GAJAH NUMBER 37 Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group 2012
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GAJAH
NUMBER 37
2012
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Number 37 (2012)
The journal is intended as a medium of communication on issues that concern the management and
conservation of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) both in the wild and in captivity. It is a means by
which members of the AsESG and others can communicate their experiences, ideas and perceptions
freely, so that the conservation of Asian elephants can benefit. All articles published in Gajah reflect
the individual views of the authors and not necessarily that of the editorial board or the AsESG. The
copyright of each article remains with the author(s).
Editor
Jayantha Jayewardene
Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust
615/32 Rajagiriya Gardens
Nawala Road, Rajagiriya
Sri Lanka
romalijj@eureka.lk
Editorial Board
Dr. Richard Barnes Dr. Prithiviraj Fernando
Centre for Community Health Centre for Conservation and Research
Division of Academic General Pediatrics 35 Gunasekara Gardens
9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0927 Nawala Road
La Jolla, CA 92093-0927 Rajagiriya
USA Sri Lanka
e-mail: rfwbarnes@znet.com e-mail: pruthu62@gmail.com
Dr. Jennifer Pastorini Heidi Riddle
Centre for Conservation and Research Riddles Elephant & Wildlife Sanctuary
35 Gunasekara Gardens P.O.Box 715
Nawala Road, Rajagiriya Greenbrier, Arkansas 72058
Sri Lanka USA
e-mail: jenny@aim.uzh.ch e-mail: gajah@windstream.net
Dr. Alex Rübel Dr. Arnold Sitompul
Direktor Zoo Zürich Conservation Science Initiative
Zürichbergstrasse 221 Jl. Setia Budi Pasar 2
CH - 8044 Zürich Komp. Insan Cita Griya Blok CC No 5
Switzerland Medan, 20131
e-mail: alex.ruebel@zoo.ch Indonesia
e-mail:asitompu@forwild.umass.edu
GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Number 37 (2012)
This publication of Gajah was financed by the
International Elephant Foundation
Editorial Note
Articles published in Gajah may be used, distributed and reproduced in any medium, provided the
article is properly cited.
Gajah will be published as both a hard copy and an on-line version accessible from the AsESG web
site (www.asesg.org/gajah.htm). If you would like to be informed when a new issue comes out, please
provide your e-mail address. If you would like to have a hardcopy, please send a request with your
name and postal address by e-mail to or to:
Jayantha Jayewardene
615/32 Rajagiriya Gardens
Nawala Road, Rajagiriya
Sri Lanka
Cover: Elephants near the Wasgomuwa National Park (Sri Lanka)
Photo by Prithiviraj Fernando
Layout and formatting by Dr. Jennifer Pastorini
Printed at E & S Prints Solutions, Rathmalana
Instructions for Contributors
Gajah welcomes articles related to Asian elephants, including their conservation, management, and
research, and those of general interest such as cultural or religious associations. Manuscripts may
present research findings, opinions, commentaries, anecdotal accounts, reviews etc. but should not be
mainly promotional.
All articles will be reviewed by the editorial board of Gajah and may also be sent to outside reviewers.
Word limits for submitted articles are for the entire article (title, authors, abstract, text, tables, figure
legends, acknowledgements and references).
Correspondence: Readers are encouraged to submit comments, opinions and criticisms of articles
published in Gajah. Such correspondence should be a maximum of 400 words, and will be edited and
published at the discretion of the editorial board.
News and Briefs: Manuscripts on anecdotal accounts and commentaries on any aspect of Asian
elephants, information about organizations, and workshop or symposium reports with a maximum of
1000 words are accepted for the “News and Briefs” section.
Research papers: Manuscripts reporting original research with a maximum of 5000 words are
accepted for the “Research Article” section. They should also include an abstract (100 words max.).
Shorter manuscipts (2000 words max.) will be published as a “Short Communication” (no abstract).
Tables and figures should be kept to a minimum. Legends should be typed separately (not incorporated
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(Fig. 2) and (Table 4). Include tables and line drawings in the MS WORD document you submit.
In addition, all figures must be provided as separate files in JPEG or TIFF format. The lettering on
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References should be indicated in the text by the surnames(s) of the author(s) with the year of
publication as in this example: (Baskaran & Desai 1996; Rajapaksha et al. 2004)
If the name forms part of the text: Sukumar (1989) demonstrated that...
Avoid if possible, citing references which are hard to access (e.g. reports, unpublished theses). Format
citations in the ‘References’ section as in the following examples, writing out journal titles in full.
Baskaran N & Desai AA (1996) Ranging behavior of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in the Nilgiri biosphere
reserve, South India. Gajah 15: 41-57.
Olivier RCD (1978) On the Ecology of the Asian Elephant. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
Rajapaksha RC, Mendis GUSP & Wijesinghe CG (2004) Management of Pinnawela elephants in musth period. In:
Endangered Elephants, Past Present and Future. Jayewardene J (ed) Biodiversity & Elephant Conservation Trust,
Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 182-183.
Sukumar R (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Manuscripts should be submitted by e-mail to the editor . Submission of an
article to Gajah is taken to indicate that ethical standards of scientific publication have been followed,
including obtaining concurrence of all co-authors. Authors are encouraged to read an article such as:
Benos et al. (2005) Ethics and scientific publication. Advances in Physiology Education 29: 59-74.
Deadline for submission of manuscripts for the next issue of Gajah is 31. May 2013.
