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Chapter 7
Health and Management Techniques
Michelle Arnold, Roy Burris, and Lee Townsend
A healthy, disease-free herd is a goal
for all beef producers. A herd health
program will be most successful when it is
lighter, weaker calves at birth, which can
lead to a higher death loss, and more
susceptibility to diseases such as scours.
vening. Calving difficulty often occurs in
mature cows when calves present back-
wards (dewclaws are pointed up), breech
customized to meet the herd’s needs. Lo- Pregnant animals in poor condition be- (tail first and no legs), or malpositioned
cal veterinarians are knowledgeable about fore calving provide inferior colostrum legs or head. If the heifer/cow is not mak-
diseases in the area and should be able to and have lower milk production. This ing progress, she should be quietly moved
make cost-effective recommendations. can lead to lighter weaning weights or to a facility to adequately restrain her for
Plan a program that prevents diseases and fewer pounds of calf to sell. Females in less examination. Clean the area around the
disorders; do not depend on a veterinar- than desirable body condition at calving vulva with soap and water. Use plastic
ian just to treat problems. are slower to return to estrus. Therefore, obstetrical sleeves; bare hands and arms
Requirements for a successful herd body condition at calving affects the are not recommended in case potentially
health program include: current calf crop (milk production) and contagious organisms are present. Plenty
• Adequate handling facilities next year’s calving date (due to a later of lubrication should be used to protect
• Good nutrition, especially with trace rebreeding date). the vaginal area. A calf can generally be
mineral supplementation Spring calving herds will also require a delivered with firm, steady traction if the
• A working relationship between pro- high magnesium supplement to prevent head and both forelimbs are in the birth
ducer and veterinarian (valid veteri- grass tetany or “hypomagnesemia” (see canal. If the calf is too large, the head and
nary-client-patient relationship) “Forage-related Disorders” later in this legs will not be able to enter the birth canal
• A willingness to follow a program once chapter for specific information on mag- and a Caesarean section must be consid-
it is established nesium requirements). ered. Prolonged efforts with no progress
• A management level that reduces stress Environment has an impact on calf can lead to a dead calf and cow. If you
in cattle survival. Calves born into a filthy envi- cannot correct a problem after 30 minutes
ronment (muddy lot) have the energy of trying, you should call for veterinary
Several management techniques in-
drained from them quickly if cold and wet assistance to assess the situation. Bear in
cluding identifying, implanting, vaccinat-
and bacteria can easily invade the navel. mind that cows assisted early (within 90
ing, castrating, and dehorning, should be
A calf has little stored energy reserves minutes) have a 16% higher pregnancy
done in as timely and humanely a manner
and needs this energy to stand and nurse rate at pregnancy check but every hour a
as possible. Having a controlled breeding
shortly after birth. A clean, dry pasture cow spends stuck in Stage 2 labor delays
season simplifies timing of vaccines. As
for calving is ideal if there is shelter and rebreeding by four days.
discussed in Chapter 4, adequate han-
a catch pen so the cow can be restrained During gestation, the placenta of the
dling facilities are necessary to properly
if calving assistance is required. Research cow effectively separates the blood of the
restrain the animals for vaccination and
has shown that when cattle are fed in the fetus from that of the dam and prevents
treatment. Work carefully when pro-
early evening (5 p.m.to 6 p.m.) during the any transfer of protective immunity while
cessing cattle. If trying to set a record
last few weeks of pregnancy, more cows in the uterus. Therefore, the calf is born
for speed, cattle may be unduly stressed
will calve during daylight hours, making completely dependent on the absorption
or injured. Cattle can be worked rapidly
calving problems easier to identify. of maternal antibodies from colostrum af-
enough when they are handled skillfully
ter birth. Colostrum is the milk produced
and gently and when the handling facility Calving Difficulty from the mammary gland in the first 24
is constructed so that cattle flow through
Observe heifers and cows for signs hours after birth. A calf ’s gastrointestinal
it easily. Remember that animal health
of calving difficulty. Allow a reasonable tract is designed to temporarily allow the
products, such as vaccines and implants,
amount of time for a cow to deliver on absorption of antibodies (immunoglobu-
must be administered properly to be
her own, approximately two hours from lins) from the small intestine, called “pas-
effective. Therefore, emphasize proper
appearance of the water bag to delivery of sive transfer.” Passive transfer only occurs
technique rather than speed. Vaccines
the calf. Intervention is necessary if either during the first 24 hours after birth; it is
do not work in animals that are chroni-
the water bag or feet have been visible for most efficient in the first four hours of life
cally diseased, in poor nutritional status,
more than one hour with little or no prog- and declines rapidly after 12 hours of age.
stressed, ill, or heavily parasitized.
ress or if actively straining for more than At 24 hours, the gut is completely closed
Pre-calving Check 30 minutes without making visible move- and there is no further immunoglobulin
ment of the calf. Heifers should be allowed absorption. These absorbed antibodies
Spring calving cows, particularly heif- must be consumed in order to protect
no more than one hour to deliver the calf
ers, in poor body condition are at risk the calf from disease-causing organisms
once the water bag is visible before inter-
for calving problems. The result may be
93Chapter 7—Health and Management Techniques
until its own immune system becomes they contain less than 50 mg IgG per dose
Example of a Culling Order
functional. Early suckling of good quality and have no added nutritional value. • Disposition
colostrum is essential for survival. • Pregnancy status
The inability of the calf to get adequate Annual Cow Evaluation • Structurally unsound/chronic
colostrum after birth can lead to “failure of A cow should be evaluated every year condition
passive transfer” (FPT). If the calf is weak to determine if she can continue in the • Age
• Poor performance
at birth, especially if it has a swollen head, herd. Seven quality checks are designed to • Phenotype
or was manually delivered from a heifer, determine her potential for reproductive • Bred cows over 9 years of age
an oral calf feeder can be used to provide success and detect any physical condi- • Replacement heifers
the necessary colostrum to the calf. The tions that might cause future problems. • Bred cows 3-9 years of age
oral calf feeder (esophageal feeder) should Pregnancy check is an ideal time to evalu-
be used on a calf positioned with the head ate these seven areas.
