From 'Event-led' to 'Event-themed' Regeneration: The 2002 Commonwealth Games Legacy Programme
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Urban Studies, Vol. 44, Nos. 5/6, 1125–1143, May 2007 From ‘Event-led’ to ‘Event-themed’ Regeneration: The 2002 Commonwealth Games Legacy Programme Andrew Smith and Tim Fox [Paper first received, October 2005; in final form, September 2006] Summary. Hosting large events has long been associated with the physical regeneration of cities. To supplement these ‘hard’ impacts, cities are now attempting to use events to stimulate ‘softer’ social and economic regeneration. This paper evaluates the impacts of the Legacy Programme adopted in conjunction with the 2002 Commonwealth Games held in Manchester, UK. Alongside its emphasis on social and economic regeneration, this programme was unusual in that the projects were games-themed, rather than being directly linked to the event. Despite some concerns about the organisational structures employed and the sustainability of impacts, target beneficiaries have received valuable assistance from the programme. Thus it appears that there are valuable lessons that other cities can learn from this example of event-themed regeneration. Introduction One way of understanding cities is by analys- (Hiller, 2000, p. 440). Other critics argue that ing the legacies of events they have staged. the main beneficiaries of event strategies are For example, the 1888 World’s Fair, 1929 seldom the most deserving and needy candi- World Exposition and 1992 Olympic Games dates (Raco, 2004). To avoid such accusa- have helped to shape contemporary Barce- tions, some host cities have adopted specific lona. Many host cities are now using events plans to direct regenerative impacts. This strategically to assist areas that have suffered approach was adopted by the authorities disproportionately from the effects of indus- responsible for organising the 17th Common- trial decline. Some have even supplemented wealth Games. The host city, Manchester, plans for ‘hard’ legacies with ‘softer’ regener- UK, had already gained valuable experience ation ambitions. Nevertheless, scepticism sur- of the potential and pitfalls of event regener- rounds event regeneration strategies. Several ation via its unsuccessful bids for the 1996 damning critiques of events (Rutheiser, and 2000 Olympic Games (Cochrane et al., 1996; Lenskyj, 2002), alongside perennial 1996). These bids left a legacy of sport facili- media accounts of wasteful public expendi- ties and partnership working which were capi- ture, have rather tarnished their reputation. talised upon during preparations for the 2002 Hiller suggests that mega-events are best event. understood as “public relations ventures far A broad evaluation of the impacts of the removed from the realities of urban problems” 17th Commonwealth Games is beyond the Andrew Smith is in the School of Architecture and the Built Environment, University of Westminster, 35 Marylebone Road, London, NW1 5LS, UK. Fax: 020 7911 5171. E-mail: A.Smith24@westminster.ac.uk. Tim Fox is with ECOTEC Research and Consulting, 31 –32 Park Row, Leeds, LS1 5JD, UK. Fax: 0113 290 4119. E-mail: tim.fox@ecotec.com 0042-0980 Print/1360-063X Online/07/5-61125 –19 # 2007 The Editors of Urban Studies DOI: 10.1080/00420980701256039
1126 ANDREW SMITH AND TIM FOX
remit of the present study. There has already Body, maintained responsibility for financial
been a significant amount of research management and ensured the probity of the
undertaken which directly identifies the programme throughout its lifetime. The
impact of this event. In 2002, Cambridge programme was unusual in that it involved
Policy Consultants produced a pre-event small initiatives aimed at delivering ‘softer’
estimate of the economic impact and then impacts. These initiatives were not necessarily
updated it in November 2003 (Cambridge wholly reliant on the Games themselves and
Policy Consultants, 2003). This research the aim of this study is to evaluate this
identified an associated increase of £22 example of ‘event-themed’ regeneration. The
million in turnover for local companies and findings can be used to provide implications
6300 new jobs for the Manchester area. for other cities contemplating using events to
Whilst seemingly impressive, these positive assist regeneration.
impacts need to be assessed against the £670
million capital investment in new sporting
Events and the Contemporary City
venues, transport and other infrastructure
(Gratton et al., 2005). A further impact study The mass audiences, celebrities, iconic
was carried out for the North West Develop- structures and consumption associated with
ment Agency in 2004 (Faber Maunsell, sporting spectacles mean that they are
2004). It reported that, between 1999 and perceived by cities as valuable examples of
2002, 1450 new jobs were created in east ‘mega’ events (Hall, 1997). Seemingly
Manchester, where the main event venues unsatisfied with their role merely as cultural
were sited. Therefore, official evaluations of celebrations or athletic endeavours, cities are
the effects of the 2002 Commonwealth using sport events strategically to achieve
Games have generally been positive. Never- urban regeneration. According to Lipsitz
theless, it is generally recognised that more (1984), this practice is underpinned by six
research is required to substantiate existing envisaged outcomes: image enhancement;
appraisals, to establish more diverse impacts new inward investment; additional employ-
and to assess long-term effects (Carlsen and ment and sales; new recreational opportu-
Taylor, 2003; Gratton et al., 2005; Jones and nities; renewed civic morale; and more
Stokes, 2003; Ward, 2003). interest in sport among the young. On a less
Unlike the more general impact studies now explicit level, events can be understood as
available, the aim of the present study is to part of the drive to turn cities into centres of
examine the impacts of one scheme adopted consumption through the “organisation of
in conjunction with the Commonwealth spectacle and theatricality” (Harvey, 1989,
Games: the 2002 NW Economic and Social p. 92).
