Culture, environments and risk behaviours in AFL footballers: An investigation of player perspectives and opportunities for change.
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Culture, environments and risk behaviours in AFL footballers: An
investigation of player perspectives and opportunities for change.
Dr. Colin McLeod
Department of Management & Marketing
University of Melbourne
Executive Summary
The management of off field risky behaviours by athletes has become a major topic in sport. However,
while there has been a useful focus on approaches based around education and counselling, there is
strong evidence from international sports and other environments such as business that the socio
cultural environment – past and present – has a significant impact on the way that people assess risk
and its consequences, and these in turn are a major determinant of their subsequent behaviour.
As an example, several research projects enquiring into the behaviour of professional athletes in the US
and Europe/UK have indicated that the sporting club environment can be a determinant of up to 20%
of anti-social behaviour and 15% of pro social behaviour by athletes.
These outcomes are not set in stone. The same and related research has clearly indicated that by
changing the environmental factors, anti-social behaviour can be reduced and pro social behaviour can
be increased.
It is also significant that there appears to be a very high correlation between on field and off field
behaviour. That is, the same environments that produce poor off field behaviour are also more likely to
produce lower levels of sporting performance. This is not a simple relationship and is considered in
detail in the report.
This project applied a qualitative approach to understanding the world of AFL footballers by conducting
in depth interviews with 36 players from a national range of AFL clubs, to better understand the socio
cultural environment of their past and current football experiences, in order to explore the impact on
player assessment (risk and consequences) of off field social situations. All players were anonymous
participants in the project.
One of the dangers of qualitative research is that it involves the collection of data that may be highly
subjective. In order to test whether the results from the data collection phase were ‘typical’ of the
environment of modern football, they were discussed with a wide range of people with extensive
experience in the AFL and their comments were also sought. The additional discussants are described in
detail in the methodology section of this paper.
While there was a small number of experiences that were idiosyncratic to individual players out of the
36 who were interviewed, the general range of responses and experiences narrated by the interview
subjects was consistent with those of the additional discussants.
As with previous research in other professional and semi-professional sports, the findings appear to
have implications for both on field and off field performance. These included:-
Player perceptions of themselves as people and footballers – i.e. their self-image – and the
implications for football performance and off field behaviour
The uncertainty of the football journey – including vastly different experiences between players
in the drafting/transition process, ambiguity and vagueness about what is important, what type
of behaviour is acceptable, uncertainty about their relationship with their club (e.g. employer /
employee vs. ideals of camaraderie, teams and ‘all in this together) and uncertainty about
where they ‘fit’ within a football club
The varying quality and impact of communication processes – many communication practices
have a high likelihood of sub optimal outcomes.
1 The importance of player satisfaction as a predictor of high levels of on and off field
performance and the management of the factors that determine player satisfaction, including
the relationship with the coach (es).
A confused and confusing relationship with the public and public expectations of AFL players on
and off the field.
The results are considered in terms of current practices within AFL clubs. Good practice is identified and
is considered alongside good practice identified in international research into the off field behaviour of
elite sportspeople.
These considerations are used as the basis for developing a set of recommendations for future club
management practices. There are multiple recommendations, but the principal recommendations seek
to address the following areas:-
1. Develop the person, not There is overwhelming evidence that an emphasis on developing the whole
just the footballer person not just the footballer has many positive payoffs for players, their teams,
clubs, fans and society at large. Rather than being a distraction from a sporting
career, an emphasis on developing a self-image that extends beyond sport
complements and enhances sporting careers, including individual and team
performance.
By contrast, an excessive focus on sport is likely to produce sub optimal sporting
performance as well as sub optimal personal outcomes from a sporting career.
2. Understand player Satisfaction with the career of individual footballers is an important goal for clubs
satisfaction as an seeking better on field and of field performance. Often the job of an AFL player is
important goal of player assumed to be satisfying because it is highly sought after, while satisfaction is
management also frequently considered as an outcome of winning and losing. However,
satisfaction should not be assumed, and should be a major goal of player
management strategies.
The evidence from this project as well as international research indicates that
more satisfied players are likely to push themselves harder to reach agree
outcomes, put the team ahead of personal outcomes and be willing to ‘go the
extra mile’ to act in a responsible and appropriate way on and off the field.
3. Communication There are times in any environment where there is a need to simply tell people
what to do. However, both the process and the content of communication have
significant effects on the outcomes of the communication, including the degree
to which people will simply comply with the directive or embrace it and strive to
achieve the best possible result.
Even when the communication is a direct instruction, it is much more likely to be
effective if the recipient understands the reason for the instruction, what
outcome is expected to be achieved, why the particular instruction was chosen
and what the consequences (personal and team) will be of failing to comply with
the instruction.
However, communication is likely to be even more effective when it is a two way
communication, where their views, feelings and opinions of the communication
recipient are considered.
2Introduction1
Risk behaviours, and society’s responses to them, have been some of the most debated and emotive
issues of the last decade. Ironically, the risk behaviours we find the most difficult to tackle (such as
violence, alcohol and drug misuse, problem gambling, risky sexual behaviour) are arguably those which
are the most preventable.
Today, there is an increasing focus on the importance of the socio-cultural determinants of risk. As an
example, after two decades of research covering sports at levels ranging from elite high school sports to
professional sports, a general finding is that about 20% of the variance in anti-social behaviour and
15% of the variance in pro social behaviour by athletes is attributable to the team environment.