GAJAH
NUMBER 37
2012
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Contents Gajah 37 (2012)
Editorial 1-2
Prithiviraj Fernando
Visitor Survey of the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage, Sri Lanka 3-10
W. G. N. B. P. Dayanada & Devaka K. Weerakoon
Use of Tame Elephants to Find, Immobilize, and Collar Wild Elephants in a Sumatran Rainforest 11-15
Arnold F. Sitompul, Wisnu Wardana, Curtice R. Griffin, Todd K. Fuller & Nazarudin
Religious Use of Elephants in Ancient Sri Lanka 16-21
Dhanesh Wisumperuma
Developing a Practical and Reliable Protocol to Assess the Internal Parasites of Asian Elephants 22-26
Kasun S. Abeysinghe, A. N. F. Perera & Prithiviraj Fernando
Veterinary Care and Breeding of Elephants in Nepal 27-30
Kamal P. Gairhe
Tuberculosis in Elephants: Assessing Risks Versus Resources 31-33
Heidi S. Riddle, David S. Miller & Dennis L. Schmitt
Increasing Trend of Human Elephant Conflict in Golaghat District, Assam, India: Issues and Concerns 34-37
Jyoti P. Das, Bibhuti P. Lahkar & Bibhab K. Talukdar
Human Elephant Conflict and the Role of Print Media 38-41
Marianne de Nazareth
Surgical Management of Temporal Bursitis in a Captive Asian Elephant 42-44
Indramani Nath, Subharaj Samantara, Jacob V. Cheeran, Ashoka Dangolla & Susen Kumar Panda
Neurological Loose Motions in a 45 Year Old Captive Tusker in Sri Lanka 45
Ashoka Dangolla
Case Studies of Tranquilizing Captive Elephants in Rampage in Sri Lanka 46
Manjula Jayasinghe, Ranjith Bandara & Ashoka Dangolla
Forum Konservasi Gajah Indonesia (Indonesian Elephant Conservation Forum) 47-48
Wahdi Azmi
Recent Publications on Asian Elephants 49-64
News Briefs 65-74
Editorial Gajah 37 (2012) 1-2
Elephants in Captivity: Happy Ambassadors or Tortured Curiosities?
Prithiviraj Fernando (Member Editorial Board)
E-mail: pruthu62@gmail.com
Should elephants be kept in captivity? This really Would an elephant transfer its group allegiance
is a moot point. With one fourth to one third of to the humans around it? What is the implication
the global Asian elephant population in captivity, here for the ‘hands off’ or ‘protected contact’
captive elephants are a fact. While some captures increasingly advocated by western zoos where
from the wild still occur, greater interest and the keepers do not come into free contact with
success in breeding captive elephants may lead elephants as they used to?
to a sustainable domesticated population in the
future. Therefore the more relevant question is Elephants are big potentially dangerous animals.
how should we manage elephants that are in In traditional elephant management in Asia an
captivity? elephant is ‘broken’ and subjugated, usually
through very cruel methods so that it would
Elephants especially females are group living never challenge the keeper. In the case of
animals with a network of strong social working animals such as those used in logging
relationships. Males are largely solitary, in Laos or Myanmar a long period of training
although they may also have a network of and close contact with the mahout follows. This
social relationships with other males but with ensures a strong bond between man and elephant
weaker bonds than among females. Obviously and a great degree of control. At the ‘Elephant
it is better if elephants can be kept as a group, Festival’ in Laos, people mingle freely with these
allowing relatively free range and social contact elephants in apparent safety (Fig. 1). In contrast,
with each other. However, elephants have home many of the elephants parading in religious-
ranges hundreds of km2 in extent and social cultural pageants in Sri Lanka and India who
networks of hundreds of individuals. How would walk the roads amongst tens of thousands of
this compare with the few acres of ranging and people have all four legs chained together so
a handful of companions that can be provided that they can only shuffle along. They are only a
under the very best of captive management? Even jab away from the pointed ankus of the mahout,
such a scenario is possible at less than a handful as their training is insufficient to provide a high
of facilities around the world. The vast majority degree of trust and control.
of the 10,000-15,000 or so captive elephants will
continue their lives in solitary confinement or be
managed in isolation till the end of their days.
Given the sexually dimorphic social organization
among elephants, where an elephant is going to
be kept as a single-animal is it better to keep a
male rather than a female? Would a male that is
solitary by nature adjust better to living without
interaction with its kind? On the other hand, dogs
make ‘better’ pets than cats because the dog is
a social animal. A single dog is not so single
because it bonds with the owner who becomes
part of the ‘pack’, hence the moniker ‘man’s best Figure 1. Logging elephants at the ‘Elephant
friend’. Is there a parallel here with an elephant? Festival’ in Paklay (Laos).
1
the moment a flashlight is shined on them, as
they know what follows. Man and elephant get
locked into a vicious cycle of escalating conflict
and raiding, leading to the annual death of 250
elephants and 70 humans in Sri Lanka alone. On
the other hand there used to be numbers of these
wild elephant bulls standing along an electric
fence in Udawalawe National Park being hand
fed by people (Fig. 3). They were so docile that
some people went so far as to stroking their
trunks and petting them. It seems an elephant too
reciprocates to love with love and hate with hate.
Figure 2. Burma, a well trained elephant at Perhaps the most important role of captive
Auckland Zoo, New Zealand. elephants is as ambassadors for their wild
brethren. The sparkle in the eye of a little
Obviously any animal which is potentially girl or boy who meets a ‘friendly’ elephant
dangerous and living amongst humans, whether kindles a sense of wonderment that will remain
dog or elephant, would have a greater degree throughout life and foster love for elephant kind.
of freedom and a better life if it is well trained, Perhaps such feelings will translate to a desire
hence providing a high degree of confidence that to protect and conserve elephants in the future.
it will not attack a human at the drop of a hat. Is Unfortunately most or many of the elephants in
it then better to establish ‘control’ by even cruel captivity today are not trained well or socialized
means so that the elephant leads a ‘better’ life to humans. Hence not only do they have to suffer
afterwards with close contact with humans rather through their lives in chains and pain but also
than being always held in mistrust and at arm’s will have a diminished ambassadorial role. Given
length in protective contact? Or is it possible to be that elephants in captivity are a fact, should we
in free and close contact with an elephant through explore better and kinder ways of training them?
training by building trust and a system of reward Training of dogs and horses etc. has come a
and kindness, the safety being provided through long way since people thought fear is the key
understanding the nuances of its ‘body language’ to control. Can we use some of the newer more
as Andrew Cooers of the Auckland Zoo in New humane techniques in the case of elephants? Or
Zealand seems to think and practice with his should we stick our head in the sand in utopian
ward ‘Burma’ a female Asian elephant? Burma hope of a day without captive elephants?
plays and moves around with kids and keepers
unfettered and in free contact. She responds to
commands very well and seems to be a ‘happy’
elephant (Fig. 2).