Single Regeneration Budget Programme. The need to stimulate inward investment
This programme was an innovative attempt and consumption in an increasingly symbolic
to ensure that the Games left a lasting legacy global economy means that city image
for Manchester and the North West of enhancement is usually one of the key objec-
England. Gratton et al. (2005, p. 993) claim tives of event strategies (Smith, 2005a).
that it represents “the first time in Britain an Barcelona is generally considered a bench-
ambitious legacy programme was designed mark example of what can be achieved.
around a major sport event”. As the pro- Here, enduring associations with industrial
gramme ran for the period 1999– 2004, its decline, political unrest and general drabness
effects are not incorporated into existing have been replaced by fashionable associ-
evaluations of the Commonwealth Games ations with sport and design. The 1992
(for example, Carlsen and Taylor, 2003). It Olympic Games is often cited as the cause
was planned and implemented by a partner- of this image transformation. Smith (2005b)
ship of public- and private-sector agencies, challenges this by emphasising that this
but Manchester City Council, as Accountable event was merely one of a much wider set of‘EVENT-THEMED’ REGENERATION 1127
agents that enhanced Barcelona’s image: but although some authors still discuss ‘softer’
the city clearly benefited from its Olympic initiatives separately, the term regeneration
status. A significant mechanism for such is increasingly used to refer to social and
image enhancement is the transfer of event economic rehabilitation, as well as physical
images to images of the host city (Brown recovery. This broad interpretation is
et al., 2004). The increasing recognition and adopted in the subsequent discussion of pre-
manipulation of this process means that vious event-inspired regeneration initiatives.
cities are said to be transcending a basic Perhaps the most obvious opportunity for
place marketing approach and adopting one event regeneration is the associated invest-
which has more in common with ‘co-brand- ment in new venues. Locating new facilities
ing’ or ‘brand alliances’ (Brown et al., and associated infrastructures in brownfield
2004). This correlates with Garcia’s (2004, sites allows such areas to be reclaimed as inte-
p. 315) assertion that, since the late 1990s, gral urban zones. Yet if sustainable regener-
there has been an “expansion of city market- ation is to be achieved, an important
ing techniques and their progressive trans- consideration is to plan for the effective
formation into city branding strategies”. post-event use of such facilities. This helps
There are potential regeneration opportunities to translate physical changes into genuine
arising from this transformation. As Tibbot regeneration. Atlanta, in the US, developed a
contends; “if a cultural project is going to series of new sport facilities to stage the
succeed in leading regeneration, it is crucial 1996 Olympic Games and adopted a ruthless
that it does so as part of a holistic destination strategy that designated exactly what would
brand” (Tibbot, 2002, p. 73; cited in Garcia, be done with them once the Games were
2004). Therefore, although the present study over. Despite this efficiency, the physical
concentrates on the regeneration, rather than legacy of the event was restricted by the
image effects of events, it is recognised that large number of temporary constructions.
these outcomes are interdependent. These led to the event being labelled ‘the dis-
posable Games’ (Rutheiser, 1996). Atlanta’s
approach contrasted with that of Athens,
Events and Regeneration
Greece, where 95 per cent of the projects
For Booth, planned for the 2004 Olympic Games were
permanent spatial structures (Beriatos and
the definition of urban regeneration in
Gospodini, 2004). These cases highlight the
Britain has always been singularly broad,
dilemma faced by host cities; wanting to
encompassing physical regeneration and
bequeath physical legacies, whilst ensuring
the development of urban projects, the re-
that money is not wasted building and operat-
structuring of economic activity and the
ing unnecessary new venues.
reconstruction of social frameworks
The use and refurbishment of existing facili-
(Booth, 2005 p. 258).
ties is perhaps a more guaranteed way of avoid-
This is indicative of how the term will be used ing ‘white elephants’. This was the approach
here, but suggesting that this is always how adopted by Los Angeles during preparations
regeneration has been interpreted is perhaps for the 1984 Olympic Games (Andranovich
a little optimistic. British practice, particularly et al., 2001). Such frugality matches the Inter-
in the 1980s, has overrelied on property-led national Olympic Committee’s (IOC) recent
initiatives (Oatley, 1998). In recent years, a proclamation that it wishes to see future host
more holistic conceptualisation of urban cities reducing the scale of the Games, thus
regeneration has emerged, as “partnership, cutting costs and avoiding superfluous new
spatial targeting, integration, competition, venues. The IOC’s new approach is under-
empowerment and sustainability have standable considering the tendency for venues
assumed increasing importance” (Jones and to be underutilised after events. Even if new
Gripaios, 2000, pp. 218–219). Therefore, venues are used in the post-event era, they1128 ANDREW SMITH AND TIM FOX
may render existing facilities redundant. employed to achieve such effects. As
Malaysia spent a total of 561million Malaysian volunteers are needed to help stage events, by
Ringgits (£94 million) on stadia and infrastruc- offering training and giving volunteers employ-
ture for the 1998 Commonwealth Games (Silk, ment experience, new skills can be nurtured. In
2002). The existing stadium and swimming Lillehammer, Norway, host of the 1994 Winter
complex were perfectly adequate for staging Olympic Games, 79 per cent of the volunteers
the Games, but new facilities were built to surveyed felt that they had enhanced their skills
impress an international audience and to sym- by being one of the 9100 volunteers involved
bolise the achievements of the incumbent (Kemp, 2002). The 2000 Sydney Olympic
government (Silk, 2002). This case demon- Games also involved an extensive scheme
strates that regeneration and legacy consider- involving 62 000 volunteers. Accordingly, vol-
ations are often sidelined when the rationale unteer recruitment for such events usually
for staging an event involves overriding politi- focuses on how to obtain the numbers required.
cal objectives. Sydney learned from Atlanta that it had to
Events seem to leave a more positive phys- mobilise networks of private contactors to
ical legacy when they are embedded within assist in the recruitment, training and manage-
wider regeneration strategies. This matches ment of voluntary staff (Webb, 2001). Yet even
the approach outlined by Carriere and Dema- if such efforts are successful, it is unclear
ziere (2002) who advocate urban development whether this actually contributes to social
that includes an event, rather than using an regeneration, particularly as few attempts
event to encourage urban development. have been made to ensure that those benefiting
Barcelona perhaps provides the best from volunteering were those most in need of
example, as it had talked for over 25 years assistance. People who volunteer are often
about many of the changes now associated enthusiasts who have volunteered before and
with the 1992 Olympic Games. Principally, tend not to be marginalised members of local
this event provided an important incentive communities. A more targeted approach
and deadline to complete long-held visions focused on the most disadvantaged (and least
to develop road and transport infrastructure, skilled), is something that has been notoriously
housing, office and commercial develop- difficult to achieve. Manchester’s Common-
ments; telecommunications; and hotel facili- wealth Games was the first to include an initiat-
ties. More was spent on each of these four ive where “most participants came from groups
types of development than on new event with little sense of engagement with wider
venues. This ensured that the Olympic society” (Jones and Stokes, 2003, p. 204).
