spades, response. These improvements have focused tems were designed and tested in particu-
etc... which proved to be well suited to this on optimising their performance on highly lar in France (Seynip systems), as well as
type of pollution. Nevertheless, with the viscous substances. The benefits of the in Japan, for the recovery of oil that has
exception of surface trawl nets, few note- principle of annular water injection have turned solid or highly viscous following
worthy improvements have been made to been evaluated through tests conducted by prior application of sorbents on the slicks.
these systems. various organisations located on either side Similar equipment has also been designed
of the Atlantic, for instance for the Unit- in Denmark (Scantrawl) and in the United
© Cedre
© Cedre
Containment and recovery during the Pres- Recovering water-in-oil emulsion using a weir skimmer
tige spill
→
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37 15Kingdom (Jackson Trawl Net), but the lim- age facility. Closed models (e.g. bladders) US standard procedures for the needs of the
itations relating to the application of sorb- can be towed to unloading sites at higher private or public sector. In Europe, Norway
years of change(s)
ent in the open sea mean that these net speeds, but are more difficult to empty, and (Norwegian Coastal Administration; Sintef)
systems were cast aside for over 15 years. manufacturers offer tanks with a removable and France (Cedre) have specialised facili-
They reappeared following the Erika spill cover to overcome this operational issue. ties that can be used to test skimmers using
for response inshore, where their potential Despite the improvements made to this type their respective standard protocols (AFNOR
for recovering extremely viscous floating of equipment over the past four decades, in France), pumps and other equipment.
products was confirmed. However, difficul- and their presence in equipment stockpiles,
ties in handling and emptying/cleaning this they appear to be rarely used during real Ivan Calvez, Cedre g
type of trawl nets encouraged the appear- spills at sea, probably due to the risk of rup-
ance of disposable concepts (at least the ture during towing to shore.
Amoco Cadiz
cod-end). In France, after the Erika, the
ECREPOL project (funded by the Ministry of Trial facilities
Research and approved by RITMER) culmi- While standards have been established for
nated in the development of such a system the classification and evaluation of booms
(Thomsea trawl net), which has since been and skimmers for offshore response, there
purchased by several authorities, and other are few facilities worldwide at which they
descendants of this concept, first invented can be assessed in realistic conditions in
some 40 years ago, have appeared. order to determine and compare their per-
formances. In the US, the most well-known
Specialised storage reservoirs such facility is without a doubt OHMSETT,
Towable, flexible, floating storage tanks built some 40 years ago, whose activity,
have been developed to increase the stor- which saw a slump in the 1980s, was rekin-
age capacity for the emulsions recovered dled following the Exxon Valdez spill. A wide
during operations at sea, but their capac- range of equipment trials are conducted at
ity is generally too limited to avoid having OHMSETT, for instance on skimmers on the
to then transfer the oil to a larger stor- market or under development, according to
© Cedre
© Cedre
Recovery vessel A Seynip spill response trawl system being deployed by fishing boats
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37
16Use of sorbents
T
he use of floating hydrophobic evolved and have been adapted to different pylene sorbents which hold a large market
sorbents is one of the com- sorbent formats, resulting in standardised share. Sorbent booms remain more expen-
monly applied techniques to protocols published in 1990 which are still sive but are nevertheless worthy of interest
respond to oil spills. applied today for sorbent approval (AFNOR due to their two-fold role as both contain-
In the 1980s, the first sorbents standard NF T 90-360). ment and recovery systems.
used were mainly loose sor- The market for floating oil-only sorbent
Pascale Le Guerroué, Cedre g
bents of natural or synthetic origin, made pads and booms for use on the water has
from fibreglass (insulation), peat, perlite, developed, at the expense of loose sorb-
cellulose, polyurethane powder, rubber ents. These products have become increas-
(tyres), etc. Many products often came ingly popular thanks to their simple usage.