Take the case of wild male bull elephants in
Sri Lanka. In general wild bulls tend to raid
crops much more than female groups. Farmers
and authorities throw foot long firecrackers at
them and shoot them with muzzle loaders and
buckshot in an endeavour to protect crops. The
elephants respond to such confrontational crop
protection by becoming more aggressive. Some Figure 3. Wild elephant being fed at the fence
elephant bulls charge with intent to destroy, along the Udawalawe National Park (Sri Lanka).
2
Research Article Gajah 37 (2012) 3-10
Visitor Survey of the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage, Sri Lanka
W. G. N. B. P. Dayanada and Devaka K. Weerakoon*
Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: devakaw@gmail.com
Abstract. Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage (PEO) is a captive elephant based recreation
facility. The objective of this study was to gather baseline information for a visitor
management plan through a questionnaire survey. The mean monthly number of visitors
was 43,725, of which 72% were Sri Lankans. Peak visitation occurred in August and
the lowest in November. More than 90% visited as groups. Most (91%) arrived by road.
Observing juvenile elephants being bottle-fed was the most attractive experience. Almost
all visitors indicated a desire to revisit, but only around 50% did. Nearly 80% were
dissatisfied with the facilities provided. Safe structures for viewing elephants, information
about elephants and better guidance to the facility, affordable restaurants and safe parking
are suggested to enhance visitor experience.
Introduction Oya), with the aim of allowing the elephants
free movement and association during the day,
The Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage (PEO) was encouraging the development of a herd structure.
established in 1975 by the Department of Wildlife They are provided access to the river twice a
Conservation (Lair 1997). The facility was day, which plays an important part in their social
primarily designed to provide care and protection activity.
to baby elephants orphaned in the wild. It was
subsequently taken over by the Department of Although initially established as an ex situ
National Zoological Gardens in 1978 (DNZG facility to tend orphaned elephants, the PEO has
2000). The PEO continued to receive orphaned gradually changed its role into a world renowned
elephants till 1985 at which time the Elephant captive breeding centre, tourism destination and
Transit Home was established in Udawalawe a study site to conduct research on the biology,
National Park by the Department of Wildlife ecology and behaviour of captive elephants
Conservation to rehabilitate orphaned elephants (Tilakaratne & Santiapillai 2002). Gunathilaka
and release them back to the wild (Fernando et and Vieth (1998) demonstrated that both local
al. 2011). Despite the fact that the PEO stopped people and local establishments derive large
receiving elephants from the wild, its elephant economic benefits due to the PEO’s existence.
population has grown steadily over the years due
to the success of its breeding program that has At present the PEO is exceeding its carrying
resulted in 69 births during the last three decades capacity, especially on weekends and public
(Fernando et al. 2011). The captive breeding holidays it gets overcrowded when large
program of the PEO dates back to 1982 and the crowds visit the facility. Therefore, PEO must
first baby elephant, Sukumalee was born in 1984 give due consideration to developing a visitor
(Tilakaratne & Santiapillai 2002). It is recognized management plan to cope with growth in visitor
as one of the most successful captive breeding numbers without decreasing the quality of the
programs in Asia (Kurt & Endres 2008). visitor experience. The first step in developing
such a plan is to conduct a visitor survey to
The PEO is located in Kegalle district, identify the type of visitors that frequent the
approximately 95 km from Colombo. It was setup facility as well as their perceptions. Even though
in a 25 acre coconut land close to a river (Maha the PEO has been in existence for more than three
3
decades, only a single attempt has been made behaviour, staff performance, constraints and
previously to identify visitor perceptions (Tisdell short comings in visitor services, under different
& Bandara 2003). Considering this deficiency, scenarios such as crowded days and times versus
this study was undertaken with the objective of less crowded days and times etc.,
gathering baseline information necessary for the
formulation of a visitor management plan for the Results and discussion
PEO.
Visitor composition
Methodology
During the period 2006 to 2009 the PEO received
The study was conducted from 15 September
th
around 520,000 visitors each year (Table 1).
2009 to 20th December 2009. Visitation patterns During this period, the mean monthly number of
from 2006 to 2009 were assessed based on data visitors that arrived at the PEO was 43,725 ± 3458
collected by the PEO. (range 27,843 to 74,670), of which 72% were Sri
Lankans. During the period considered, PEO was
A questionnaire was developed to capture the visited by 30% of the tourists that arrived in Sri
visitor profile, visitor perceptions and expec- Lanka (Fig. 1). This is a considerable change from
tations. A separate questionnaire was administered what has been reported for the period 1993-2002
to PEO staff to assess their perceptions. The (Tisdell & Bandara 2003). According to their
visitor and staff questionnaires were developed study, average number of visitors that arrived
and field tested on a smaller sample of visitors at PEO per month was 39,765 of which 97.3%
and PEO staff to assess the validity of the were Sri Lankans. This indicates that both visitor
questions and modifications required. Then the numbers as well as the proportion of foreign
questionnaire was administered to a sample of visitors has increased between the two studies.