Games left a comprehensive physical legacy The present study includes an evaluation of
that provided the basis for Barcelona’s sub- this innovative volunteer programme.
sequent economic regeneration. To assist social regeneration, some cities
have also adopted vocational training
programmes in conjunction with events. As
Economic and Social Regeneration
part of the construction industry training strat-
Recent literature on events has suggested that it egy implemented as part of the Sydney
is insufficient to concentrate merely on the Olympic Games, 12 000 workers were
‘hard’ physical legacy of events, as positive trained, with special provision for workers
effects do not necessarily ‘trickle down’ to from Aboriginal and non-English-speaking
local people and small businesses. Therefore, communities (Webb, 2001). This inspired
softer economic and social considerations Toronto, where the Trades Council used the
also need to be addressed (Balsas, 2004). city’s 2008 Olympic bid to pressure the gov-
Some events have involved deliberate attempts ernment into developing skills training for
to encourage economic and social regeneration their Aboriginal communities (Tufts, 2004).
by providing new skills and support for local It is also important for host cities to pursue
people. Volunteer programmes are commonly wider employment and educational initiatives.‘EVENT-THEMED’ REGENERATION 1129
Greece adopted an Olympic Education (2003) into the social impacts of Sydney’s
Programme in conjunction with the 2004 Olympic Games demonstrates that local and
Games staged in Athens. This project was marginalised people often feel excluded
based on school initiatives adopted by pre- from event benefits. Cities must be careful
vious Olympic hosts. Grammatikopoulos not to remove access to community facilities
et al. note that these projects have tended to to finance élite venues. The development of
lack theoretical unity and subsequent evalu- Homebush Olympic Park for the Sydney
ation, but state that; “they seemed to resonate Olympic Games meant that Auburn Local
with teachers as a source for integrated and Government Authority (LGA) was required
imaginative pedagogical ideas and activities” to transfer rateable land to an adjacent
(Grammatikopoulos et al., 2004, p. 67). council in exchange for land comprising part
One key theme within recent literature on of the Park. The resultant budget shortfall
event planning is that cities should aim to meant that some local community and youth
build upon the existing resources of an area, services were suspended (Owen, 2002). Fur-
rather than overriding them (Raco, 2004). thermore, due to the upgrading of various
Although new economic activity is often facilities to stage Olympic events, local
needed to stimulate regeneration, there is a people within both Waverley and Ryde
danger that “existing forms of employment LGAs experienced reduced access to, and
. . . may be overlooked and undervalued” in control of, community facilities (Owen,
event strategies (Raco, 2004, p. 35). There- 2002). Similar effects were felt in Sheffield,
fore, it is important to ensure that local com- UK, where local swimming pools were
panies and disadvantaged individuals are closed to fund high-spec facilities for the
able to benefit from the lucrative contracts 1991 World Student Games. In more
usually associated with large events. The Mil- extreme circumstances, residents have actu-
lennium Festival in Greenwich, London, ally been forced to move from their own
involved an innovative approach whereby an homes because of events. Approximately
organisation was established to link local 600 tenants were evicted from land to assist
labour and local companies to the event. the staging of the 1986 Vancouver Expo in
This allowed over 850 local people to be Canada, whilst in Australia, the 1987
trained for jobs at the Dome, the centrepiece America’s Cup and the 1988 Brisbane Expo
of the Festival (Greenwich Council, 2004). also led to significant amounts of residential
Support for local businesses may also be relocation (Hall, 1997).
needed, particularly as evidence shows that Events have also been associated with the
events can sometimes harm, as well as assist sanitisation of cities, with homeless people
them. Although Barcelona’s Olympic regen- and travellers removed from prominent areas
eration is widely applauded, it involved the (Atkinson and Laurier, 1998). Accordingly,
eviction of hundreds of small businesses events are very much implicated in the ‘revan-
from areas which had traditionally offered chist city’, playing a crucial role in “the social
low rents (Shapcott, 1998; see Raco, 2004). control of marginalised groups through coer-
Similarly, the Centennial Park constructed cive and non-coercive means” (Tufts, 2004,
for the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta dislo- p. 50). Atlanta’s Olympic Games in 1996 pro-
cated at least 70 businesses (Cherkis, 1996; vides a good example. The construction of the
see Whitelegg, 2000). This practice looks set Centennial Park for this event dislocated at
to continue: the organisers of London’s Olym- least 1000 homeless people and 4 shelters
pics are currently negotiating with 284 that supported them (Cherkis, 1996; see
businesses which will be relocated to stage Whitelegg, 2000). An increasing realisation
the Games in 2012 (Hansard, 2005). of the potential for these effects has resulted
Host cities need to be aware that there are in strong campaigns for related intervention
other consequences of events that may under- in some host cities. Toronto’s controversial
mine social regeneration. Research by Waitt bid for the 2008 Olympics involved intensive1130 ANDREW SMITH AND TIM FOX
lobbying by the local labour council who only books about the event: ‘Best Olympics
gave their support once they had gained assur- Ever?’ (Lenskyj, 2002) and ‘The Collabora-
ances about the provision of affordable tive Games’ (Webb, 2001). Yet Sydney’s
housing units, protection for tenants against Games President has admitted that there
eviction or displacement, and the protection were anti-democratic elements in the highly
of the civil rights of the poor and homeless centralised system used to implement initiat-
(Tufts, 2004). ives (Webb, 2001). Developments were
‘fast-tracked’ and certain procedures (such
as EIA submissions) were ignored. This
Management and Planning Systems
made the Olympic organisers much less
Securing regeneration from events requires accountable to the community than under
careful planning and event managers who are normal circumstances (Owen, 2002).