Each AFL player arrives at an AFL club as a product of a very complex set of environmental interactions over
their life time – in fact, each player represents a unique story. However, we can identify some
generalisations about footballers and risky off field behaviour by understanding how social, cultural and
environmental factors influence an individual’s exposure to and engagement in risky behaviours. These
influences and outcomes include:
1. The extent to which individuals are exposed to a range of different types of risks in different
environments;
2. How individuals conceptualise ‘risks’ (and how this might be different from how ‘experts’ and
others such as the public conceptualise risk);
3. The function that risk environments and behaviours play for both individuals and groups of
individuals;
4. Why individuals engage in risky behaviours, and the purpose these behaviours serve within their
broader social contexts.
Project Aims: This project seeks to address these problems through the following approach:
1. To explore how socio-cultural environments impact upon risk and protective factors in AFL players.
2. To identify which aspects of workplace and social cultures may increase an AFL player’s
vulnerability to engaging in risky behaviours.
3. To describe what players think would help them to identify and manage the potential risks
associated with being an AFL player.
4. To integrate the findings from this study with good practice as recommended by research into
leading international sporting codes.
Prior Research into the Impact of Environment on Elite Athlete Behaviour
Looking at elite sports people and the impact of their environment on their attitudes to risk is a
relatively new field of study. However, some major research projects looking at elite sports people have
already identified the influence of past and present environmental factors on the way that athletes deal
with off field risk, as the following examples demonstrate:
Elite sports people are more likely to be exposed to opportunities for risky off field behaviour –
reportedly, this starts at high school level. Their responses are determined by the way that they
conceptualise risk – i.e. the extent to which the behaviour is seen to be risky and the consequences
for being caught.
Historically, many people have believed that elite sports people engage in risky behaviour because
it is the nature of sports people to take risks as risk taking is inherent in sporting activity. However,
by looking at environmental factors, we can determine that elite sports people typically think about
risk differently – that is, they often perceive lower risk and / or perceive reduced consequences. So
it is more correct to say that they think about risk differently to their non-sporting peers
1
Note: This document represents a brief summary of a much longer report. The longer report includes more information about the responses
from players, more in depth analysis based on international research findings and more detailed recommendations on using the results of this
research to develop strategies for improving off field behaviour
3 Part of this lower perception is based on misunderstood norms – for example, athletes will often
dramatically overestimate the amount of alcohol regularly consumed by their athlete peers, and
that influences their perception of ‘normal’ alcohol consumption. They have also “learned” that the
consequences are lower for athletes than non-athletes – often they don’t understand the full
implications of inappropriate off field behaviour for athletic performance (e.g. the physiological
impact of excessive drinking or illicit drug use), while peers, coaches and various authorities have
shown they are more willing to forgive indiscretions by high profile athletes.
These patterns continue through high school, college and into the professional ranks – the evidence
of risky behaviour amongst elite sports people is higher than the general population, and the
influences are frequently socio cultural.
Current Research
Methodology
The approach used in this report was to conduct in depth interviews with 36 AFL players drawn from
AFL clubs across Australia. As it is qualitative research, the responses represent individual experiences,
but one of the outcomes of the project is to identify policy recommendations for the AFL and AFL clubs
to help in the management of off field risk.
In order to ‘stress test’ the results, they were discussed with a variety of people with extensive AFL
experience, to see whether the major themes that emerged from this research were consistent with
their experience. These discussants included staff at the AFL, staff at the AFLPA, people with extensive
AFL coaching experience, ex AFL players, current AFL Clubs CEO’s, current AFL Club Football Operations
Managers / Football managers, current AFL Club Player Development / Player Welfare Managers and
members of the AFL Research Board.
Key Findings2
Moving Into an AFL World
Most players reported that their initial experience as a member of an AFL club was “shock” and a
struggle to fit in to the new environment, and difficulty in understanding the type of behaviour they
were expected to exhibit on and off the field. The experience can be broken into 3 elements:
1. Draft and transition
“I was straight out of high school and used to being looked after and then was thrown straight into
moving in with a player or a host family so it’s pretty full on. I finished school a week before I got drafted
so straight out of school into basically moving in straight away”
Draft and transition relate to the uncertainty surrounding the drafting experience and the speed with
which the player is expected to move to a new environment. Many players acknowledged that their
focus was on the draft, so they did not put much thought into preparing themselves for the likely
challenges of transition. In fact, several players reported that they avoided thinking about these
changes, because they wanted to avoid these issues as long as possible.
“It was pretty scary I guess. Things happened pretty quickly but I guess I expected that and it was good
in terms of getting yourself ready whereas I know some clubs that draft on the Saturday and ship
[players over] on the Monday so at least I had that week”
2. The transition
“It’s been a struggle to live with a family that I know nothing about and never met before and you’re
expected to perform playing footy and that’s one of the hardest things for
“There were no team mates in my area my age and I was like “well who do you hang out with?” and you
spend a lot of time on your own”
3. The lived experience of being an AFL footballer
2
Throughout this paper we have used the terms 'a few' to refer to less than a quarter of participants; 'some' to refer to 25-50% of
participants; 'many' to refer to 50-75% of participants; and 'most' to refer to over 75% of participants.