bent down at a slight angle (nose below 1. Pregnancy. If not pregnant, cull at ap- those cattle in the herd with the least
the ears), the ball should be lubricated propriate time to reduce feed costs. chance of being productive in the long
(vegetable oil), and you should see or feel 2. Disposition. Flighty cows that are dif- term or farthest away from being produc-
the ball on the left side of the neck when ficult to move into working pens and tive. Equally important are factors such as
properly positioned (Complete instruc- chutes often produce calves with the disposition and phenotype that affect the
tions may be found in the section on calf same traits. Culling troublesome cows marketability of offspring. The following is
scours). Colostrum from your farm is the will select for good disposition in the a list of factors to consider when deciding
best one to use because it has antibodies herd. who to cull this year.
against the diseases found on the farm 3. Eyes. Check for “cancer eye.” Disposition. A cow’s attitude is an im-
however good powdered colostrum 4. Feet and legs. Check for lameness or portant consideration in any cattle op-
replacement products are commercially poor conformation. eration. Bad behavior has both a genetic
available. 5. Udder. Check for dry or light quarters, component and is also learned by calves
A mature cow has more concentrated poor conformation and large, pendu- at an early age. Mean cattle are dangerous
antibodies (immunoglobulins) in colos- lous teats that make nursing difficult. to people, damage facilities, tear up fences
trum than a heifer; the concentration of 6. Body condition score (BCS): This should and make gathering and working cattle a
immunoglobulins is highest immediately be between 5 and 6 in an adult cow. nightmare. Remember a good cow can
after calving and decreases over time. 7. Mouth: Check if older cow or low BCS be protective without being dangerous
Colostrum can be frozen and kept until for teeth problem; “smooth-mouthed” and destructive.
the next calving period but no longer than or “broken-mouthed” will require feed Pregnancy Status. A cow should produce
one year. Be careful to freeze it in small supplementation to maintain body a calf at least once a year and the sale of
amounts and not in one large gallon jug. weight. that calf needs to pay her way. Diagnosing
Frozen colostrum must be slowly thawed a cow as “open” (not pregnant) is as simple
out in a warm water bath and not placed Deciding Who to Cull as a veterinarian palpating for pregnancy
in the microwave to thaw. Be cautious Every year, the cow-calf producer at least 40 days after breeding or removing
about using another farm’s colostrum, needs to critically evaluate each animal the bull. A simple, inexpensive blood test
especially from a dairy, because of the risk in the herd and decide if she is paying her can also be used 28 days post-breeding
of acquiring Johne’s disease and bovine upkeep. Open cows (those that are not to determine pregnancy status. If many
leukosis virus. pregnant) at the end of breeding season cows are found open at pregnancy check,
Numerous colostrum replacements obviously are the top of the cull list. With work with a veterinarian to determine
are available on the market. The use of variable costs running $400-$500 per year if reproductive disease, poor nutrition,
a colostrum replacement product offers per head, breeding stock depreciation bull infertility or inability was the cause.
a convenient method to improve pas- running another $100-$150 per year, and Remember that cows that calve late in
sive immunity by mixing a powdered an additional $100-$300 in fixed costs the season have less opportunity to breed
commercial product containing bovine (2017 estimates), keeping open cows is a back in a controlled (for example, 90 day)
IgG with water and feeding the calf. A financial black hole. Beyond pregnancy breeding season. Summer heat and fescue
colostrum replacer contains a minimum status, what other variables are important toxicosis can be important contributors to
of 100g of IgG per dose, protein, miner- to evaluate? Structural soundness, body low conception rates.
als, vitamins, and energy and is designed condition score, age, performance, and Structural soundness/chronic conditions.
to be fed when no maternal colostrum disposition are vital components in de- Bad hooves or claws, lameness due to
is available. This should not be confused veloping a culling order. This culling order hip/knee injury, eye problems, and poor
with a colostrum supplement product is exceptionally important during times udder conformation are all examples of
that is designed to be fed in addition to of drought or a year with marginal hay structural problems that adversely affect
and after natural colostrum. Colostrum production because deeper culling may performance (Figure 7-1). Good feet and
supplements are significantly less expen- be required to manage through a difficult legs are essential for weight maintenance,
sive than replacement products because season. To begin, it is best to think about breeding, calving, self-defense, and raising
a calf. The udder should be firmly attached
94Chapter 7—Health and Management Techniques
with a level floor and high enough that newborn calves can eas- Figure 7-1. Udder scoring system for beef cattle.
ily find and latch onto teats. Cows with blind or light quarters, Description
funnel or balloon shaped teats, or any history of mastitis are Score Udder Suspension Teat Size
strong candidates for culling. 9 Very tight Very small
Cows with chronic conditions that will not improve such
as progressive weight loss, early cases of cancer eye, repeated
episodes of vaginal prolapse during pregnancy, and extreme sen-
sitivity to the effects of fescue toxicosis should be removed from
the herd as soon as the calf is weaned. Cows with confirmed
disease conditions such as Johne’s disease, bovine lymphoma,
or advanced cancer eye should not be returned to a com-
mercial market as breeding stock. The most common reasons
7 Tight Small
for carcass condemnation at slaughter include emaciation,
lymphoma, peritonitis, cancer eye, blood poisoning, bruising,
and other cancers.
Age. Cows are considered most productive between 4-9 years
of age. Look at the teeth to assess the age but evaluate them in
light of diet-cows that eat gritty or sandy feeds and forages have
increased tooth wear beyond their years (see “Estimating Age
of Cattle by Their Teeth” later in this section). Cows with badly
worn or missing teeth will have a hard time maintaining body 5 Intermediate Intermediate
condition. Older cattle die of natural causes, too.
Poor Performance. Record keeping is an invaluable tool for
evaluating performance. Readable visual tags on both the cow
and calf allow matching of calf sale weights to the dams and
identification of cows that did not produce a calf. Inferior genet-
ics and poor milk production produce lightweight calves that
do no grow well. An overweight cow or large framed cow with
a small calf that doesn’t grow and gain weight usually means the 3 Pendulous Large
cow is not producing much milk. Sick baby calves may be an
indication of poor quality colostrum and poor mothering ability.