from industrial waste, either raw or pro- They are easier to recover and their appli-
cessed and made into different formats to cation does not require any specialised
be applied to a slick. equipment. Due to the scope of these
Loose products were generally preferred for markets and the competition between the
their low cost compared to the higher prices many different manufacturers and distrib-
of sorbent pads or booms. utors of these products mainly made from
At this period, protocols designed to meas- polypropylene from France, Belgium, the
ure water and oil retention were imple- US, Turkey, China etc., the price of sorbent
mented in Cedre's laboratory to define the pads is now close to that of loose sorbents.
performances of different sorbents in iden- Spill response operators now prefer polypro-
tical conditions and to determine the crite-
ria to select the most efficient options. The
reference oil used in these tests was ALC
110, an Arabian light crude similar to that
"Spill response operators now prefer polypropylene
of the Amoco Cadiz spill topped at 110°C sorbents which hold a large market share."
to reduce its toxicity for the experiment-
er. Over the years, these protocols have
© Cedre
Sorbent booms laid to protect the shoreline during the Deepwater Horizon spill
© Cedre
Sorbent pads laid in a harbour
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37 17Protection of sensitive areas
P
years of change(s)
rotecting sensitive shorelines • as well as the implementation of exercis-
is an ongoing concern of deci- es to test and validate these boom laying
sion-makers involved in manag- plans. Since then, site protection efforts
ing an oil spill. It almost always have not waned: selection of appropriate
comprises the deployment of equipment at stockpiles, organisation of
containment booms in front of POLMAR exercises all along the coastline.
the shore, which often represents the first In addition, studies and trials are conduct-
visible stage in shoreline response for local ed jointly by Cedre and Cerema (French
populations and is therefore the first criti- centre of studies and expertise on risks,
cal operation for the authorities in charge environment, mobility and land-use plan-
Amoco Cadiz
of conducting it. Floating booms made their ning) in particular in areas of strong cur-
first appearance in Europe and France fol- rent or with high tidal ranges in order to
lowing the Torrey Canyon spill, and saw con- obtain a better understanding of the lim-
siderable development in the wake of the its of the available response equipment.
Amoco Cadiz. In the 1980s and 1990s, a wide Specialists and operational responders are
range of booms and accessories with a varie- now well aware of these hydrodynamic
ty of characteristics and increasing intrinsic limits, which prevent full effective pro-
qualities were designed, drawing on newly tection of all sensitive areas, meaning
discovered materials. Meanwhile, protection that booms should be concentrated on
plans for sensitive coastal sites and related sites that can be effectively protected.
measures, as defined by the POLMAR circu- Forty years on from the Amoco Cadiz, this
lar of October 1978, became an important situation still remains difficult for many
part of the French onshore marine pollution stakeholders to accept. It is often chal-
response mechanism comprising: lenging for technical advisers to convince
• oil sensitivity studies of the French coast- decision-makers that boom deployment is
line (which gradually led to the develop- not the most appropriate option and that
ment of sensitivity atlases then to their in some cases it may be preferable to use
current digital version in the form of geo- alternative protection techniques (sorb-
graphical information systems (GIS), to pro- ents, nets, gabions, various filter systems,
vide decision-makers with a clearer over- etc.) which proved successful during the
view of the environmental and economic Erika and Prestige spills. In all cases, ini-
factors of the shoreline at threat). tial clean-up actions on the most sensitive
• the development of boom laying plans sections of shoreline must be planned and
(including the best configuration accord- organised quickly.
ing to the site's physical and hydrodynamic
© Cedre
characteristics and the calculation of the Arnaud Guéna, Cedre g
tensile stress on the boom components and
its moorings).