4“When you are told it’s only a 4 or 5 year career on average, you just assume it’s the other guys they are
talking about, not you. Just like it’s the other guys from the draft who won’t play in their first year”
“I just remember that the daunting, overwhelming exhaustion of everyday coming home soon as you
get home you just go straight to sleep, you wake yourself to eat and you go back to sleep and you wake
up the next morning and you just do it again day after day”
Not surprisingly, the dominant feature of responses to questions about being drafted and the transition
to life as a footballer was the demands of football. The players all acknowledged their physical
limitations and the need to develop strength and endurance as well as continue to improve their skills –
these were well accepted and understood.
However, one of the consequences of the training demands is that many players found it very difficult
to devote energy to other pursuits, such as education and vocational training.3 Of course, this creates
an obvious tension for young footballers. As one of the quotations above indicates, young players are
often reminded of the low success rate of young players – the small number who have long careers, the
rate of turnover of young players, the odds against reaching milestones like 100 games, and the need to
‘have something to fall back on.’
The tension continues well into their career - Almost invariably, the players interviewed acknowledged
that in hindsight ’I should have done something’. This focus around their football career and the club
also has important implications beyond the important issue of life after football.
1. The first is the issue of identity which is discussed in detail in the section below.
2. The second is the overwhelming evidence globally across all levels of sport that athletes who
actively engage in non-sporting pursuits have longer sporting careers. The non-sporting activities
helped provide an outlet from sport, general life-skills and the security of alternative career paths.
This research confirms that athletes gain maximum benefits from their physical training when all
other facets of their life are healthy, thereby producing better sporting performance.
Accordingly, we can conclude that it is in the interest of both sporting organisations and the players
themselves to have an enhanced focus on developing the person and encourage engagement in non-
sporting pursuits to enhance sporting performance, career longevity and wellbeing.
Self-Identity and the role it plays in on field and off field behaviour - Who Am I?
The issue of identity has received considerable attention in professional sports over the last decade,
with a particular focus on the degree to which players regard their sporting identity as the dominant
theme in their life, or see football as a part of a broader construct of self-identity.
The following quote was taken from research looking at the emergence of the ‘jock’ identity amongst
college players, and its negative implications for on field performance and off field behaviour:
“If you’re an athlete, you know what it takes to be an athlete, you know: hard work, dedication. But if
you’re a jock…..it’s all you think about all day. Like, it doesn’t matter what you got on your math test. As
long as we win the game, I’ll be all right.”
An elite level US college wrestler
It is important to note that in this interview, the subject makes an important distinction between
identity as an athlete versus identity as a jock. The athlete is a broader definition that includes the idea
of a student athlete – where academic performance is also critical – while the ‘jock’ identity is all about
sporting performance and reducing academic demands to minimum acceptable levels of achievement.
More recently, the ‘jock identity’ has been found to have important negative implications for
satisfaction with a career as an athlete, which in turn has a negative impact on field performance. In
other words, the more athletes are pushed to subordinate all other aspects of their life to the pursuit of
sport, the more likely it is that performance will suffer. In addition, player management issues
associated with characteristics of the ‘jock’ include a lower regard for the importance of teamwork
3
The findings in the current research were consistent with a more extensive study on the transition of young footballers to AFL published in
2008. This excellent paper reveals some valuable insights into the challenges of the transition process. See Christopher Hickey and Peter Kelly,
‘Preparing to not be a footballer: higher education and professional sport’ Sport, Education and Society Vol. 13, No. 4, November 2008, pp.
497-514
5(glory seeking vs. sportsmanship) and a propensity for self-aggrandizement (cockiness/aggression and
low levels of respect for others) which also has negative effects on off field behaviour.
The Club - Coach – Player Relationship
The relationship with the coach, the general coaching staff and the club is one of the most significant
that a player will have in their lives. Not unexpectedly, the nature of that relationship, the role that
each member of that relationships adopts and the communication between a player and the coaches
has a deep impact on the way that players think about their career, the world of football and the
broader community, and themselves as both footballers and individuals.
Of course this is a very complex issue but some general themes about club – coach - player
relationships, with an emphasis on player-coach relationships are discussed further below:
Even clubs with a pretty open communication culture are seen to have a latent communication
hierarchy; e.g. young players talk about 'flying under the radar’ and feeling like they shouldn't say
too much or express strong opinions.
It also raises the idea that all players are equal, but some are felt to be less equal than others. While
this has some obvious implications for values like fairness, it is also likely to negatively affect
important goals like team cohesion and team camaraderie and so detract from team performance.
Many players interviewed said they regularly hide concerns/ issues from coaches/staff because
they don't want to look like they are distracted from, or not fully committed to their football. This
can clearly produce off field stress/tension and poorer on field performance for individual players.
In many cases, the players indicated that the ‘off field’ issues they felt they should hide from the
club were substantial (e.g. relationship issues, gambling, severe family illness).
Many players reported that they had become very practiced at ‘saying the right thing and sounding
like we mean it’. Some players clearly feel the need to ‘play the game’ inside the club because of a
lack of trust in the club:
“The coaches and board need to be honest with players and need to let players know when they don’t
see them in their future plans so that players have that time to sell their brand or prepare for where they
want to go”
“They preach one thing but as soon as your form drops off they’re prepared to delist you or trade you.
So they preach loyalty but it doesn’t always happen. As soon as they think you’re done bang you’re out.”
In many respects the players accept that it is the nature of the business they are in for clubs to delist and
trade players, but it is ‘saying one thing and doing another’ that players object to.