545 Sri Lankan visitors, 45 foreign visitors and
55 staff members over a period of three months. The reasons for increased number of visitors
This period included weekends, public holidays observed during 2006-2009 could have resulted
and weekdays to capture any temporal variations due to the ceasefire that was in place during 2005-
in response. The questionnaire was administered 2007, which resulted in conditions conducive
in the form of an interview survey to facilitate the for tourists, both local and foreign. Whereas,
respondents to articulate their views. For some of the study by Tisdell and Bandara (2003) was
the questions, the respondents were allowed to conducted during a period during which there
provide multiple answers so that the responses to was armed conflict within the country, which
the question could be ranked. discouraged people from travelling, especially
foreign tourists. Tourist arrivals once again
During the period of study, the PEO was visited declined in 2008 due to the reinitiating of the
once a week and observations were recorded over war. The war culminated in May 2009. This
a four hour period during each visit on visitor once again resulted in an influx of tourists to Sri
Lanka. According to projections of the Sri Lanka
Tourism Development Authority, the number of
tourists arriving in Sri Lanka is expected to reach
2.5 million per year within the next 10 years.
Therefore, if we assume the current ratio of
visitation to PEO, the number of foreign tourists
will reach 0.75 million per year and together with
Sri Lankan visitors, the number of visitors to the
PEO may exceed 1 million annually.
Figure 1. Percentage of the tourists arriving in
Sri Lanka that visited the PEO during the period When the mean monthly proportion of Sri
2006 to 2009 (SLTDA 2009). Lankan to foreign visitors is considered, the Sri
4Table 1. Number of annual visitors at the PEO.
Year Sri Lankans Foreigners Total
Number % Number %
2006 359,348 68 167,364 32 526,712
2007 431,258 76 137,136 24 568,394
2008 336,017 71 138,068 29 474,085
2009 381,597 72 148,011 28 529,608
Mean 377,055 72 147,645 28 524,700
Lankan visitors make up a higher proportion
of the visitors every month. A relatively high Figure 3. Mean monthly visitors at the PEO 2006-
representation of foreign visitors was observed in 2009. Black = Sri Lankan, grey = foreigners.
the months of January, February November and
December. In all other months foreign visitors foreign visitors to the area. The minor peak in
represented less than 25% of the visitors arriving December also coincides with school holidays.
at PEO (Fig. 2). The peak of foreign visitors probably reflects the
increase in tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka during the
Visitation pattern winter ‘tourist season’ from October to April.
When all visitors are considered together, the More than 90% of the respondents visited PEO
peak visitation to PEO occurred during August in groups. This observation is consistent with the
followed by two minor peaks in December and results of Tisdell and Bandara (2003), where 84%
March (Fig. 3). The lowest visitation occurred of the visitors surveyed came in groups. Group
in November and May. Visiting patterns of Sri size varied between 2 and 45. The commonest
Lankans follow the overall pattern observed for group sizes were 6-10 and 11-15 (Fig. 4).
PEO. However, among the foreign visitors the
peak visitation occurred in January and reached a Origin of visitors
low in June and July. Tisdell and Bandara (2003)
reported a single visitor peak in August and Sri Lankan visitors sampled came from 13 of the
September. 25 districts. The highest representation (31%)
was from Kegalle district, where the PEO is
The major visitor peak in August coincides with situated. A high number of visitors were also
school holidays and the Esala Perahera held observed from Colombo (19%), Kandy (12%),
in Kandy, which attracts both Sri Lankan and Kurunegala (8%), Gampaha (6%) and Ratnapura
(6%). These districts lie adjacent to the Kegalle
district and have high population densities and
a high proportion of people with a higher socio
economic status which makes it possible for them
to spend more time on leisure activities (Table 2).
The results of the present study are comparable
to the visitation pattern reported by Tisdell and
Bandara (2003) except for Kegalle, Kandy
and Nuwara Eliya Districts. This indicates that
there has been a slight change in the visitation
pattern of Sri Lankan tourists between the two
studies. One of the reasons for this could be the
smaller sample size used by Tisdell and Bandara
Figure 2. Portion of Sri Lankan (grey) and compared to the present study that could have
foreign (black) tourists that visit the PEO. influenced the final outcome of the study.
5The foreign visitors that responded to the
questionnaire came from three countries,
Germany (51%), Holland (25%) and United
Kingdom (24%). However, these numbers are
based on a small sample size (n=45) that may
have given a skewed representation of the foreign
visitors that come to Pinnawela. The foreign
visitors in the Tisdell and Bandara (2003) study
came from 14 countries. However, 60% of the Figure 4. Group sizes observed among the
foreign visitors in their study were from United visitors to PEO.
Kingdom, Germany and Holland. This indicates
that majority of the foreign visitors to Pinnawela private cars, motorbikes and vans while 66%
come from these three countries. Therefore, when hired buses or coaches. This indicates that more
preparing interpretation material, consideration than 90% of the people that visit PEO require
should be given to use German in addition to safe parking facilities. At present there is only
Sinhala, Tamil and English which are the three a single parking lot within the premises of PEO
main languages used in Sri Lanka. and another one maintained by the Rambukkana
Pradeshiya Sabhawa (local authority). These
Mode of arrival two parking lots can hold up to 25 cars or vans
and six tourist coaches at a given time. When
The PEO is located about 13 km from the these two parking lots are full, all others have
Colombo-Kandy road. The Colombo-Kandy to park on the roadside or parking provided by
railway line passes close to the PEO and the local households located near PEO. Parking
nearest railway station is located 3 km from on the roadside is unsafe and results in traffic
PEO. However, only 9% of visitors used the train congestion. Parking in local households is good as
to arrive at the PEO. The remaining 91% of the the surrounding community derives an economic
visitors arrived by road. Out of these, 25% used benefit. However, as it is not regulated and
Table 2. Comparison of local visitation pattern recorded during the present study with the pattern
reported by Tisdell and Bandara (2003).