Phenotype. These are cows that do not “fit” the herd because
of external features such as unusual breed, size, muscling and
color. These challenges may be overcome to some degree by
choice of sire to balance out the unwanted traits. Remember
that buyers of commercial calves look for uniformity in color,
weight, and frame in a set of calves.
The last ones to go. Hopefully culling will never have to go 1 Very pendulous Very large, misshapen
this deep in the herd. Bred cows over 9 years old, replacement
heifers (especially those that did not breed in the first 30 days),
and bred cows 3-9 years old should be the last sold. Thin cows
that conceive late in the breeding season should go first.
Since 20% of gross receipts in a typical cow-calf operation come
from the sale of cull animals, pay attention to price seasonality and
body condition score before sending these animals to market.
Prices are highest in spring and lowest in late fall/early winter when American Hereford Association; BIF Guidelines, 2020
spring born calves are weaned and culls sent to market. Adding
weight and body condition to culls is an opportunity to increase
profitability but can be expensive. Work with a nutritionist to Cull Cow Language
come up with realistic cost projections before feeding cull cattle • Breakers (75-80% lean): Highest conditioned cull cows (BCS ≥
for a long period of time. 7), excellent dressing percentages
• Boners or “boning utility” (80-85% lean): Moderately
When it comes to making decisions on who to cull, remember to conditioned (BCS 5-7), well-nourished commercial beef cows
consider functionality in the environment. Is she an “easy keeper?” (usually highest price cull)
Does she keep flesh and condition and raise a good calf, even when • Leans (85-90%): Lower BCS (1-4), lower dressing percentages,
feed and forage is limited? On the opposite side, does she give too susceptible to bruising during transport and expect more
much milk or is her frame size so large that you can’t keep weight trim loss. Moving cows from lean to boner status can usually
be done efficiently
on her, even when pasture is plentiful? Is her pelvis so small and
95Chapter 7—Health and Management Techniques
tight that calving is a problem and will be Table 7-1. Sample cattle working schedule.
a problem in her offspring? Functionality Time Calves Cows/Bull
leads to longevity and improved efficiency. Birth • Identify
By retaining more young cows in the herd, • Record birth date, dam
you can decrease the number of replace- • Castrate (delay 12-24 hours for
ment heifers needed and cull cows that are bonding with dam)
Prebreeding • Vaccinate 7-way clostridial • Vaccinate IBR/PI-3/BVD/BRSV,
only marginally profitable. Young cows also
(Blackleg) Lepto-5, Vibrio, Pinkeye
increase in value as they mature because • Pinkeye vaccine in the spring • Deworm
the body weight of the cow and her calf’s • Castrate/dehorn if needed • Sort into breeding groups
weaning weight will continue to increase • Implant male feeder calves if • Bull breeding soundness exam
from 2-5 years of age. Longevity may also be castrated
improved through crossbreeding because Midsummer1 • Deworm2 • Deworm2
• Reimplant steers according to • Remove bull from spring
hybrid vigor adds essentially 1.3 years of label directions breeding herd
productivity or one more calf per cow. Preweaning • Vaccinate: IBR/PI-3/BVD/BRSV • Pregnancy examination
In summary, a herd of easy-keeping, • Booster 7-way clostridial vaccine • Evaluate cows for problems
efficient cows is possible through rigorous Weaning (after • Booster IBR/PI-3/BVD/BRSV • Sell open and cull cows
culling and careful selection of replace- stress is over) • Treat for internal and external • Treat for lice and grubs in late fall
ments. Matching genetics to management parasites
and environment results in maximum ef- Before calving • Vaccinate against scours
ficiency, longevity, and, ultimately, maxi- ¹ Avoid working cattle during periods of extreme heat; early morning is best.
² Use a dewormer that is effective against inhibited Ostertagia larvae.
mum enjoyment of cattle production.
Vaccinations Table 7-2. Modified-live versus killed vaccines.
Your veterinarian can provide valuable Advantages Disadvantages
advice to develop a vaccination program Modified-live • Single dose can provide • May cause abortion in pregnant
to prevent contagious diseases for your par- vaccine protection animals
ticular herd. The time of year you calve and • Less expensive per dose • Need to be reconstituted before
• More rapid immune response use
when you prefer to work them will influence • More natural and complete • Inactivated by heat and sunlight
the program for your herd. Table 7-1 is an immune response • Partial bottles cannot be stored
example of a Cattle Working Schedule, in • Longer-lasting protection • Must be used within 1-2 hours
which cattle are gathered five times a year. after mixing
Vaccination is a tool that is used Killed • Can safely be given to any • Increased adverse reactions
(inactivated) animal at any stage of pregnancy • More expensive
alongside other management tools such
vaccine • Stable in handling and storage • Needs 2 doses initially to be
as forage management, proper nutri- protective
tion, maintaining a clean environment, • Shorter protection time
biosecurity, and stress management.
Vaccination programs are designed to
protect the herd against disease caused stimulate the immune system similar immune system to respond to the vaccine
by infectious organisms, such as viruses to a natural infection. In general, MLV challenge. Table 7-2 lists the advantages
or bacteria. Vaccines contain either killed stimulate a longer-lasting immunity than and disadvantages of killed and modified-
or modified live organisms that do not killed vaccines. However, MLV may cause live vaccines.
cause disease. These vaccine organisms abortion if given improperly to pregnant Vaccines are available for many disease
stimulate the animal’s immune system cattle. Most modified-live vaccines must conditions. However, many diseases do
to “remember” how to mount a response be reconstituted by adding sterile water not routinely threaten most beef herds,
if it is later infected with that organism. (diluent) to a dehydrated “cake” in a and some vaccines are not sufficiently ef-
A vaccine cannot prevent infection but separate sterile vial. Once mixed, the vac- fective to justify their use. Therefore, only
will allow the animal to recognize and cine organisms are fragile and survive for the most significant vaccines are included
respond more quickly to infection, lessen- only 45 minutes if in direct sunlight and/ in a routine vaccination schedule. In the
ing the severity of disease. or heat. Use a cooler to protect vaccines young animal being vaccinated for the
Most vaccines contain either modified- from extremes of cold or heat and from first time, a second or “booster” vaccina-
live or killed organisms or a combination sunlight. In a cooler, MLV organisms can tion is often required a few weeks after
of the two. Modified-live vaccines (MLV), survive approximately one to two hours. the first vaccination to properly prime
both for viruses and bacteria, replicate Killed vaccines contain organisms or the immune system. This is exceptionally
(multiply) in the animal after injection. subunits of organisms that do not repli- important if using killed vaccine. Label
The organisms have been modified so cate (reproduce) in the animal after injec- directions must be followed to obtain the
that they do not cause the disease but tion. Killed vaccines contain an adjuvant desired immune response.