Player / Coach Relationships are highly complex and highly contextual / situational. However, there
appeared to be a number of clear themes emerging from the player feedback that have clear
consequences for player performance – on and off the field – that are directly influenced by the
relationship with club personnel, but the coaching staff in particular. These themes are:
a. Player Satisfaction,
b. Role Ambiguity,
c. Autonomy,
d. Culture (including leadership).
e. Self Esteem and Self Belief
It is not surprising that these themes have emerged, as they are commonly found in research into high
performing work environments in both business and sporting settings. These factors have a marked
influence on the way that individuals construct their own understanding of the world around them –
the creation of beliefs, values and emotions that ultimately drive their behaviour.
Player Satisfaction
A footballer who is more satisfied will put out more effort on behalf of the team – on the field, at
training and socially – as they see a stronger alignment between their values and those of the club.
However, in a sporting context, satisfaction is often assumed to result either from winning, or perhaps
even worse, simply assumed to occur because it is a career built around a much loved activity:
6“If another person tells me that it is a privilege to be an AFL player, I’ll scream. It just ignores all the hard
work and sacrifices I made to be here, as well as all the support from my parents and my junior club and
coaches. Every time I try to raise an issue I just get told – ‘mate, there’s thousands of kids who would
swap jobs with you in a heartbeat.’ Is that meant to be helpful? They are just telling me that I am so
lucky, I should just ignore anything negative…..”
Many international studies have shown the relationship between on field and off field performance and
satisfaction is positive and significant and this topic is taken up in the recommendations section.
Role Ambiguity
Role Ambiguity has been shown to be a major predictor of employee dissatisfaction in business contexts,
a finding that has been replicated by studies into player satisfaction in sport. Role ambiguity has been
defined in many different ways, but the general idea is that people are confused or unclear about the
purpose of their role. In a sporting context, it has been described in the following way:
“Role ambiguity refers to the situation where a player is uncertain about (a) his or her scope of
responsibilities, (b) the behaviours necessary to fulfil those responsibilities, (c) how he or she will be
evaluated in the performance of role responsibilities, and (d) the consequences of not successfully
fulfilling his or her role responsibilities.”
There is pretty clear evidence that coaches who provide less role clarity are likely to have less satisfied
athletes on their teams, with related implications for performance on and off the field. There was
evidence from the current research that role ambiguity is a problem for many footballers, as the
following examples show:
“If you’re not playing regularly you’re sort of on the fringe it’s a bit hard ……. if you come in and the
coach wants you to play team footy and that you think well how am I going to play team footy when I
see guys in the team get dropped and as far as I can tell, they’re doing team things”
Not surprisingly, many coaches believe that they clearly communicate with their players, but there is a
very strong body of evidence across professional sports globally that role ambiguity is a significant
problem and that performance – on field and off field - suffers accordingly:
At some point, players have to make on field decisions, so simply giving more instruction is not the
answer. It is interesting to note that even in professions with historically rigid “chains of
command” like the police force and the armed services, now emphasise developing skills in
individual decision making in ‘in field’ situations rather than relying on commands.
The idea that people learn simply by being told something repeatedly is largely seen as an
ineffective form of communication and education.
Autonomy
Like Role Ambiguity, Autonomy has been shown to be a major predictor of employee dissatisfaction and
poor performance in business contexts, a finding that has been replicated by studies into player
satisfaction in sport. Autonomy means that athletes are regarded as individuals, and not simply
anonymous characters that should be controlled to obtain a certain outcome – such as winning.
International research across a variety of sports (soccer, basketball, American football), looking at
athletes across ages (from early high school to elite professional sports) shows that coaches who provide
relevant technical feedback and praise and engage in less punishment oriented behaviour have athletes
who report high levels of self-esteem, competence, enjoyment, and are more likely to perform at higher
levels of both individual and team performance in sporting and social contexts.
One of the most significant ideas to come from this research is the idea that players should be
encouraged by the coach to behave in an autonomous way. This means that a coach encourages choice,
independent problem solving and participation in decision making while minimizing the use of
pressures, threats and demands.
Conversely, controlling behaviours have the exact opposite effect. Controlling behaviours can be seen as
placing value on control and employing techniques such as the threat of punishment, highly critical
language and body language that pressure others to comply – and produces sub optimal performance.
7“I remember having a conversation and said I was clearly in the right with something and he didn’t
wanna be proven wrong on any grounds but he said ‘look, stop, shut up now ‘cause if I let you talk you’ll
prove me wrong’ and I was like wow how am I supposed to interact with you?”
Player Self Esteem and Self Belief
Self-belief is an important issue. In both business and sporting settings, environments that regularly
produce events that challenge an individual’s self-belief have been shown to produce a range of
negative results, ranging from general unhappiness through to disillusionment and depression.
What often characterises these situations is uncertainty and withdrawal, which has been variously
described as 'going through the motions', ‘doing the bare minimum’, or actively undermining by
criticising and complaining. It is self-evident that these responses are likely to have a negative impact on
sporting and social performance for individuals, and potentially for team mate behaviours.