District % Visitors Population % Poor households Travel distance [km]
2009a 2003b
Kegalle 31 5 823,000 9.0 12
Colombo 19 19 2,584,000 2.5 88
Kandy 12 23 1,447,000 8.3 45
Kurunegala 8 11 1,577,000 8.6 92
Gampaha 6 7 2,191,000 3.0 80
Ratnapura 6 6 1,139,000 8.5 115
Galle 6 2 1,096,000 7.9 210
Matale 5 9 504,000 9.3 76
Badulla 3 0 897,000 10.9 208
Anuradhapura 2 1 840,000 4.6 165
Matara 1 1 847,000 8.3 250
Kalutara 1 2 1,144,000 4.1 136
Hambantota 1 0 576,000 5.4 239
Nuwara Eliya 0 13 768,000 7.1 115
Puttalam 0 1 789,000 7.5 131
a
Results of the present study (n = 545); Results of Tisdell and Bandara (2003, n = 145).
b
6that would be an incentive for a person to visit
the facility again. Interestingly, more than 99%
visitors expressed willingness to revisit the
orphanage. However, the study shows that the
actual number that comes back (around 50%)
is far less than the potential, suggesting that
changes in visitor experience are needed.
Visitor experience
Even though the Asian elephant is the only
animal exhibited at PEO, it offers several
visitor experiences based on the daily routine
Figure 5. District wise distribution of Sri of elephants. These include viewing elephants
Lankans in the visitor survey. that are free in an open area, juvenile elephants
being bottle fed, elephants bathing in the river
people charge whatever they feel like charging, and elephants being herded from the free living
it leads to abuse. It could be done in a better way area to and fro for bathing. The most attractive
by the PEO introducing a licensing system that experience respondents had at the PEO was
will ensure that visitors are not ripped off while observing juvenile elephants being bottle fed
ensuring safety standards for parking. During the (88%). Next in popularity was watching baby
peak visitor months of January, March, August elephants (74%) followed by viewing elephants
and December as well as on long weekends bathing (56%). The experience that received the
parking becomes a major problem. Therefore, lowest rank was observing elephants in the open
providing safe parking facilities can be identified free living area (38%).
as a priority need for the PEO.
Even though 56% of the respondents indicated
Repeat visitation that viewing elephants bathing in the river was
a major attraction, the bathing area is located
Approximately 50% of both Sri Lankan and outside the PEO and facilities for the visitors
foreign visitors sampled were first time visitors to observe this activity are poor. Hotels and
while the remaining 50% had visited the facility boutiques located on the riverfront offer facilities
before (Fig. 6). Tisdell and Bandara (2003) at a price. Other than that, visitors have to stand
reported a repeat rate of 56% which indicates in a small congested area without any shade.
that the attractiveness of PEO has remained Further, this area is highly eroded and sloping,
unchanged between the two studies. However, therefore cannot be accessed easily, especially
other than seeing elephants, the facility does by elderly and disabled visitors. As a result the
not offer visitors any novel visitor experience majority of visitors are deprived of properly
enjoying this experience. Similarly, at the free
living elephant area also the facilities provided
for viewing are inadequate. Therefore, this is an
aspect that needs to be given due consideration
by the management.
Identified shortcomings
A majority of respondents (95%) identified the
lack of information and guidance as a major
Figure 6. Number of times a respondent has shortcoming. Other shortcomings identified
been to PEO including the current visit. included lack of proper viewing facilities to
7watch elephants bathing and in the free living Visitor satisfaction is reflected by willingness
area (78%), lack of restaurants and hotels that to pay for a certain experience. Entrance fees to
serve food at a reasonable price (73%) and the the PEO are different for Sri Lankan and foreign
inability to get closer to elephants (62%). Some visitors where, a foreign visitor has to pay 20
of the tourists give money to the mahouts who times the amount paid by a Sri Lankan visitor
in turn allow these tourists to touch elephants as (Rs. 100 ~ 1 US$). Furthermore, an additional
well as pose for pictures with the elephants. Most fee is charged from the visitors for using a camera
foreign visitors tend to do this while most Sri or video camera. However, most mobile phones
Lankan visitors cannot afford to do so therefore today are equipped with a camera that can take
express their dissatisfaction at this preferential photographs as well as video clips, but are not
treatment received by the foreign visitors. subjected to the above rule which frustrated
Therefore a formal and regulated system that many visitors to the PEO. Therefore, this rule
allows all to equally enjoy this facility without needs to be amended appropriately. Only 16%
feeling left out would be an improvement. There of the respondents expressed satisfaction for the
are many such interactive facilities offered by money they paid while a small percentage of the
foreign zoos that can be used as models and respondents (2%) were of the opinion that it was
adapted to the PEO situation. worth more than what they paid.