• the establishment of equipment stockpiles
Deploying a boom during a POLMAR onshore
spill response exercise comprising complete containment systems
(together with the necessary recovery and
storage equipment)
© Cedre
Custom-made straw barrier
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37
18Shoreline clean-up
S
horeline clean-up operations on the rocks, digging pits in the ground to such assessments was to determine the real
following the Amoco Cadiz spill store the substances pumped and stripping performance and optimal conditions of use
came to completion after 3 away heavily oiled layers of sediment. Driv- of equipment (in terms of efficiency and
months of intensive efforts. The en by the pressing need to remove the oil potential ecological impact) and to rec-
first to take action were the from the beaches, or even purely out of ommend effective equipment to national
local population (residents, fire concern for efficiency, clean-up operations authorities in addition to that already avail-
fighters, local authority staff, fishermen, were sometimes rushed, causing further able in the POLMAR stockpiles (equipment
farmers, etc.) who made do with the tools damage to the environment. At the many purchased during the Amoco Cadiz). From
and clothing at hand. For some, these tasks protests held against the oil spill at the the 1990s, the oil industry began to take an
were familiar, as they had carried them out time, signs cropped up criticising the opera- interest in this activity and support it.
12 years earlier during the Torrey Canyon tions which were claimed to be devastating:
spill. Very soon, back-up arrived in the Messages such as "No detergents" and "Save Meanwhile, Cedre drafted practical guides
shape of organised forces: fire fighters and our dunes" were evidence of the environ- to shoreline response for the French ports
military, mainly composed of conscripts. mental conscience already deeply rooted in and maritime shipping directorate, the
Spill response equipment stockpiles did not part of the local population. European Economic Commission and IMO.
yet exist and specialised equipment (booms, It also took a close interest in the poten-
In the 1980s, Cedre, justly newly created, tial environmental impact of the different
skimmers) was not widely available: only
naturally focused on improving its knowl- response techniques. For some 15 years,
a few units and prototypes arrived at the
edge of pollutants and response equipment. experiments were conducted on the shore-
beaches. The fluid oil continued to flow and
Certain technical aspects which were defi- line, with or without real oil, to monitor the
spread everywhere. Pumping was therefore
cient or lacking during the Amoco Cadiz spill possible effects of techniques on the flora
the number one priority: pumping the oil,
were therefore given particular attention. and fauna, in association with the univer-
but also pumping water to supply hoses to
The development of tools to recover oil sities of Brest and Rennes which were in
wash oiled substrates. The equipment used
from beaches, in cooperation with national charge of ecological monitoring. Several
mainly consisted of slurry spreaders and
or local manufacturers, was a key concern related techniques or actions were scruti-
high flow pumps equipped with manifolds.
during the early years. However the low fre- nised: rock washing with agents; washing
Soon after came pressure washers: still
quency with which these prototypes were of marsh vegetation; chemical dispersion
uncommon at the time, they became a cen-
used put an end to their industrial devel- of stranded slicks; underwater agitation on
trepiece of shoreline clean-up thanks to the
opment and Cedre turned away from this sandy beaches: scything of marsh vegeta-
quick reaction of the local private sector
line of activity. The only such equipment tion; the application of film-forming agents
which provided autonomous, mobile units.
designed at Cedre and which has prospered to protect substrates; the use of heavy vehi-
Response operations and the associated
is a simple, efficient, cost-effective sys- cles on beaches...
logistics, both on and offshore, were mas-
tem: a hose for underwater agitation which
terminded by the equipment directorates.
was tested on certain beaches in Finistère The 1990s were marked by a series of
Fleets of public works machinery grumbled
which still had pockets of oil trapped in major oil spills overseas, for many of which
across the beaches and surrounding areas,
their depths. Cedre then turned its focus Cedre was called upon. Feedback from
dipping into the thick slicks at the water's
to the assessment of available response these real incidents and the comparison of
edge or scraping those already washed up
products and equipment liable to be used post-Amoco Cadiz experience with practic-
on the beach, removing bins filled by hand
at sea or on the shoreline. The purpose of es used abroad helped to improve shoreline © Cedre
Pressure washing riprap
→
Cedre Information Bulletin n°37 19You can also read