Many of the interviewees reported behaviour by clubs that could be seen to be undermining players’
sense of self-belief. In just about all cases, the players acknowledged that this was inadvertent rather
than deliberate, but the result was to send strong negative messages to players which were to the
effect that their needs/views didn’t really matter:
“Everyone talks about respect – respect the club, respect the game, respect the jumper, respect your
teammates, but a lot of time, we don’t just get treated with a lack of respect, we almost get treated
with contempt. I can know that we are all just parts of a much bigger machine that will be here long
after we have gone, but is it too much to ask to be respected for what you do, even if it is only small?”
Club Culture and Leadership
Although culture is a widely used term in business and sport, it remains a pretty vague term. However,
there is consensus that culture is characterized by shared values, beliefs, expectations and practices, so
high-performing cultures prevail when the shared perception and actions of elite teams persist in the
face of variable results (i.e. wins, losses) and frequently leads to consistent high performance.
One of the barriers to a cohesive, high performing culture is that many of the AFL interviewees did not
believe that all players are treated equally, especially when it comes to selection decisions, selection of
club leaders and intra club communication. While these are separate issues, they are not unrelated to
player perceptions of fairness, openness and team cohesion:
“You tread pretty lightly in the couple weeks in the first year and even now in my fourth year every now
and then I have to think about how I’m going to say stuff”
Similarly, there were considerable differences in the way that different members of the same club saw
leadership. The two quotes below are from players at the same club. While they probably represent the
most extreme examples, this type of contradictory perspective was not uncommon:
“If you didn’t really suck up to the leadership group you weren’t really in their group and if you didn’t
follow them around with your tail between your legs you weren’t really in their group”
“…when our leaders get voted in it’s not really based on whether they’re the best player or most
popular, it’s based on whether they can uphold the club’s culture to the best of their ability and I think
our leadership group is great it’s always has been great since I’ve been here.”
In some cases, leadership was conceptualised around football, but in others, leadership included things
like flexible communication styles and a feeling that the person was genuine:
“….when xxx asks about my family, he asks about my wife and kids by name and I always feel like he
sincerely cares”
And off field determination:
“I really admire XXX. He has finished university degree and I know it is not something he would have
been naturally good at. He only finished year 11 at school and he would have had to work his arse off to
pass…but he has done it and I think that says a lot about the sort of person he is”
This lack of consistency is fertile ground for failure, especially for clubs who regard (rightly) that culture
is critical to success and that culture needs to be actively planned and managed.
8Interestingly, culture is one of the least studied areas of sport. While many coaches have attributed
team and individual player success to culture, there has been very little examination of what the
features are of a successful culture, and the amount of time that it takes to create that culture.
In a unique piece of research published in 2010, a researcher from a Californian University studied 10
Division 1 college coaches (the highest level of college sports in the USA) who met four criteria:
1. Coaches were sought who had been hired to rebuild an unsuccessful program as evidenced by a
poor record. While a poor record was not necessarily indicative of a poor team culture, it was
assumed that the team culture was partially to blame for a lack of success.
2. Coaches were to have five or less years of experience in their current position
3. Coaches were required to have led their teams to the National Collegiate Athletics Association's
(NCAA) playoffs in their first five seasons (due to the lack of an NCAA playoff football, a bowl
game and top 25 ranking were the criteria for football coaches).
4. Coaches had to be employed at NCAA Division I institutions. This is the highest level of
intercollegiate competition and is the level at which pressure to win are the greatest.
The major findings of this study were as follows:-
a. A general estimate of the time to make a major cultural shift was 2 to 3 years, as current players
adopted the new culture and recruiting decisions were made with the new culture in mind. Most
of the coaches observed that the culture needed ‘tweaking’ on a regular basis as new people and
new events influenced the club environment.
b. Coaches spent significant effort defining and articulating desired team values. Three types of
values emerged: relationship values, behavioural values, and strategic values. Working out a
consistent communication strategy to impart the values to everyone in the team was critical.
c. Coaches utilized a number of teaching tools to help their athletes understand and adopt the team
values. However, ownership was regarded as the ‘jewel in the crown’ because it involved the
transfer of responsibility from the coach to the players. Athlete input was sought about game
strategy and recruiting, players addressed the team before or after a game while more significant
examples included line-up decisions, play calls, and mentoring.
d. Very specific recruiting profiles and scouting techniques were developed by coaches to recruit
players who embodied the team values. Coaches started by defining what attributes they sought in
recruits beyond talent and developed specific profiles: “Passionate, high self-esteem, intelligence,
maturity, character, low-ego, coachable, team-oriented and into winning” were all examples of
attributes sought in addition to talent.
e. Rewards and punishments were used to further communicate the importance of specific cultural
values. Rewards and punishments varied by coach, but coaches consistently connected
punishments and rewards to their program's values in explicit and symbolic ways.
For example, at one college where academic performance by athletes was highly valued, upgrades
to business class on flights was given to players who had the biggest improvement in their test
scores or had done well in a major piece of assessment.
It is useful to note that the 10 coaches who participated in the study had substantial environmental
differences in terms of resources (staff and money), the ‘fit’ between the overall college and the
specific sport program (e.g. ‘this is a big party college’ vs ‘everyone in this college is involved in the
sports program’) and the perceived support from the rest of the organization.
Summary
The preceding interview results and the related discussion highlight a number of factors about the
sporting environment that have implications for off field risk, as follows:-
1. The transition from recruit to AFL player is a highly idiosyncratic experience that is likely to have
limited influence on the transmission of understanding and beliefs about desirable behaviour – in
fact, there is some evidence that it has the opposite effect for reasons ranging from individual – i.e.
the focus on the ‘football identity’.