Many respondents (62%) identified the absence However, Tisdell and Bandara (2003) reported
of a waste management as a major problem. that 72% of the respondents indicated willingness
Furthermore, inadequacy of toilet and drinking to pay more than what they paid. This difference
water facilities (42%) and lack of affordable in attitude can be attributed to the fact that
hotels and restaurants inside the PEO (73%) entrance fees were much lower during their
were identified as major issues. The inadequacy study period (Sri Lankan visitors had to pay Rs.
of parking facilities (12%) and poor quality of 25 (~ US$ 0.30) while foreign visitors had to
the access road to PEO (2%) were the other pay Rs. 200 (~ US$ 2.50). They further reported
deficiencies identified (respondents were allowed average willingness to pay values of Rs. 55 (~
to provide multiple answers for this question). US$ 0.70) and Rs. 739 (~ US$ 9.20) respectively
for Sri Lankan and foreign visitors. The current
Value of experience rates being charged are much higher than the
willingness to pay values expressed by visitors in
The majority of respondents (80%) were of the the Tisdell and Bandara (2003) study. Therefore,
opinion that they did not get their money’s worth this indicates that visitor attitudes have changed
at PEO. This can be ascribed to the shortcomings markedly over a period of four years with revision
identified above. Two thirds of the respondents of the entrance fee. Willingness to pay is defined
identified improving viewing facilities at the by the value people attribute to a certain product.
bathing location (63%) and free ranging elephant Therefore, the management has two options,
exhibit (63%) as a means of improving visitor either to decrease the entrance fee or improve
satisfaction. More than half the respondents the quality of the visitor experiences and thereby
(58%) felt that the entrance fee to PEO should increase the value of the product offered.
be lowered for the general public and school
children and 54% felt that charges for cameras Conservation
and video camera use should be removed. The
other suggestions for improving the PEO by the The PEO is an ex situ conservation facility
visitors included, increasing viewing ability of the established for a globally threatened species, the
bathing area and free ranging area, introducing Asian elephant. This study shows that the PEO,
awareness campaigns for school children (46%) even though it attracts approximately 0.5 million
and establishing affordable restaurants within the visitors annually, has failed to make an impact
PEO (26%). in terms of conservation education or providing
8a valuable visitor experience which is expected time. However, both of these opinions may have
of such a facility. A major objective of an ex situ developed among the visitors due to the lack of
facility should be to create awareness among understanding among the visitors about the food
visitors of their subject and provide an opportunity requirement of elephants as well as their feeding
for the visitor to learn about conservation while behaviour. This also shows the need for creating
enjoying the exhibits. PEO does not provide awareness among the visitors about elephants
any educational programs focused at improving that can dispel erroneous perceptions they may
visitor awareness on elephants or conservation entertain about Asian elephants.
issues even though there are several “Educational
Officers” at the PEO. Furthermore, the visitors Some of the respondents (39%) expressed
are not given any guidance about the layout of the displeasure at the excessive force used by
facility. Only 10% of the respondents stated that mahouts to control elephants at times. The level
their knowledge on Asian elephants improved of protection afforded to the elephants were also
after visiting PEO. Tisdell and Bandara (2003) felt to be low (25%) as the elephants were not
reported that 17.3% of the respondents felt that looked after closely while in the bathing area or
their visit to PEO contributed to enhancing their the free ranging area by mahouts. Finally, 12%
knowledge on elephants. In the intervening years of the respondents felt that elephants do not
this aspect appears to have degraded even further. have sufficient water for bathing and 7% has
stated that elephants do not have sufficient water
Tisdell and Bandara, (2003) also reported that to drink when they are in the open grassland
93% of respondents expressed the desire to area. While some of these matters impinge on
obtain more information on Asian Elephants animal management at the facility and should
during their visit. The majority of visitors in be decided on technical knowledge rather than
our study (93%) stated that a visitor centre visitor perception, the results show that visitors
would be the most useful and effective method see the PEO in a negative manner due to them.
of disseminating information. Brochures (74%) Therefore these perceptions should be addressed
and interpretation sign boards (20%) placed and any real issues corrected and others managed
in special areas such as bottle feeding and free through visitor awareness.
ranging areas were the most preferred educational
material by visitors. Other communication tools Perceptions of the staff members
identified by visitors included posters (47%) and
books (38%). Therefore, there is a great need to The success of any tourism destination also lies
develop an educational program at the PEO. This with the efficiency and courtesy of the staff, which
can be best served by establishing a visitor centre in turn depends on staff satisfaction. All permanent
and an interpretation plan. staff members (n=115) expressed satisfaction
with their job and working conditions. However,
Visitor perceptions of animal care majority of the staff members (86%) identified
the need for training related to elephants for them
The PEO is a major tourist destination in Sri to perform their duties efficiently. Another group
Lanka. Therefore, the tourist’s perception on of respondents (49%) stated that they should be
how animals are being kept there is important. provided adequate opportunities to pursue higher
Many tourists (88%) were of the view that adult education in related areas so that they will be
elephants at PEO did not receive sufficient food, better equipped to conduct their duties. Another
since the elephants were constantly begging for training need identified was further education in
food from the visitors and were trying to find administration and management (42%).
food on the side of the road on their way to the
bathing area or in the free ranging area. Further, Many of the staff members (80%) identified
22% of the visitors were of the view that the baby unregulated disposal of garbage by the visitors
elephants do not get enough milk as they kept as a major problem to maintain cleanliness of the
on begging for more milk during bottle feeding facility. Another problem identified was visitors
9coming too close to elephants and attempting to sufficient consideration by the PEO management.
touch elephants or pose for photographs with Therefore, it is hoped that the management
elephants, which was considered stressful to the of the PEO will pay more attention to the
elephants as well as to undermine visitor safety recommendations made by this study as well
(62%). Staff members (29%) also stated that some as previous studies, made with the objective of
of the visitors make a lot of noise and behave in converting the PEO to one of the leading Asian
an unruly manner disturbing the elephants. elephant exhibits in the world.
Improvements suggested by staff members References
included introduction of a education program
for visitors to increase their awareness on Asian DNZG (2000) Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage.
elephants (73%), the need to improve parking Department of National Zoological Gardens,
facilities and a traffic management plan (20%). Dehiwala, Sri Lanka.