(added substance) that stimulates the
96Chapter 7—Health and Management Techniques
Vaccinations for the Cow- • Breeding Soundness Exams are highly herd, testing all calves is the proven
Calf Operation recommended for herd bulls and first step to find persistently infected
One of the most common questions should be conducted 60-75 days prior (PI) animals
in cow/calf production is what vaccines to turnout (see Chapter 5, “Managing
are necessary on an annual basis in Reproduction”). Bulls need the same Calves 2-3 Weeks Pre-weaning
Kentucky to keep the herd healthy. The vaccinations and deworming as the • Viral respiratory vaccine (IBR, BVD,
guidelines set forth here are designed to cow herd. PI3, BRSV)-killed or MLV (see “Ad-
help answer that question but the details ditional Considerations,” page 99), but
of what products to use and when to Heifers 6 Weeks Prior to Breeding follow label directions regarding MLV
administer them are best decided by the • Viral respiratory vaccine (IBR, BVD, usage in nursing calves
producer and veterinarian. Technology PI3, BRSV) with Campylobacter fetus • Deworm with an endectocide (exam-
is constantly changing and updating sci- (vibriosis) and 5-way leptospirosis— ples: Ivomec®, Dectomax®, Eprinex®,
ence to make today’s vaccines safer and modified live strongly recommended; Cydectin®, LongRange®) for internal
more effective than any time in the his- fetal protection (FP) product is pre- and external parasites; use a branded
tory of cattle production. However, the ferred; follow label directions; booster product—not a generic; drench an-
sheer number and types of vaccines and at minimum 30 days prior to breeding thelmintic (white liquid dewormer
dewormers available today can make the • Seven-way clostridial vaccine (Black- given by mouth) such as Safeguard®,
correct selection of products challenging. leg) Synanthic®, or Valbazen® may be used
Every farm has different disease risks and • Deworm with a branded (not generic) but a second product will be required
challenges regarding labor and facilities product; heifer is under increased for external parasite (flies, lice) control
needed to work the cattle. A veterinarian nutritional demand because she is still • 7-way clostridial vaccine (Blackleg);
is equipped with the knowledge and skills growing herself and trying to repro- follow label directions regarding the
to determine what will work best in each duce; young animals do not have the need for a booster
unique situation. immunity to parasites that adult cattle • Optional: Vaccinate with Mannheimia
possess, therefore it is important to use haemolytica toxoid—this vaccine, com-
Cows and Bulls 4-6 Weeks effective dewormers monly known as a “Pasteurella shot” or
Prior to Breeding “Pneumonia shot” is given pre-weaning
• Viral respiratory vaccine (IBR, BVD, Calves 1-3 Months of Age in anticipation of the stress associated
PI3, BRSV) with Campylobacter fetus • Identify with tag with weaning; in a low-risk situation
(vibriosis) and 5-way leptospirosis (HB • Vaccinate with 7-way clostridial (Black- in which the calves are weaned on the
optional) Fetal Protection (FP) product leg) vaccine—although the calves are farm and no new additions are added to
preferred. If the cow is pregnant at the too young to mount a good immune the group, this vaccine may be delayed
time of vaccination, use a killed vaccine response, this dose of vaccine will initi- until after weaning; consult your veteri-
product to reduce the risk of accidental ate (“jump start”) the immune process; narian and check your marketing plan
abortion. Certain modified live vac- do not give Blackleg vaccine at birth. since many programs (for example:
cines can be used in pregnant animals, • Dehorn, castrate—the earlier these CPH45) specify what vaccines must
but only if used strictly according to practices are completed, the better be administered and when in order to
label directions. • Optional Practices: participate.
• Seven-way clostridial vaccine (Black- » Implant steers at the time of castra-
leg), necessary if under 2 years of age; tion (unless you plan to sell calves in Calves at Weaning
optional (highly recommended) as the an organic or natural market) Delay working calves until the stress
cow ages depending on the exposure » Viral respiratory vaccine-killed, of weaning is over. It is best to wait until
risk of the herd MLV (see “Additional Consider- the calves are eating, drinking, and most
• Deworm—perform at least twice per ations,” page 99), or intranasal (intra- (if not all) have stopped walking and
year (spring and fall). If only once is nasal preferred for young animalsChapter 7—Health and Management Techniques
• Booster 7-way clostridial if required by the cow is open and the calf is weaned. ful in all situations. Always discuss concerns
label direction • Killed vaccines provide safe, protec- with a veterinarian to develop the plan that
• Optional practices: tive immunity but must be given twice will work the best.
» Implant: Follow label directions, (usually 2-3 weeks apart) if it is the
especially when re-implanting. Do first time a viral respiratory vaccine Diseases
not implant females to be used for is administered. Annual boosters are Several diseases can be a problem in
breeding purposes. Do not implant required after the initial two-shot se- Kentucky beef herds. By understanding
if planning to sell on the natural or quence; twice a year is recommended the causes of these diseases, producers
organic markets. when using killed products. can be better equipped to prevent them.
» Pasteurella multocida and/or His- • If heifers have been allowed to stay with
tophilus somni (formerly known as the herd bull until weaning, most likely Anaplasmosis
Haemophilus somnus) vaccines— some are pregnant. A prostaglandin Anaplasmosis is caused by a micro-
consult with a veterinarian for cur- injection (for example: Lutalyse®) can scopic parasite that destroys red blood
rent recommendations. be given to the heifers once they have cells. Horseflies, mosquitoes, and ticks
been away from the bull a minimum are the principal blood-sucking insects
Cows after Calves are Weaned of 10 days. These injections work best that spread anaplasmosis. Since the
• Check cows for pregnancy by palpa- in early pregnancy so do not delay infection is easily transmitted by the
tion, ultrasound, or blood test. If open, administration if needed. transfer of infected blood, outbreaks can
strongly consider culling her. • Try to minimize the number of injec- occur after working cattle without proper
• Check for other problems: Eyes, mouth, tions given at one time as much as disinfection during procedures such as
udder, feet and legs, body condition, possible. Multiple vaccinations cause dehorning, castrating, ear tagging, and
disposition. neck soreness. Multiple Gram negative vaccination without changing the needle.