sensitive to the importance of legacy. Unfortu- Delivering a successful event, whilst ensur-
nately, by-passing conventional planning pro- ing a positive legacy, requires effective
cedures is an established characteristic of co-ordination between Games organisers,
event initiatives. Hall suggests that many host regeneration agencies, different levels of gov-
cities have adopted a ‘boosterist’ approach, ernment, local businesses and community
which he sees as “a form of non-planning” representatives. Event management bodies
(Hall, 2000, p. 21). This is perhaps best exem- tend to concentrate on logistics and marketing,
plified by Sheffield’s preparations for the 1991 with regeneration and legacy considerations
World Student Games, which involved “mud- left to conventional urban authorities. This div-
dling through without a clear formal plan” ision of responsibility, plus the increasing ten-
(Bramwell, 1997, p.174). Bramwell feels that dency to establish private-sector event
this lack of strategic planning resulted in management ‘companies’, can result in event
missed opportunities for regeneration. Even organisers being artificially divorced from
when a more strategic approach has been urban governments. This reduces opportunities
undertaken by host cities, it has tended to be for regeneration. As Thornley (2002) states, it
characterised by ‘top–down’ planning and is important to retain the involvement of
there have few instances where communities elected officials in event projects to ensure
have actively participated in planning large proper integration with, and benefits for, com-
event projects. Perhaps surprisingly, rare munities. The 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games
examples of community consultation have was notorious for the number of different
occurred during preparations for events domi- agencies involved and the power struggles
nated by private-sector agencies. When Los between them (Rutheiser, 1996; Whitelegg,
Angeles wanted to supplement its private- 2000). The organisation with prime responsi-
sector-funded 1984 Olympic Games with rev- bility for the delivery of the Games (ACOG)
enues from ticket and hotel taxes, a referendum was a private-sector entity and was unrespon-
was held. Similarly, in Utah, a referendum was sive to protests from city residents about the
held on the issue of diverting $59 million of lack of regeneration assistance. Its co-chair
sales tax revenues to construct facilities for famously stated that the Olympics were a
the 1996 Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake business venture, not a welfare programme
City (Andranovich et al., 2001). (Rutheiser, 1996). Elected officials set up a
The frailties of event planning are perhaps state body (MAOGA) to ensure that event
explained, although not excused, by the appar- organisers were accountable to the public
ent incompatibility of short-lived events with sector, but the real authority remained with
long-term planning. The deadlines and timeta- ACOG. Subsequently, the municipal govern-
bles associated with staging events often ment established an organisation called
result in established planning procedures CODA, a public–private partnership intended
being compromised. Sydney’s 2000 Olympic to lead the development of inner-city neigh-
Games received plaudits reflected in titles of bourhoods. This organisation had few positive‘EVENT-THEMED’ REGENERATION 1131
impacts because it was underfunded and had first 3 rounds. Therefore, the authors conclude
such different objectives from those of that the SRB CF “has been successfully tar-
ACOG (Whitelegg, 2000). geted on the most-severely deprived local
authority districts” (Brennan et al., 1999,
p. 2081).
The Single Regeneration Budget
The other key theme of existing appraisals
The scheme evaluated by the present study is of SRB CF schemes is the involvement and
an example of an event regeneration strategy, encouragement of partnerships. John and
but it is also an example of a Single Regener- Ward report that there is
ation Budget (SRB) programme. Therefore, it
widespread agreement that the competitive
is important to understand the nature of such
system shook up partnerships and made
programmes before this particular example
Local Authorities and other traditional
can be evaluated. The SRB was created by
regeneration bodies more innovative (John
the UK’s incumbent Conservative govern-
and Ward, 2005, p. 74).
ment in April 1994 by aggregating 20 inde-
pendent programmes that had previously Several commentators disagree, arguing that
been used to finance urban regeneration. the SRB merely formalised existing partner-
Fordham et al. (1999, p. 132) state that this ships, rather than encouraging new collabor-
was “one of the most significant changes in ation (Oatley, 1998). A slightly different
the funding and administration of English argument is that schemes such as the SRB
regeneration policy in a quarter of a CF, produce ‘marriages of convenience’ that
century”. On a practical level, the SRB exist merely to allow bids to qualify for
involved two key elements: a new agency funding, rather than encouraging genuine
(English Partnerships) to co-ordinate land partnerships (Cochrane et al., 1996). The
and property-driven initiatives; and the estab- SRB CF Programme at the centre of the
lishment of the SRB Challenge Fund (SRB present study was submitted by the 2002
CF), a competitive scheme which sought North West (NW) Partnership, involving
regeneration bids from local partnerships Manchester City Council, the NW Regional
(Brennan et al., 1999). The 2002 NW Econ- Assembly, the event management company
omic and Social Programme was one of the (M2002 Ltd), plus various private-sector
successful schemes awarded funding from interests. Whilst the evaluation here will
the 5th round of the SRB CF. attempt to gauge whether any lasting lower-
A number of critiques of the SRB CF con- level partnerships have been formed because
centrate on the competitive system on which of this SRB Programme, the subsequent
it is founded. It has been subject to criticism demise of the overarching partnership
because of the cost of bid preparation and suggests that it may indeed have been a ‘mar-
because it allegedly penalises areas that lack riage of convenience’. The bid submission
the capacity and experience to put together coincided with the introduction of the North
successful bids. The competitive system has West Regional Development Agency in
also been accused of prioritising cost and effi- 1998. Therefore, the shifting nature of
ciency over quality and equity (Fordham regional institutions at this time, and the invol-
et al., 1999) and is considered by some to be vement of transient event-focused partners,
a way of masking cuts, rather than increasing meant that the demise of the 2002 NW Part-
efficiency (Oatley, 1998). Recent academic nership was perhaps inevitable.