Conclusions and recommendations Fernando P, Jayewardene J, Prasad T, Hendavi-
tharana W & Pastorini J (2011) Current status of
Based on the projected development in the tourism Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. Gajah 35: 93-103.
sector and establishment of a Zoological Garden
at Pinnawela, the number of visitors to the PEO Gunathilaka HM & Vieth GR (1998) An
is likely to double by 2015. Even at present the assessment of scenic value of Sri Lankan
PEO is exceeding its carrying capacity especially elephants: The case of Pinnawala Orphanage. Sri
when large crowds visit the facility on weekends Lanka Journal of Social Science 21: 37-51.
and public holidays. Therefore, managing the
increase in visitors will be a major challenge. Kurt F & Endres J (2008) Some remarks on the
success of artificial insemination in elephants.
The visitor facilities at the PEO have many Gajah 29: 39-40.
inadequacies and if these are not addressed soon
the value of the PEO as a tourist destination will Lair R (1997) Gone Astray: The Care and
go down. By improving visitor facilities the PEO Management of the Asian Elephant in
can be converted to a high quality tourist product Domesticity. FAO, RAP Publications, Thailand.
that can attract more tourists as well as increase
the number of repeat tourists to the site. These Rajaratne AAJ & Walker B (2001) The
improvements include; development of a visitor Elephant Orphanage (Pinnawala): a proposal for
management plan for the PEO to enhance the development. Gajah 20: 20-29.
carrying capacity; providing better guidance to
visitors through strategically placed sign boards SLTDA (2009) Annual Statistical Report of the Sri
educating them on “Do’s and Do not’s” while at Lanka Tourism. Sri Lanka Tourism Development
the site, site plan and daily routine; providing Authority, Colombo.
safe and comfortable viewing platforms near
the elephant bathing area and free ranging area Tilakaratne N & Santiapillai C (2002) The status
equipped with special access to both disabled of domesticated elephants at the Pinnawala
and elderly people; establishing affordable Elephant Orphanage, Sri Lanka. Gajah 21: 41-
restaurant(s) on site especially aimed at the Sri 52.
Lankan visitors; establishing a well designed
visitor center at the orphanage with exhibits Tisdell C & Bandara R (2003) Visitors reaction
and other awareness material such as brochures, to Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage in Sri
posters and booklets. Lanka: A survey. Economics, Ecology and the
Environment, Working Paper No. 82. School
A similar set of actions were proposed by of Economics, The University of Queensland,
Rajaratne and Walker (2001) but was not given Australia.
10Research Article Gajah 37 (2012) 11-15
Use of Tame Elephants to Find, Immobilize, and Collar
Wild Elephants in a Sumatran Rainforest
Arnold F. Sitompul1*, Wisnu Wardana2, Curtice R. Griffin3, Todd K. Fuller3 and Nazarudin4
1
Conservation Science Initiative, Jakarta, Indonesia
2
Departments of Animal Health, Sawahlunto Zoo, West Sumatra, Indonesia
3
Department Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA
4
Way Kambas National Park, Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, Lampung, Indonesia
*Corresponding author’s email: asitompul@hotmail.com
Abstract. Despite the importance of telemetry data for developing effective conservation
strategies for many endangered species, successful capture and radio-collaring of wild
Asian elephants in tropical rainforests is difficult due to low elephant population density
and dense habitats. Here we describe the advantages of using tame elephants to search for
wild elephants and helping in their immobilization in Sumatra, Indonesia.
Introduction Here we report the use of tame elephants to
search for and help immobilize wild elephants
In many areas of Africa and South Asia where for attachment of telemetry collars in the lowland
elephants live in open semi-arid savannah tropical rainforest habitat of Sumatra.
habitats, researchers immobilize study elephants
from helicopters, vehicles, or on foot (Kock et Study area
al. 1993; Thouless 1996; Osofsky 1997; Horne et
al. 2001; Williams et al. 2001). Open areas with The two study locations lie in northern Bengkulu
long-range visibility provide optimum conditions Province on the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
for researchers to identify target animals and The Seblat Elephant Conservation Center (SECC)
increase darting success rate. In high-density located at Lat 3.09ºS and Long 101.71ºE and the
elephant areas such as Dzanga-Ndoki National Air Ipuh ex-logging concession at Lat 2.89ºS
Park, Central Africa, researchers also search for and Long 101.51ºE, 30 km north of the SECC.
forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) on foot and The annual rainfall in the study area typically
dart them from the ground (Blake et al. 2001). exceeds 3000 mm and the mean elevation is
This situation, however, is uncommon in Asian less than 50 m above sea level, though there is
rainforest habitat where wild elephant densities some hilly terrain. The natural cover consists of
are low, and dense vegetation, closed canopy regenerating forests, following selective logging
cover, and sometimes hilly terrain often limits operations in the late 1980s. Extensive palm oil
researchers’ ability to find animals and get close plantations, small-scale agricultural areas and
enough to successfully deliver immobilizing human settlements comprise the majority of non-
drugs. Historically, wild Asian elephants forested lands surrounding both areas.
(Elephas maximus) intended for domestic use
were captured singly in pit traps and, with the use Although the SECC is designated a protected
of domestic elephants, en mass in stockades or, area, the Air Ipuh concession is not protected and
for young animals, by noosing (Sukumar 1989). there is much human encroachment. Twenty-
Notably, no published radio telemetry studies three captured elephants are kept at the SECC
describe methods for capturing Asian elephants as part of the government’s human-elephant
(e.g. Stüwe et al. 1998; Fernando & Lande 2000; conflict mitigation program, and an additional
Venkataraman et al. 2005; Campos-Arceiz et al. 40-60 wild elephants are believed to occur on
2008; Fernando et al. 2008). the SECC. With extensive agriculture and human
11settlements surrounding much of the SECC, ranger with the dart gun, and the researcher.
there is high human-elephant conflict in the area. Considering the high potential for injury to
tame elephants and personnel, it is critical that
Use of tame elephants to locate wild elephants mahouts are experienced and able to maintain
control of their tame elephants when confronted
In the 1980s, the policy of the Indonesian by aggressive wild elephants. Team members
Government was to capture “problem elephants” must also remain calm and maintain their balance
and hold them at Elephant Training Centers on top of elephants; if they fall off, there is a high
(ETCs) (Santiapillai & Ramono 1993; Lair 1997). likelihood that a wild elephant will attack them.