• Scours vaccine—administer prior to vaccines may cause cattle to spike a Disinfect equipment and change needles
calving. Products vary on when to ad- fever and go off feed for a short period between animals to minimize spread of
minister them during late gestation so of time. the disease.
follow label directions carefully. • Keep good vaccination records. Record Initial signs of anaplasmosis include
• If leptospirosis is a persistent problem, date, vaccine name, serial numbers and fever, weakness, icterus (jaundice), anemia,
cows may need a booster of 5-way expiration dates at a minimum. pale mucous membranes, dehydration,
leptospirosis vaccine. • Utilize fly control and pinkeye vaccine and constipation. Often no signs are
Additional Considerations: beginning in late spring. observed and the animal is simply found
• Letters in a vaccine name mean: dead. Most cases occur in late September,
• If calves cannot be processed pre- » IBR, BVD, BRSV, and PI3 are dis- October, and early November in adult
weaning, then do the steps for “Calves eases included in a viral respiratory cattle (usually three years old and up).
at Weaning” then booster the viral vaccine. Oxytetracycline is the drug of choice
respiratory vaccine (and the 7-way » An “FP” in the vaccine name stands for treating anaplasmosis. In an outbreak
clostridial if required on label) in 2-3 for “fetal protection” and means situation, mass medication of cattle with
weeks. If castrations and dehorning protection against fetal infection a single injection of long acting oxytet-
were not done earlier while the calf and abortion due to the BVD virus. racycline will likely arrest any clinical or
was on the cow, these practices need » An “HB” in the vaccine name stands late prepatent infections. Oral consump-
to be completed as soon as possible. for the strain of Leptospira known tion of chlortetracycline for at least 60
Tetanus vaccination is strongly recom- as “Hardjo bovis” that is a common continuous days at the higher level of
mended when performing late castra- cause of reproductive failure in the approved range 0.5-2 mg per pound
tion; especially if banding. Consult your cattle. of body weight during the insect vec-
veterinarian regarding whether to use » “HS” stands for “Histophilus somni” tor season (May-November) has been
a tetanus toxoid or antitoxin. (formerly known as Hemophilus demonstrated to control active infection.
• Modified live vaccines (MLV) provide somnus). Currently, no commercial vaccines are
fast, broad immunity and are excellent » “L5” stands for the five strains of available against anaplasmosis although
stimulators of cell-mediated immunity. leptospirosis. Kentucky is approved by the USDA for
They are generally preferred in recently » “V” stands for “vibriosis.” sales of the experimental anaplasmosis
weaned calves and usually required by
In summary, vaccination programs must vaccine marketed by University Products
most preconditioned sales. However,
LLC of Baton Rouge, La. The vaccine
only use modified live vaccines in preg- be designed around the specific needs of
has provided good protection against
nant cows and in nursing calves if the the cattle. Numerous vaccines are available
anaplasmosis throughout the United
cows were vaccinated with MLV in the last for other diseases (for example: brucellosis,
States, including Puerto Rico. The vaccine
12 months (check label for specific re- anaplasmosis, trichomoniasis, Clostridium
perfringens Type A, foot rot, papilloma or recommendations include a two-dose
quirements). If this requirement is not
wart virus) but they may or may not be use- regimen given four weeks apart with an-
met, a killed vaccine must be used until
nual revaccination required.
98Chapter 7—Health and Management Techniques
Blackleg condemnation of carcass at slaughter if used in young calves as these vaccines
“Blackleg” and “malignant edema” are tumors are present, and clinical disease/ stimulate immunity in the nose rather
diseases caused by clostridial organisms death loss. than relying on the immature immune
that live in the ground in a protected spore system. BRSV can spread quickly in naïve
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy cattle (3-10 days) and is found in the nasal
form and enter calves through ingestion,
inhalation or wounds. The bacteria are Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and tracheal mucosa in infected calves,
not spread directly from animal to animal (BSE) is a chronic degenerative disease of replicating and causing inflammation in
but come from the soil. These organisms cattle that affects the central nervous sys- these tissues. Clinical signs of BRSV can
produce toxins (poisons) in the animal’s tem. It was first diagnosed in the United take two to four days to develop. BRSV
body that are rapidly fatal. Blackleg usu- Kingdom in 1987 and is considered rare infection is associated with high morbid-
ally occurs in cattle six months to two in North America. BSE is also referred to ity (60% to 80%), and fatality rates may be
years of age; malignant edema can occur as “mad cow disease.” as high as 20%. BRSV can cause clinical
at an older age. This disease is not contagious and is disease in older heifers and adult cows,
The “7-way” or “8-way” clostridial vac- believed to be caused by a prion. The only but generally older individuals will have
cine is effective, inexpensive, and eco- known method that cattle can contract less severe or subclinical BRSV infection.
nomical. All calves should be vaccinated BSE is through the consumption of animal
by-products with infective material such as Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus
beginning at two to four months of age,
depending on the product. Follow label brain, spinal cord, retina, and distal small in- Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVD) can
directions carefully regarding what age to testine. There is neither a treatment nor vac- cause a variety of clinical conditions,
administer the primary and booster doses cine to prevent the disease. The incubation including abortions, birth defects, weak
of the vaccine. period (time from infection to symptoms) calves at birth, pneumonia, death, and
is two to eight years. Once clinical signs are persistent infections. The BVD virus is
Bovine Leukosis Virus seen, death usually occurs in two weeks to frequently diagnosed in Kentucky due
Bovine leukosis virus (BLV) is a very six months. Most cases have occurred in to its immunosuppressive effect that
common occurrence in beef cattle herds. cattle between three and six years of age, increases susceptibility to respiratory
The virus is usually transmitted through usually dairy cattle. disease, especially in recently weaned
contact with blood from an infected As of 1997, Federal Drug Administra- stocker calves. There are two forms of
animal. BLV can spread through such pro- tion (FDA) prohibited the feeding of most infection; a transient infection (TI) is an
cedures as injections with dirty needles, mammalian protein to cattle. Several infection of short duration (usually 10
surgical castration and/or dehorning, tat- diseases in Kentucky are more common days to two weeks) during which time
tooing, rectal palpation as well as through to cause central nervous system (brain) the calf is very susceptible to contract ad-
biting insect vectors such as horseflies. signs than BSE. These include listeriosis ditional diseases because the virus stops
Calves may also be exposed while nurs- (circling disease), rabies, polioencepha- the immune system from functioning.