research has countered some of these criti- The SRB CF ended after the 2002/03 round
cisms. Brennan et al. (1999) investigated (no. 7) and is now subsumed into the Regional
whether the competitive system employed Development Agencies Single Programme.
by the SRB CF actually met local needs. However, that should not be an excuse to
They found that all bar 1 of the 99 most cease related research. As Brennan et al.
deprived districts received funding from the (1999) state, the effects of many SRB1132 ANDREW SMITH AND TIM FOX
programmes are still unclear as funding was a rather unreal place, the creation of the
often given for schemes with a lifetime of imagination of local and regional poli-
5 –7 years. Therefore, many SRB programmes ticians rather than of local communities
are still being implemented. As sustainability (Ward, 2003, p. 123).
was meant to be a key feature of many of
The Commonwealth Games initiatives comp-
the programmes, it is also important to evalu-
lement projects in other parts of Manchester, a
ate whether the effects of past programmes
city which has been at the forefront of UK
continue to be felt by target audiences.
regeneration since the late 1980s. During
this period, Manchester “has consistently
Regenerating Manchester and the North secured a disproportionate share of discretion-
West ary grant funding” (Quilley, 2000, p. 609). In
recent years, the criteria for gaining funding
When, in November 1995, the Common-
have changed and cities have been compelled
wealth Games was awarded to Manchester,
to adapt to the ‘new regionalism’ of regener-
the city felt it had secured an unprecedented
ation policy. This is somewhat awkward for
opportunity to secure lasting regeneration.
Manchester and the North West. The tra-
This feeling was partly inspired by the city’s
ditionally poor relationship between Manche-
confidence that it could use the Games to
ster and Liverpool, added to the apparent
lever external regeneration funding. Stressing
desire of the former to assert itself as the
potential regeneration opportunities had little
centre of its own city-region, has always
to do with satisfying the technical require-
undermined a coherent regional approach
ments of securing the Games candidature.
(Deas and Ward, 2000).
Indeed, the Manchester ‘bid book’, which
helped the city to win the Games, pays rela-
tively little attention to such
The 2002 North West Economic and Social
matters (Manchester 2002, 1995). Unlike the
SRB Programme
IOC, the Commonwealth Games Federation
(CGF) does not include legacy or regeneration A key mechanism for securing a positive
considerations in its criteria for selecting host legacy from the Games was the 2002 North
cities (CGF, 2006).1 West Economic and Social SRB Programme
The main venues for the 2002 Common- (hereafter referred to as the Legacy Pro-
wealth Games were deliberately sited in east gramme). Superficially transcending the
Manchester, an area desperately in need of power struggle between municipal and regional
regeneration, and the East Manchester Urban authorities, this was a Manchester-led initiative
Regeneration Company (later New East which aimed to deliver a regional legacy. A
Manchester Ltd) was established to co-ordi- successful bid was submitted to the SRB CF
nate a plethora of local regeneration projects. by the 2002 NW Partnership for a programme
The area was quickly designated as an ‘Edu- running from 1999 to 2004. This programme
cation, Heath and Sport Action Zone’ by was unusual in that, unlike other SRB CF
Sport England and hosts both ‘Sure Start’ schemes, it had a thematic focus—the
and ‘New Deal for Communities’ national Commonwealth Games. The award of £6.2
programmes. Rather than using the event to million was supplemented with other private
assist an established strategy, as rec- and public monies, providing an overall
ommended previously, this concentrated budget of £17.7 million that funded a range
regeneration effort was ‘prompted’ by the of initiatives across the North West. Lever-
decision to award the city the Commonwealth aging funding is a noted advantage of event
Games (Ward, 2003, p. 121). Ward suggests strategies and accessing these funds provided
that east Manchester is now the most an immediate justification for staging the Com-
‘policy-thick’ area in Britain, something monwealth Games. National funding from the
which has made it SRB CF, and the very existence of a legacy‘EVENT-THEMED’ REGENERATION 1133
plan, also helped to assuage local criticisms of (2) To develop skills and improve cohesion
the potentially wasteful use of public through participation in celebratory
expenditure. events and health improvement projects.
The main aims of the Legacy Programme (3) To improve the competitiveness of SMEs
were in targeted sectors.