The original purposes of ETCs were to reduce
human-elephant conflicts, increase ecotourism Several immobilization drugs are typically used
activities and use tame elephants to patrol with elephants in Africa (etorphine HCl with
protected areas (McNeely 1978; Lair 1997). Most hyaluronidase [M99]; Kock et al. 1992; Osofsky
of the ETCs in Sumatra are located near protected 1997) and in India (etorphine HCl with ACP
elephant habitat such as national parks, wildlife [Immobilon LA®]; Cheeran 2008). However,
sanctuaries or nature reserves. The formerly wild these drugs typically cause the elephant to fall
elephants held at an ETC are trained by mahouts down, preventing a “standing sedation” (Fowler
for regular daily activities (e.g. drinking, feeding, et al. 2000). Considering the risks of injury to
bathing) and periodic health care checks. Some sedated elephants posed by hilly terrain and close
of the adult tamed elephants at ETCs that are proximity of rivers in our study area, we used the
well controlled by mahouts can be used to search standing sedation technique.
for wild elephants, providing several advantages
for darting wild elephants in rainforest. First, Anesthetizing wild elephants
tame elephants can help researchers safely cover
larger areas of forest and increase researcher Elephants were darted from behind in the
visibility when searching for wild elephants. posterior part of dorsal ilium to avoid potential
Second, wild elephants are less wary of persons injury to internal organs. Our goal was to conduct
riding an elephant versus one walking, thereby a standing sedation in which the elephant still
facilitating closer approach of wild elephants by stands after initial immobilization (Fowler et al.
researchers. Lastly, more field supplies used in 2000) to avoid respiratory depression that may
darting and collaring can be brought into the field result from the elephant laying on its side or
on elephant back. sternum. Hypoxemia is a significant risk factor
for sternally-recumbent immobilized elephants
Wild elephants are commonly found by following (Harthoorn 1973; Honeyman et al. 1992), and it
their tracks in the forest or other sign of their is near impossible to move an elephant from a
recent occurrence (e.g. fresh dung, broken/ sternal to a lateral position once fully sedated and
eaten vegetation). Information from local people recumbent on the forest floor because of dense
around elephant habitat (such as from human- trees. Standing sedation also reduces the risk of
elephant conflict incidents) can also be useful for drowning if a darted elephant runs into a river.
locating wild elephants. Despite these sources of
information, searching for wild elephants can be When first darted, we used 7 ml xylazine HCl
extensive and can last several days. (Rompun®, 100 mg/ml; Hsu 1981) in a dart
fired from a long-range tranquilizer gun or a jab
Locating wild elephants for immobilization stick. First signs of immobilization of elephants
by xylazine usually involve a combination of
The use of 3-4 adult tame elephants, either slow movement or stopping, snoring, mild
male or female, is optimum for immobilizing head weaving, and for bull elephants, penis
wild elephants. Typically, there are 6-7 people relaxation (Cheeran 2008). Of two elephants
involved in the darting and collaring, including we successfully darted, one was standing and
a mahout for each elephant, a veterinarian, a the other leaning against a tree. To prevent the
12immobilized elephant from falling to the ground, against the attacking elephant. The attacks of this
a tame elephant was positioned to one side of single wild elephant continued for upwards of
the wild elephant (Fig. 1). If there was a risk 10 min before the combined efforts of the three
of falling in the other direction, a second tame tame elephants and shouting by the team stopped
elephant could be positioned on the other side, the attacks and the wild elephant retreated. No
or an adjacent tree used for added support. To attempts were made to dart this elephant.
reduce the risk of attack from other elephants in
the vicinity, the other tame elephants were used Within 15 min, another lone adult female was
to guard team members. encountered. We approached from behind within
20 m without her turning to observe our approach.
Once the position of the standing wild A dart was fired, she trumpeted and ran away, and
elephant was secured with tame elephants, the we did not pursue her for approximately 10-15
veterinarian confirmed whether the elephant was min. We followed her trail (trampled vegetation)
fully immobilized (i.e. unable to move its trunk but encountered several other elephants. Within
or legs). If not, then a second sedative of 4 ml 30 min, we re-sighted her within 200 m of the
ketamine HCl (100 mg/ml) was administered darting site. She was standing, but immobilized.
intra muscular using local injection (Jessup et al.
1983). The third elephant encountered for collaring in
April 2008 was an adult female with a ~2-year-
Case studies of darting and capture from old calf. Similar to the second elephant, we
elephant back approached from behind to within 20 m without
her turning. A dart was fired; she trumpeted and
We encountered and approached four wild ran to her calfpalpation of auricular pulse for quality and Foundation for Science, and Columbus Zoo.
regularity, checking of rectal temperature, and We thank the Bengkulu Natural Resource
monitoring respiratory and heart rates (Osofsky Conservation Agency (BKSDA-Bengkulu),
1997). We also injected 500,000 IU potassium and the Directorate General Forest Protection
penicillin G and 1,000,000 IU procaine penicillin, and Nature Conservation (PHKA), Indonesian
and applied 500 mg neomycin at the injection Ministry of Forestry. Finally, we are grateful to all
and dart locations to reduce risk of infection staff and technicians who assisted in this project,
(Osofsky 1997). especially Aswin Bangun, Mugiharto, Yanti
Musabine, Simanjuntak, Slamet, and Rasidin.
We recorded morphometric measurements to
estimate elephant age (circumference of front and References
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