ing an infected dam. BLV is the cause of lomalacia (thiamine deficiency or high A persistent infection (PI), on the other
the cancerous blood disease “enzootic sulfur diet), grass tetany, milk fever, and hand, is a life-long infection a calf is born
bovine leukemia” (bovine lymphosarcoma ketosis. You should consult with your with but does not generally cause prob-
or malignant lymphoma). However, only veterinarian for an accurate diagnosis if lems for the infected animal.
approximately 2% of BLV-infected animals cattle are showing abnormal brain signs, Persistently infected (PI) calves occur
will go on to develop these cancers affect- such as staggering, excessive bellowing, when a pregnant dam with inadequate
ing lymph nodes and white blood cells. or down (non-ambulatory). protection (poorly vaccinated) is infected
Tumors may occur in the spinal canal, with BVD sometime during 40 to 125
Bovine Respiratory Disease days in gestation. The calf contracts the
uterus, heart, abomasum, kidney and/or
lymph nodes. The most common clinical See “Pneumonia/shipping fever.” virus in utero and is born “persistently” or
signs of cancer in cattle include anorexia, forever infected. A PI calf may be born un-
Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus dersized and have slower growth rates, or
weight loss and fever or sudden death.
Bovine respiratory syncytial virus it may appear normal. The most efficient
Blood testing is the first step to identify
(BRSV) is a prevalent virus that can cause transmission source for the BVD virus is
BLV-positive (infected) animals. Test-
respiratory disease in cattle of all ages contact with PI cattle. A PI calf continu-
ing should be done in animals over six
but primarily affects calves in outbreaks. ously sheds the virus from all secretions
months of age and not around the time
BRSV is also considered a disease that during its life. PI bulls can introduce BVD
of calving in cows. Measures to control
predisposes animals to secondary bacte- into a herd of cattle through the semen or
BLV include using single-use needles,
rial infections. Vaccination can reduce direct contact. There is no treatment to
cleaning and disinfecting equipment
severity and protect calves and cattle remove the virus for cattle with persistent
between animals with a disinfectant such
from disease. BRSV vaccines usually are BVD infection.
as chlorhexidine, and implementing an
in combination with other respiratory Biosecurity plans should include iso-
integrated pest management program.
viral vaccines (IBR, PI3, and BVD) and lation of newly acquired animals for at
Economic losses stem from the inability
are available in modified-live or killed least two weeks and testing for the virus,
to sell cattle for export or as bull studs,
forms. Intranasal BRSV vaccines are often either by an ear notch (skin) sample or a
99Chapter 7—Health and Management Techniques
serum sample. Limit movement of cattle be vaccinated by an accredited vet- calves housed indoors. Cross infection
on and off the farm, especially pregnant erinarian. Upon vaccinating a calf, the between animals and humans is possible,
animals, to reduce the chance of exposure. veterinarian will place an official tattoo so washing hands is advisable after han-
Vaccination programs routinely are used and tag in the right ear and record the dling young scouring calves. There are no
to limit disease from BVD infection, es- vaccination with the state veterinarian. medications available in the United States
pecially prebreeding vaccines to promote Work with your veterinarian to deter- considered effective against cryptospo-
fetal protection and prevent PI calves. mine if vaccination is necessary. Herds ridia. They can survive for long periods
The commercial viral vaccines available can be certified brucellosis-free with in the environment, especially inside
are killed/inactivated or modified-live annual blood testing. barns, so effective cleaning is imperative
virus products. In general, modified-live to prevent disease.
vaccines should not be used in pregnant Coccidia
animals unless administered strictly ac- Coccidia are intracellular protozoan Foot Rot
cording to the label directions. The killed parasites that can cause serious economic Foot rot is an infectious disease charac-
BVD vaccines are safe for use in pregnant losses due to weight loss, reduced perfor- terized by sudden lameness and inflam-
cows. When using a killed virus vaccine mance and possibly death. The coccidian mation of the tissues between the claws.
for the first time, a booster is required life cycle is complex. The single-cell oo- It is caused by injury to the skin between
in two to four weeks after the first vac- cysts are passed in the feces of infected the claws, allowing infection with the
cination. Replacement heifers should be cattle and “sporulate” to form the infective bacteria Fusobacterium necrophorum and
vaccinated at five to six months of age stage. The sporulated oocysts are con- Bacteriodes melaninogenicus. The affected
and booster this in two to four weeks ac- sumed by a susceptible animal and attack tissue becomes swollen and painful, and
cording to label directions. Modified live the lining of the intestine. This develop- only light weight is placed on the toe. A
vaccines are strongly recommended for ment cycle in the intestinal tract destroys characteristic foul odor is easily detected
replacement heifers. intestinal cells. The amount of damage but little pus is observed. Treatment
Annual revaccination of the breeding done is directly related to the number of usually consists of systemic (injectable)
herd is recommended prebreeding to oocysts ingested. Outbreaks of bloody antibiotics or treatment of the interdigital
get maximum fetal protection. All new diarrhea are associated with the stresses area with copper sulfate either by wrap-
additions should be screened for PI cattle of weaning, shipping, overcrowding and ping the hoof or by footbath. Prevention
with an inexpensive blood test or ear dietary changes. includes good nutrition (especially ad-
notch skin sample since PI animals serve Coccidiosis is primarily a disease of equate zinc in the mineral preparation)
as a continuous source of infection. A confinement. Affected animals may be and measures to ensure good hoof health
purchased pregnant cow or heifer may off feed and strain to defecate, resulting in such as improving drainage to reduce
test negative herself but be carrying a PI fresh blood in the manure and, in severe mud and manure buildup.