92. The way in which players interpret their self-identity is a key issue in off field behaviour and their
interpretation is strongly influenced by the club environment.
3. Many players are unclear about what to believe in, how to respond to various situations, and
ultimately, what behaviour is expected of them (i.e. what is ‘acceptable behaviour?’)
4. Many players feel that they live in a world of being told what to do. Not only does this reduce the
enjoyment and satisfaction of their role as footballers, it means that they have little opportunity to
develop independent thinking and decision making skills, which are vital when confronted by
situations in which there is no given answer and the player only has limited personal experience.
5. Culture, if it is defined as shared values, beliefs, expectations and practices, has a very big impact on
behaviour, provided there is clarity about what those beliefs, expectations and practices are. The
preceding discussion would indicate that for many players, these factors are unclear, suggesting
that the club culture will be ineffective in producing desired behaviour, or alternatively, it may be
ineffective in reducing undesired behaviour.
6. Relationships with coaches can range from highly functional to relatively dysfunctional. Given the
central role of the coaches in the way players interpret the behavioural rules of the club, this is an
area that seems to offer some fertile ground for improving the management of off field risk.
Section Two: The Broader Social Environment of AFL Football and Footballers
Clearly the issues reported in Section One are interdependent and complex. The complexity is further
augmented by moving from the environment of the football club to a broader social context, with the
following regarded as important and influential:-
a. Public Perceptions of AFL Players – both via the media and direct interaction
b. Player perceptions of off field risk
c. Perceptions of life after football
Public Perceptions of AFL Players
For many players, the relationship with the public is generally good but with some bad elements. Many
players genuinely enjoy the interaction with the public, but they are also very confused by the public’s
expectations of them. Some of the range of responses is captured in the comments below:
“If you asked me a few years ago I would have said it’s unfair of the public to expect footballers to be
role models and we’re just everyday people who are good at footy …but after being in the industry for a
couple of years you sort of just accept it (being a role model) just comes with being a footballer”
“Yeah it’s really hard because your friends are still doing these things they’re the same age as you and
you know you wonder why you’re the one that’s getting treated like this like yeah it’s really, really hard”
“There’s only a few footballers who ruin it for everyone’s rep but I think the whole role model thing it’s a
tough one because I reckon there’s a lot of guys out there like just normal people who do a lot worse
than what footy players do”
The above quotes are representative of the many comments on the topic of public perception. Taken as
a whole, they could be summarised as follows:-
On one hand players feel the warm glow of public adulation that manifests itself in so many ways;
on the other hand they often feel that they are treated unfairly by the public. We asked many
interviewees about the one thing that they would like to change about AFL football. The most
common response was to “change the public perception of AFL footballers.”
Many players harbour a strong feeling of resentment towards players who misbehave and the
strength of this feeling should not be underestimated.
It is evident from the responses that there is little clarity around what appropriate standards of
behaviour should be – for example, terms like ‘public expectations’ are so broad that they have
little relevant meaning, and most of the discussion around terms like ‘role model’ focus on whether
it is an appropriate attribution to an AFL player (“we’re just everyday people who are good at
footy”) rather than what a role model actually does.
10Preparing for Life after football – Study, Work and Family
The issue of using their time in football to prepare for life after football came up in every interview. It
seemed very apparent that the importance of this issue was well understood by players.
“I sort of worry about what will happen to guys once they finish their careers and they’ve really
struggled to actually skill themselves up and that. ….. I heard a few stats that a lot more guys are
getting depression once they finish footy so for me that would be one issue that I guess I worry would
start to happen more and more”
“Opportunities are endless…a good football career can get you a degree behind you and you meet a lot
of good people and a lot of business people too”
There were many examples of clubs that are extremely supportive of the efforts of players to study,
work and undertake meaningful personal and professional development. At other clubs, players gave
responses that ranged from compliance – clubs did what they were obliged to do – to clubs where
players perceived that they paid lip service to the importance of activities outside football.
“Here it’s very much you’re here to play football, you’re paid to play football so we expect that to be
number 1 priority. It’s very difficult in our environment to study outside of footy.”
How Players Interpret the Message About the Importance of Football
The message that football is all that matters has some potential negative consequences for both clubs
and players. For example, several players reported that they simply didn’t ask for time to study, time to
do assignments, get work experience or time off to sit exams, because they assumed the club would
say no. The reasoning of the players was that the club was going to say no anyway, so by asking, you
send signals to the club that you are not sufficiently committed to football – so don’t ask.
While this may highlight a gap between the player’s understanding of what is OK and the club’s actual
approach to the issue, a related and more concerning issue is that many of the interview subjects
acknowledged that they had not told the club about significant off field concerns, such as family issues,
adjustment issues, study demands, relationship issues or financial issues, because they did not want to
give any indication that they were focused on anything other than football.
They also acknowledge that if they knew of teammates with similar issues, they were unlikely to bring
it to the club's attention because they are uncertain about how the club will react and they don’t want
to get their team mate into trouble with the club.