(1) To improve skills, educational attainment The Legacy Programme funded a total of
and personal development within target seven individual projects. These are outlined
disadvantaged areas. in Table 1. Projects varied in the degree to
Table 1. The seven projects within the 2002 NW Economic and Social SRB Programme
Commonwealth Curriculum Pack
A programme which used interest in the Commonwealth Games to motivate children and teachers at
school to enhance their information and communications technology skills. This was encouraged
through the development of new curriculum materials and a website. These new learning resources
also aimed to stimulate learning about the Games and about Commonwealth countries in general
Games Xchange
A project designed to promote and market Manchester and the North West region. This was achieved by
providing information about the city/region to local people and visitors through a range of accessible,
informative and innovative methods. An event information centre set up as part of this project aimed to
train and give employment experience to disadvantaged individuals
Pre-volunteer Programme (PVP)
An opportunity for people from specific disadvantaged groups throughout the NW to undertake
accredited training and to gain experience through volunteering at the Commonwealth Games. This
training was in addition to the instruction given to conventional volunteers. Those involved were not
guaranteed roles at the Games, but the aim was to encourage PVP graduates to apply for positions and,
if successful, to give them extra support and guidance
Healthier Communities
This project provided healthier living initiatives throughout the region before, during and after the
Commonwealth Games. The project provided assistance to health services in disadvantaged
communities, primarily through providing community representatives with new skills, contacts and
opportunities to gain further funds. It also aimed to develop more coherent links between sport and
health initiatives. More specifically, the project was intended to provide support for the elderly and
those with learning difficulties, and to encourage young people to make healthy lifestyle choices
Prosperity North West
This project aimed to ensure that businesses in the region benefited from the Commonwealth Games by
forming strategic alliances between regional and Commonwealth organisations. It provided
opportunities for local businesses to create durable trade links with Commonwealth countries. More
specifically, the project aimed to identify, and disseminate information about, business opportunities
relating to the Games. A business club was established and administered in the run-up to Games to
assist this endeavour
Passport 2K
This project provided out-of-school activities for young people aged 11 –18 across the North West who
took part in a range of outdoor activities incorporating sport and the arts. The project combined a series
of local activity programmes, with a number of regional events. The latter aimed to enable young
people from a range of backgrounds and locations to meet up and participate in activities on a regional
basis
Let’s Celebrate
This project used celebratory arts including carnivals and mela to build the capacity of South Asian,
African and African Caribbean communities and representative organisations in the North West. The
idea was to award franchises of varying lengths to new and existing groups who had aspirations to
develop their own events. The overarching aim was to promote long-term social cohesion, cultural
diversity, local employment and the development of community-led cultural infrastructure1134 ANDREW SMITH AND TIM FOX
which they were linked to the Commonwealth a concerted effort to market their activities
Games. In the case of the Pre-volunteer Pro- on a pan-regional basis and therefore to bene-
gramme (PVP), the link was clearly evident, ficiaries located outside Manchester. Regional
as the project eventually supplied 10 per effects were also maximised through
cent of the volunteers used in the Games. institutional arrangements. The Board was
Likewise, the Games Xchange project was made up of individuals representing all of
clearly linked to the event by providing the sub-regions of the North West, including
Games-related information and guidance to a high-profile Chair who, as Liverpool City
visitors. Similarly, the Commonwealth Curri- Council’s Chief Executive, was from outside
culum Pack project provided teaching the host city. The overall philosophy adopted
resources focused both on the Games and was that the projects should go to the benefici-
the Commonwealth more widely. The other aries, rather than expecting beneficiaries to go
projects are perhaps best described as being to the projects.
‘Games-themed’ rather than ‘Games-led’, as
they were only indirectly linked to the event.
Method of Evaluation
For example, Passport 2K promoted involve-
ment in a range of activities, some of which There are established methods for evaluating
were sports that were part of the Games, but SRB CF programmes. Alongside the require-
also more diverse activities. Both Healthier ment for multiagency working and sustain-
Communities and Prosperity North West ability, the SRB CF is renowned for its
used the Games as a springboard to achieve emphasis on monitoring and evaluation; in
health and economic benefits for the region. particular its requirement for quantified
There were only tenuous direct links outputs. Yet, as Wong (2002) states, the
between these projects and the Games. The obsession with quantitative research has also
same is true of Let’s Celebrate, which took posed problems, with outcomes such as com-
the Commonwealth theme to support proces- munity identity and institutional capacity
sional and celebratory arts events. These unsuited to such analysis. In the present
projects were only linked to the Games study, a mixture of qualitative and quantitat-
through the dedicated focus on ethnic groups ive indicators was used to adjudge the
originating from Commonwealth countries. success of the Legacy Programme. This
Therefore, whilst all benefited from being reflects the more rounded objectives of the
branded as Commonwealth Games initiatives, Legacy Programme and the authors’ own
the indirect event associations of some pro- research philosophy. The aim was to use the
jects meant that a wide range of objectives advantages offered by the quantitative output
could be pursued. This resulted in an event- monitoring required by all SRB CF pro-
themed regeneration programme that was grammes, whilst using qualitative research to
quite unlike any implemented previously by explain findings and explore less tangible out-
a host city. comes. Therefore, a combination of desk
Alongside its innovative use of the Games research and semi-structured interviews with
as a theme for a broad range of initiatives, key stakeholders was employed. Desk
the Legacy Programme was unusual because research was undertaken to establish the per-
it aimed to achieve regeneration effects formance of the Legacy Programme in quanti-
across the whole of the North West, rather tative terms. This involved analysing output
than simply confining them to the host city. and spend information to assess achievements
There were several mechanisms that encour- against target figures such as creating a certain
aged this regional dissemination: it was a number of jobs, delivering a set number of
prerequisite at the appraisal stage for all training courses or supporting a set number
legacy projects funded through the Legacy of businesses. Interviews with 20 key stake-
Programme to have a regional focus; and holders were then used to explain these
Programme co-ordinators and projects made findings. All the interviewees were involved‘EVENT-THEMED’ REGENERATION 1135
in the delivery of the Legacy Programme or projects and to assess their sustainability.
the Commonwealth Games. They included Reflecting the themes that emerged from the
those individuals who managed and co-ordi- review of past events, there was also an expli-
nated the programme on a day-to-day basis, cit attempt to assess management arrange-
managers of all of the projects funded ments and to explore how regeneration
through the Legacy Programme, key regional projects were linked to the Games themselves.
and sub-regional partners, as well as represen- To respect the wishes of those involved, some
tatives of strategic bodies who were involved interviews were documented by the inter-
in the delivery of the Games (see Table 2). viewer making detailed notes, whilst in
Although it is recognised that interviewing others, responses were recorded using audio
intended beneficiaries would have provided a equipment. The data were analysed using
more comprehensive evaluation, resource basic qualitative data analysis procedures as
constraints prevented this. Therefore, the suggested by Dey (1993). Therefore, once
effects on individuals, communities and the interviews were conducted, the research-
businesses are derived from official project ers spent time familiarising themselves with
evaluations and the views of those who were the information obtained, before establishing
involved in the day-to-day management of categories, themes and patterns. A basic
projects. coding system was then adopted and any
The semi-structured interviews were con- emergent ideas, explanations and relation-
ducted using a basic topic guide with associ- ships were tested by returning to the data.
ated prompts. Interviews were customised
according to the position of the interviewee,
The 2002 North West Economic and Social
but where relevant, standard questions were
SRB Programme: An Evaluation
asked to allow views to be directly compared.