calf so it is vitally important to test her calf cases, rectal prolapse. Management tech-
at birth for persistent infection. Consult niques recommended to reduce exposure Histophilus somni (formerly
a veterinarian about the appropriate use to oocysts include decreased stocking Haemophilus somnus)
of vaccines in your herd as well as testing rates, minimizing stress, and providing Histophilus somni is a normal bacteria
procedures to identify and remove PI clean housing. Feed should be kept off the found in the upper respiratory and uro-
cattle. Remember, PIs are considered defec- floor to prevent contamination and wa- genital tract of cattle but is a source of
tive and there is a legal, moral, and ethical terers should be cleaned regularly. Use of problems if it reaches the lungs or blood-
obligation to dispose of these animals with- the ionophores monensin (Rumensin®) or stream. Histophilus can cause respiratory
out sending/returning them to commerce. lasalocid (Bovatec®) or use of decoquinate (pneumonia), heart, and brain disorders
(Deccox®) will help prevent coccidiosis. in feeder calves, and reproductive disor-
Brucellosis Do not allow horses to consume Rumen- ders in adult cattle. Commercial vaccines
Brucellosis (Bang’s disease) causes sin® or Bovatec®. Cattle showing clinical are available but have very limited success
abortion in cattle. More importantly, signs of coccidiosis must be treated with in inducing protection against disease.
brucellosis can cause a disease in humans drugs such as amprolium (Corid®) or Thrombotic meningoencephalitis (TME)
called “undulant fever.” Cows with brucel- sustained-release sulfas to cure clinical is a rapidly fatal brain disease in cattle due
losis shed large numbers of infectious or- animals. Consult a veterinarian for treat- to H. somni.
ganisms at calving. Calves receiving milk ment and prevention advice.
from infected cows shed live organisms Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis
in the feces. Kentucky is certified brucel- Cryptosporidia Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR
losis free along with most of the United Cryptosporidia are tiny protozoan or bovine herpes virus-1) is the cause
States except for a few Western states. parasites that invade the intestinal cells of of viral respiratory and reproductive
Test and slaughter of infected animals is the small and large intestine. It is a major diseases affecting cattle. IBR can cause
required by law. Prevention may include contributor to calf scours/diarrhea and respiratory infections, abortion in cows
calfhood vaccination of heifer calves often becomes deadly in combination exposed during pregnancy, infertility, and
with RB51 strain vaccine between four with a virus or bacterial agent. The dis- eye inflammation (conjunctivitis).
to 10 months of age. Heifer calves must ease is common in one- to four-week-old
100Chapter 7—Health and Management Techniques
All forms of IBR can be controlled by for long periods (potentially 1-5 years) in Older leptospirosis vaccines have a short
vaccination with products for intranasal the environment. duration of immunity and require re-
administration or injectable. Modified- In almost all cases, the MAP bacteria ar- vaccination every three to four months
live virus vaccines, in combination with rived on the farm when an infected animal to maintain adequate herd immunity.
BVD, BRSV and PI3 for injection, are was purchased and added to the herd. The Recently, new vaccines against L. hardjo
most effective but can cause abortion in bacteria can be hiding in replacement heif- bovis (vaccines with the initials “HB”) have
pregnant animals if label directions are ers, cows, breeding bulls, recipients used been shown to protect against that strain
not carefully followed. Calves should be for embryo transfer, or even in an infected and provide longer duration of immunity
vaccinated 30 days before weaning and calf purchased to graft on a cow. It is easy to (up to one year) than the traditional Lep-
receive a booster dose at weaning or vac- buy (and sell) infected, young breeding age to-5 vaccines. The new vaccine does not
cinated at weaning and boostered two animals with no obvious symptoms even eliminate carrier animals; treatment with
to four weeks later. Replacement heifers though they are already incubating the oxytetracycline is necessary to eliminate
should be vaccinated again at least 30 disease. However, these infected animals carriers of leptospirosis.
days before breeding. The breeding herd will shed the MAP organism, in increasing
should receive an annual booster dose, numbers as the disease progresses, con- Listeriosis
preferably modified live prebreeding. taminating the farm environment and in- Listeriosis (circling disease, silage
creasing the risk of infection spread within disease) is caused by the bacterium Lis-
Johne’s Disease the herd. MAP-contaminated colostrum teria monocytogenes that is most often
Johne’s disease (pronounced yo-knees) from other herds, especially from dairies, associated with feeding moldy silage or
is a contagious bacterial infection of the is another potential source. baleage, especially during cool weather.
intestinal tract of ruminants caused by the No treatment exists for Johne’s disease. Animals show neurologic disease and
bacterium Mycobacterium avium subsp. Cattle become shedders of the bacteria may display head pressing, drooped ear,
paratuberculosis, commonly referred before they show clinical signs of diarrhea and/or compulsive circling. The recovery
to as “MAP”. This is a slow, progressive and weight loss. Cattle can be tested by rate is best if treatment is administered
disease that begins when calves (not adult collecting feces and submitting for PCR early in the course of the disease. Listeria
cattle) are infected with the MAP bacte- analysis or a blood test can be performed. may also cause abortion and eye lesions.
ria, most often around the time of birth A negative result does not guarantee the Prevention includes discarding moldy
but infection can occur up to 6 months animal is negative; some animals with in- feed, especially fermented feeds, and
of age and very rarely after. Johne’s infec- fection are slow to produce antibodies or cleaning contaminated areas. Rule out
tion is mainly caused by calves ingesting shed the organism and are consequently other diseases that can cause similar signs,
MAP-contaminated feces from nursing slow to test positive. especially rabies.