Importantly, the lack of willingness to intervene – for example in a social setting where they thought a
team mate was demonstrating potentially risky behaviour - was a very common theme during the
interviews. Some players will not intervene because they are uncertain at best and suspicious at worst
about the reaction of the club, and the potential negative consequences for a team mate if there is an
intervention. The idea of intervening in a social situation was approached with caution:
“…if I was close enough to them like my age group I reckon a few boys...not really by myself but if I was
with my mates or with some other boys I’d raise the issue with them and say you know I don’t think
you’re doing the right thing”
Player perceptions of off field risks
One of the points in the introduction to this report was the extensive international research that
indicates that elite sports people have a different perception of risks to the general public. As the
current research included a qualitative exploration of the way that AFL players think about off field
risks, it is revealing to consider the comments below from a range of interviewees about the principal
risks of being an AFL footballer:
“It’s the life a footballer is exposed to. There’s probably 3 or 4 night clubs in the city where you’re free
entry and free drink card and that exists for every AFL player”
“You’ve just got to be smart in terms of where you go. Don’t go to places you hear about where there
are drugs…I mean we get taught about not being out past 12 o’clock or 1 o’clock and that’s sort of the
curfews and because after that everyone’s [the general public] sort of goes over the edge”
11“I got a lot of mates that don’t play [professional] footy and they get to go out and do what they want
pretty much. It can be a little frustrating, you can’t just have fun with your mates, you get held back a
little bit; but I guess it’s part of being a footballer”
Observations / General Themes
There are different levels of concern about the potential hazards of an active social life (not much
goes on vs. have to keep your wits about you).
The idea of a player ‘having his wits about him’ implies a propensity for self-protection. Some clubs
are assisting this self-protection; most interviewees gave examples of clubs organising designated
drivers, special areas at venues where players would not be at risk from the public and so forth.
At the individual level, it was apparent that players had different levels of concern about the social
risks that they face; significantly, they also had different levels of self-protection – that is, the
degree to which they were prepared to mitigate or avoid potentially risky situations.
There is a widespread belief that they were missing out on something – “all my mates are doing it
and nobody cares, but if I do it, it’s all over the paper”
In summary, what we see is very different interpretations of the sources and levels of risk facing AFL
players, as well as a belief that the behaviour of people in broader society is much more excessive but
judged much less harshly. This is not unexpected, as we know that the way that people perceive and
conceptualise risk is influenced by a range of past and current socio cultural factors as well as the
current context in which they are making decisions about their own behaviour.
Final Summary and Recommendations
The findings of the present study are consistent with findings from previous research in other sports –
there is strong evidence that team and/or club based contextual effects have a significant impact on
antisocial and prosocial behaviour by elite sports people. The good news is that, these effects can be
‘managed’ as they are amenable to intervention. Some intervention suggestions follow below:
Reflection and discussion
Much of the discussion in international research about reflective practices - where players share and
discuss their onfield experiences and learn more about the way that individual players interpret and
respond to given on field situations – has been around demonstrable improvements in on field team
performance, it is also becoming increasingly apparent that the same practices can have a positive
effect on social behaviour.
In the last few years, there has been growing support for the use of reflective practices in sport as a
way of getting buy in and engagement from players and the results include role clarity, player
empowerment and better decision making by players.4 Many successful coaches have shown that
reflective practices support an empowerment approach to coaching, and this translates into superior
on field behaviour and performance.
One of the features of the reflective practices approach is the need for all participants – coaches and
players – to reflect on experiences and learn how those experiences can be applied to different
situations. Players can get feedback and commentary on their own situational experiences as well as
understand the beliefs, feelings and attitudes of others in specific situations, while hearing from others
who have experienced similar situations, or situations that players may encounter. There is no reason
while the value of reflective practise would not be realised in similar discussions and debates around
real and potential off field scenarios, with positive behavioural benefits as the result.
Focus on Player Satisfaction
The idea that players should be satisfied with their life as a footballer is not something that is frequently
spoken about. This may be because it is assumed that being an elite footballer is such a special career
that it is intrinsically satisfying (the job is a privilege; thousands of kids would swap with you etc. etc.)
4
For example, see Pam Richards, Duncan R.D. Mascarenhas and Dave, Collins, Implementing reflective practice approaches with elite team
athletes: parameters of success, Reflective Practice Vol. 10, No. 3, July 2009, 353–363
12Player satisfaction has been identified by researchers as a significant issue. Firstly, satisfaction has been
linked to higher levels of on field performance as a player who is more satisfied will put out more effort
and persistence during competition. Secondly, it has been shown that satisfaction with the athletic
experience can lead to further personal development by sports people, so satisfaction is an aspect of
professional sporting life that produce favourable on and off field outcomes.
Thus, it is recommended that coaches put player satisfaction as a key performance indicator. This is not a
new approach to coaching or management, but there does appear to be potential for this approach to
be used more conspicuously, actively and frequently in the world of AFL football.
Role Ambiguity
Results from research into professional sports overseas support the view that reducing role ambiguity
in a team setting is beneficial for both the team and the individuals. It is important to note that
awareness (e.g. usually defined in terms of being aware of what is required to excel, along with the
capacity to reflect on experience and learn from it) has been identified as an important characteristic
that drives effective development of sports people. To this end, the capacity to consciously reflect,
assimilate, and adapt is considered a key determinant in effectively translating player potential into
excellence on and off the field. This capacity is impacted by the extent of role ambiguity/clarity.
Most research into role ambiguity has focused on four areas of awareness: Scope: A player’s awareness
of their responsibilities; Behaviours: A player’s awareness of what behaviours are required to fulfil
those responsibilities; Evaluation: A player’s awareness of the way that role performance will be
evaluated; Consequences: The consequences of exceeding or failing to meet performance standards
One of the more promising areas for coaches relates to their leadership style and the strong evidence
that reduced role ambiguity is associated with a “Transformational” leadership style. Transformational
leadership involves the building of relationships with players based on personal, emotional, and
inspirational exchanges.