The aim was to reveal the impact of the As the Legacy Programme was primarily
funded through the SRB CF, each project
had to record all outputs associated with
Table 2. The key stakeholders who were inter- their activities. According to these figures,
viewed as part of the research the Legacy Programme achieved the follow-
SRB Programme Manager ing outputs2
Project Manager 2000–02 Healthier Communities
Project Co-ordinator Passport 2K —220 jobs created;
Project Manager Passport 2K —3092 trained people obtaining a recognised
Director Pre-Games Volunteer Programme qualification;
Pre-Games Volunteer Consultant —8473 businesses helped across the region;
Project Manager (a) Commonwealth Curriculum —913 voluntary organisations supported;
Pack
Project Manager (b) Commonwealth Curriculum —-2607 people encouraged into voluntary
Pack work.
Project Manager Games Xchange
Project Manager Prosperity North West Paperwork exists to prove that these outputs
Project Manager Let’s Celebrate have been achieved. For example, evidence
Head of Regeneration Manchester City Council to prove that a new job has been created nor-
Director for Legacy Manchester City Council mally comprised a confirmation letter from an
Head of Sports and Recreation Manchester City employer. Proof that an individual has been on
Council
Legacy Consultant 2003/04 a training scheme usually consisted of a sign-
Legacy Consultant 2001/02 in sheet with the person’s name, address and
Chief Executive M2002 signature. The SRB authorities often audit
Chief Executive New East Manchester Ltd this evidence to verify that recorded outputs
Sport England North West Senior Development have been achieved. This means that findings
Manager
Deputy Chief Executive Marketing Manchester are neither assumed, nor self-reported. On this
basis, the outputs associated with the Legacy1136 ANDREW SMITH AND TIM FOX Programme are impressive. Thousands of newsletters, member-to-member offers, exhi- individuals and businesses from across the bitions, funding to run events and the opportu- North West directly benefited from the seven nity to use the Commonwealth Games logo. projects. As the Legacy Programme has pro- The business club created as part of the vided people with employment, qualifications project was particularly successful. Business and other key skills, there is likely to be a club members were able to get involved in long-term legacy. Yet measuring the success the supply chain activity focused around infra- or failure of an SRB Scheme by purely structure development. This allowed them looking at outputs only provides a superficial collectively to tender for, and win, around indication of overall impact. Much regener- £45 million of sub-contracting work. The ation impact is not picked up by quantitative project also gave specific trading advice to output measurements alone and therefore over 500 businesses and set up 250 one-to- there is a need to assess the wider ‘added- one business meetings on behalf of members. value’ of the programme. There were also several intangible benefits One of the Legacy Programme’s most of the Legacy Programme. As Deas and notable achievements was its success in enga- Ward (2000) identify, regional co-operation ging and benefiting individuals from disad- has been somewhat lacking in this part of vantaged groups. The interviewees asserted the UK. Therefore, it is interesting that a that the projects had helped to engage those number of interviewees mentioned that pro- people that previous regeneration initiatives jects had helped to foster a sense of regional had struggled to reach. This was achieved identity and to break down regional barriers. using the branding and ‘hook’ of the Com- The perception was that projects such as Pass- monwealth Games to promote engagement. port 2K, with its regional events bringing The PVP, for example, was highly successful people together from across the North West, in providing 16 – 19-year-olds, ethnic min- helped to foster a sense of regional pride and orities, people with special needs and the to develop a coherent North West identity. retired with the opportunity to access training For one of the co-ordinators involved with and employment experience. Another key Passport 2K, this was evident at a practical impact was the provision of new opportunities level with young people from Manchester for gaining qualifications and employment. and Liverpool working together. The Let’s The training provided as part of the PVP Celebrate project also helped to improve inter- enabled 2134 individuals to gain one of the action across racial divides, with anecdotal two qualifications offered as part of the evidence suggesting that there were more project. A total of 160 individuals were non-Asians attending the (project-assisted) recorded as having gained employment after Mela events than in previous years. taking part. The interviewees also highlighted It is also clear that the Legacy Programme a number of examples of positive ‘softer’ had a range of positive effects on the organis- impacts on individuals. A range of feedback ations involved in its planning and delivery. from participants, youth workers and activity Let’s Celebrate enhanced the capacity of co-ordinators suggests that the Passport 2K many of the community organisations it project raised the confidence and self-esteem worked with and helped several events to of participants. Relevant interviewees also gain continuing funding. Involvement in the felt that the PVP and Let’s Celebrate projects programme also allowed delivery organis- had helped to raise the aspirations of partici- ations to increase their knowledge base and pants and had given them increased opportu- contacts. For example, the involvement of nities for the future. the Manchester Digital Development Agency The Legacy Programme also had a positive (MDDA) in the Curriculum Pack project impact on local businesses. The outcomes of enabled this organisation to gain useful the Prosperity project included increased insights into how animation can be used to business access to on-line services, electronic make educational websites more accessible
‘EVENT-THEMED’ REGENERATION 1137
and engaging. Involvement in the project also has ceased. Healthier Communities part-
helped MDDA to establish useful industry funded a HLC co-ordinator to support the
connections that they are still using. The role development of HLCs in Liverpool. More
of Arts Council England—North West HLCs consequently met and passed the UK
(ACENW) in Let’s Celebrate provided this government’s ‘New Opportunities Fund’
organisation with an increased understanding criteria and are now providing services to
of the position of the community and celebra- communities as a result. Similarly, Passport
tory arts sector in the region. 2K has left a positive legacy for some commu-
Another important impact of the Legacy nities. Of the 16 areas which ran local activity
Programme was its effects on the communities programmes, 10 have been incorporated into
engaged by its projects. In some of the Pass- mainstream provision and remain in oper-
port 2K areas, local police recorded a ation. Likewise, four of the regional events
decline in reports of youth nuisance during developed as part of the project are now
the time activities were running. Likewise, a permanent fixtures within local service
Passport 2K project run in Cumbria enabled delivery.