It is believed that the idea of transformational leadership is particularly suited to the sports domain
because transformational leaders are known to empower rather than control their followers and the
emphasis on encouraging individuals to think for themselves, and to approach old problems in new
ways is likely to increase knowledge, learning, and understanding and therefore individual and team
performance in sporting and social settings.
Significantly, transformational leadership behaviours such as communicating personal and group
values, sharing inspiring visions for the future, attending to individual needs, challenging others to
create high expectations for themselves, and acting as an exemplary role model, can lead individuals to
engage in successful sporting and prosocial behaviours as they voluntarily adopt behaviours that are
aligned to the values, beliefs and relationships articulated by the coach and the club.
Autonomy
As stated earlier, being autonomous does not equate with being independent. Autonomy is about
making sure that players feel that their view has been considered and that they are valued. Through
experiencing autonomy-supportive behaviours5 from coaching and management such as the provision
of choice, provision of rationale, clear expectations, feedback, acknowledgement of feelings, and
concern for individual player' needs. Some further examples include:-
1. Jointly working out what the team rules are.
2. Linking activities to outcomes.
3. Taking time to discuss individual roles and individual performance
There is overwhelming evidence that using these strategies dramatically increases player motivation –
their desire to perform as an individual and as part of a team, and therefore their willingness to exert
extra effort at training and at games, with an increase in performance as the outcome, with the value of
applying the same model to off field behaviour being self-evident.
5
See Appendix 1: Examples of Coaches’ autonomy supportive behaviours
13Understanding what is “normal”
“There’s probably a couple of guys that struggled with it [understanding limits on alcohol consumption].
They moved out of their host family about after a year … so once they moved out so they had a fair bit of
fun. Weren’t really playing in the AFL and they’d play Saturday locally and then get on the drink. I think
that’s probably normal in terms of society and stuff but not for elite sportsman“
One of the problems for AFL players is that they may lack an understanding of what ‘normal’ behaviour
is. One of the most striking examples in professional sports is in the area of alcohol consumption. Both
the AFL’s own research and many overseas studies have shown that many athletes have large
misconceptions about alcohol use by other parties that they gauge their own consumption against.
There is also a sense that while most players realise that ‘alcohol can be bad for you’, there appeared to
be limited appreciation of specific drinking consequences, such as alcohol-induced injuries, long-term
consequences of off-season alcohol use, and other alcohol related factors that can impair performance
and competitiveness, so these could also be addressed.
The evidence about misunderstood norms abounds in international research, as well as a poor
understanding of personal consequences of some risky behaviour – for example, many young athletes,
including those in professional ranks, across sports in the US believe that using illicit drugs during the
off season has no performance impact during the season, or that there are no long term health
consequences of using performance enhancing drugs “if you only use them for a couple of years.”
The discussion above highlights an opportunity for AFL clubs to put off field behaviour on the player
agenda in a different way. The process outlined emphasises the opportunity for clubs, especially
coaches, to engage in open-ended and frequent dialogue (not monologue) with their players about
what is appropriate and inappropriate behaviour, seeking to develop consensus within the team, and
not simply assume that everyone is armed with the same factual and normative information. This
approach can contribute to the creation of a clear collective understanding of appropriate behaviour.
Culture and Leadership
It is apparent is that there is an increased reliance on “cultural infrastructure” that includes structures
like leadership teams, as well as internal and external peer mentoring to manage player behaviour –
within the club as well as in social environments. The importance of culture as a form of intervention in
curbing poor off field behaviour at both the club and AFL level was emphasised in the quotes above
about the small number of players who tarnish the reputation of the broader playing group and
reinforce publicly held negative stereotypes and was frequently mentioned by interview subjects.
One of the most interesting cultural aspects of this research project was the variation in player beliefs
about leadership. As noted earlier, in some clubs it was mainly expressed in on field and playing terms,
while in others it was constructed around on and off field behaviour, values and communication. In
fact, all players interviewed expressed leadership in terms of a mixture of on field and off field
leadership, but there were large variations in the degree of emphasis in each club.
However, what was also apparent was the exact role that leaders should play and the type of processes
that can identify the best cultural leaders and mentors are unclear. As an example, the introduction of a
mature age draft has meant that there is a growing influx of tertiary qualified people with jobs that
have required significant responsibilities, including the management of diverse groups of people. Are
they likely to be better leaders than similar aged players with 100+ games experience who have focused
their life around football? Is it necessary to prove yourself as a footballer to have credibility as a leader?
Having also acknowledged earlier that culture is a somewhat elusive concept in sport, and that many
players had difficulty describing the culture at their club in anything other than general terms, it might
be useful for clubs to consider a few questions about building an appropriate cultural infrastructures:-
Has the club made a specific choice about the type of culture that they want?
What are the implications of those cultural choices?6
What type of behaviours support the selected cultural attributes?
6
It is well known that there are interactions between different elements of a corporate culture. For example, an organisation that wants to be
more innovative has to i) Have an appetite for considered risk taking, ii) Be more accepting of failure and iii) Have a very large capacity for
organisational learning from both success and failure and the processes that produced these outcomes.
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