young people in deprived and rurally isolated Some projects developed networks and
communities to access a range of opportu- partnerships that are still operating; providing
nities. It also succeeded in getting adults further evidence of sustainability. The best
involved to act as volunteer mentors to example is the North West Business Club,
support the young people participating. Let’s originally established as part of the Prosperity
Celebrate also highlights how the Programme project, but which continues to grow today.
succeeded in having an impact at the commu- Currently the club has over 7000 business
nity level, in this case principally through members ranging from SMEs through to
facilitating community input into cultural large multinationals. Likewise, Healthier
events. One example was the South Manche- Communities established a partnership of
ster Mela. Let’s Celebrate was important in health, sport and learning representatives in
establishing a new steering group for this Cumbria and this continues to operate suc-
event which was more representative of the cessfully. The Healthier Communities
community and which stimulated more project also set up a regional forum for local
public interest. Other notable instances of pro- groups concerned with provision for the
jects that benefited the wider community were elderly which still exists to enable local
the PVP and Passport 2K which encouraged offices to work together on a regional basis.
further community and voluntary work Some of the projects have left tools which
among those individuals benefiting from par- can still be used and which can be used in
ticipation. Healthier Communities assisted the future. Alongside the skills and qualifica-
the establishment of a number of Healthy tions of participants, the PVP leaves the
Living Centres (HLCs) in Liverpool. These tangible legacy of two accredited courses for
centres complement existing health provision event and sports volunteering. Healthier Com-
and aim to reduce health inequalities in munities helped to establish a searchable data-
deprived areas. base so that doctors can refer patients to sport
and leisure opportunities. The database is
widely used and an external agency has
Sustainability of the Programme
taken on board responsibility for its upkeep.
All SRB-CF-funded projects are supposed to There are instances where projects have
deliver sustainable impacts and are required been less successful in building a lasting
to produce a ‘forward strategy’ to promote legacy. Those involved with the Curriculum
their longevity. Encouragingly, four of the Pack and Let’s Celebrate felt that opportu-
seven projects that were supported by the nities to build a more durable legacy were
Legacy Programme are still continuing to missed. Interviewees associated with the Cur-
deliver even though their SRB CF funding riculum Pack felt that there needed to be a1138 ANDREW SMITH AND TIM FOX
better resourced and more clearly thought out qualifications. Moreover, consideration of
continuation strategy. This might have the project-level evaluations reveals that
involved better use of skills developed and there are some obvious successes amongst
lessons learned as the basis for future the projects in terms of promoting sustainable
web-based e-learning provision in similar impacts. Examples of individual participation
educational contexts. Thus, whilst these pro- leading to further positive engagement are
jects did achieve some degree of sustainabi- particularly evident with respect to the PVP
lity, there is a sense that their legacy overall and Passport 2K projects. For example, the
is questionable. PVP developed a database of volunteers that
Reflecting the concerns expressed in the lit- has already been used to provide a pool of vol-
erature review, it seems that the added tem- unteers for other sports and community
poral dimension introduced by having an events, including the London Triathlon.
event as the keystone of the regeneration Looking at the Legacy Programme overall,
scheme has also compromised the Legacy the picture in respect of sustainability is some-
Programme’s sustainability. Despite the Pro- what mixed. There are a range of instances
gramme’s life officially running from 1999 where projects have left a positive legacy,
to 2004, many interviewees doubted whether but there is also a feeling that opportunities
enough emphasis was placed on project for enhancing sustainability were sometimes
activity after the Games had taken place (in missed. The view of many of those inter-
2002). The perception was that much of the viewed was that more attention should have
delivery was undertaken before the Common- been devoted to forward strategies and ensur-
wealth Games, with levels of interest and ing durable effects, particularly in the post-
impact consequently dropping off soon after event period.
the Games had finished. The majority of
outputs occurred prior to the Games and this
Management Arrangements
has negative implications for the sustainabil-
ity of the Legacy Programme. There is also As noted previously, the regeneration legacy of
evidence that the post-event period was neg- an event is often dependent on management
lected at the institutional level. The frequency arrangements. Having a regional chair was
of Board meetings dwindled after the Games seen as a positive aspect of the Legacy Pro-
and attendance also reduced significantly. gramme, but several problems were also
Again, interviewees viewed this negatively, noted by stakeholders. Several interviewees
as this was when legacy issues were most thought that the Legacy Programme Board
pertinent. About 75 per cent of the staff was unsure of its exact role and it was felt
employed by the agency who organised the that meetings tended to focus on issues such
Commonwealth Games event (M2002) left as SRB outputs and spend. Interviewees
soon after it had finished; leaving few individ- thought that the Board’s knowledge and influ-
uals to champion the legacy cause during this ence could have been used to greater effect if
key time. This, plus the premature departure their agenda had been more strategic. The
of the Legacy Programme’s co-ordinator Legacy Programme also lacked a durable
after the Games, meant that the programme delivery mechanism, with arrangements chan-
underperformed during its post-event life ging several times during its lifespan. Although
(2002– 04). as Accountable Body, the City Council main-
Although outputs and spend from the tained ultimate responsibility throughout, lea-
Legacy Programme tailed off after the dership of the Programme was passed from
Games, this alone does not necessarily mean Enterprise plc, the original Managing Agent,
that the long-term effects of the projects are back to the Council, who then appointed a
insubstantial. Many of the outputs achieved management team to co-ordinate the pro-
will leave a sustainable legacy, particularly gramme. These changes resulted in disjointed
where individuals gained employment and management arrangements and caused theYou can also read