dirty teats. In beef cattle, this is possible The key to preventing, controlling,
in high traffic areas (around hay rings, and eliminating Johne’s disease in a Neosporosis
feeding areas) when mud and manure are herd is implementation of appropriate Neosporosis is caused by a protozoan
splashed on the udder, when calving cows biosecurity measures including buying parasite Neospora caninum. The protozoa
in dirty sheds or barns, or when cattle are only from reputable sources and testing may affect the developing fetus, but it does
held in close confinement. MAP is also all new additions in the herd. Consult a not cause clinical illness in the adult. Once
shed in colostrum and milk of infected veterinarian to develop a specific plan infected, the cow is infected for life and
cattle. Once MAP gains entry into a calf, tailored for the herd. there is no effective treatment. Depend-
the organism lives permanently within ing on when exposure to Neospora occurs
the cells of the small and large intestine Leptospirosis during gestation, infection may result in
where it multiplies and causes the intes- Leptospirosis (often referred to as fetal death, abortion, stillbirth, or birth of
tinal lining to slowly thicken. With time, “Lepto”) is a bacterial disease that causes weak calves. In future pregnancies, nor-
the thickened intestine loses the ability to abortions, stillbirths, and birth of weak mal calves may be born already infected
absorb nutrients, resulting in watery diar- calves. Leptospira hardjo (L. borgpetersenii with the organism and can pass it on to
rhea. There is no blood or mucus in the serovar hardjo) and pomona (L. interro- their offspring. The disease is primarily a
feces and no straining. The clinical signs of gans serovar pomona) are the two strains problem in dairy cattle but is increasingly
diarrhea and extreme weight loss in spite of primary concern for Kentucky cattle. found in beef cattle. Abortion epidemics
of having a good appetite, do not show up The infection localizes in the kidneys and may occur if feed is contaminated with
until 2-5 years of age or even older. There is shed in the urine to infect other cattle the organism.
is no treatment available and the animal or humans. Prevention of leptospirosis is The dog and the coyote have been iden-
eventually dies due to starvation and a good reason to keep cattle out of stag- tified as the definitive hosts and is where
dehydration. The MAP organism begins nant ponds. the parasite produces the infective eggs
to be “shed” in the feces years before diar- All breeding-age female cattle should (oocysts). Cattle are exposed to Neospora
rhea starts and continues until the animal’s be vaccinated against the five strains of caninum with accidental ingestion of feed
death. Map bacteria are very hardy due to leptospirosis. Annual revaccination is or water contaminated with dog or coyote
a protective cell wall that allows survival highly recommended, especially when feces containing the oocysts. Cows can
cattle are allowed access to farm ponds. be blood tested to determine if they have
101Chapter 7—Health and Management Techniques
been infected. Diagnosis of the infection in if the eye is improving or deteriorating (IBR), and parainfluenza (PI3). Bacte-
affected calves is based on heart and brain when covered. If the case of pinkeye is rial agents are ultimately responsible for
abnormalities in the calf or aborted fetus, very advanced, a veterinarian may suture the severe lung damage. Bacteria take
abnormalities in the placenta and positive the eyelids together or use a third eyelid advantage of stress and viral infection
blood tests. A vaccine was available but has flap to stabilize the cornea. Do not rely to overcome the immune defenses and
been withdrawn from the market. on sprays alone since they remain in the cause pneumonia. Mannheimia (formerly
eye just a few minutes before tears wash Pasteurella) haemolytica is the bacterium
Parainfluenza Type 3 them away. To be effective, sprays must that often causes “shipping fever pneu-
Parainfluenza type 3 (PI-3) primar- be applied 3-4 times daily. Vaccination monia,” especially in stocker and feedlot
ily causes mild respiratory problems in alone will not prevent disease but may cattle. These bacteria can cause severe
cattle. It is considered to be a secondary allow faster response to treatment. An pneumonia and result in quick death if
factor in shipping fever outbreaks. Ef- overall good level of nutrition, adequate the animal is not treated with effective
fective vaccines are available, including vitamin and trace mineral intake, a com- antibiotics early in the course of disease.
intranasal vaccines or modified-live prehensive vaccination program, and Pasteurella multocida, Histophilus somni,
and/or killed vaccines for injection. PI-3 parasite (fly) control are all exception- and Mycoplasma bovis are other bacterial
vaccines are usually given in combina- ally important in improving an animal’s species that can contribute to pneumonia
tion with IBR, BVD, and BRSV. ability to fight off any disease process. To (Table 7-3).
reduce as many of the pinkeye risk fac- Successful treatment of BRD involves
Pinkeye tors as possible, prevent corneal damage early recognition of sick animals, appro-
Pinkeye (infectious bovine keratocon- from sun by providing shade, control face priate treatment, follow-up, and prompt
junctivitis) in cattle is characterized by flies, clip pastures to prevent mechanical retreatment of relapses. Clinical signs
inflammation and watering of the eye, injury from grass and plants, and provide include depression (Table 7-4), decreased
painful sensitivity to light, and varying an abundant clean water source in order appetite (Table 7-5), abnormal breathing
degrees of corneal damage. Research in to keep calves hydrated, allowing the (Table 7-6), and fever on examination
Kentucky indicates a definite decrease in eye to stay clean and moist. Recent eye (Table 7-7). Coughing is not always pres-
weaning weight of calves with pinkeye. cultures have indicated that Moraxella ent early in pneumonia. It is important to
This decreased performance, coupled bovoculi also contributes to pinkeye, es- watch cattle at feeding time. Sick calves
with a decrease in selling price of affected pecially cases in the winter months. Some may walk to the bunk but not eat.
calves, can mean significant losses for veterinarians have autogenous vaccines Antibiotics and other therapeutic
Kentucky beef producers. prepared from pinkeye cases cultured on agents should be selected on the basis
Pinkeye is caused by the bacteria Mo- the farm to stimulate immunity against of symptoms shown and with a protocol
raxella bovis. These bacteria are covered both M. bovis and bovoculi. developed with a veterinarian. Often bac-
with hair-like structures used to attach For further information, see ID-135: terial organisms become resistant to an
to the cornea or clear portion of the eye. Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis antibiotic that has worked well in the past
Once attached, it releases a toxin that kills (‘Pinkeye’) in Cattle (http://www2.ca.uky. and a new antibiotic must be selected.
cells on the surface of the cornea. Early edu/agc/pubs/id/id135/id135.pdf ). Mass treatment of all calves (metaphy-
detection and prompt effective treat- laxis) should be considered if sickness is
ment are essential to reducing spread and Pneumonia/Shipping Fever/Bovine expected in a group of high-risk calves
limiting damage to eye. The earliest signs Respiratory Disease Complex or if increasing rapidly. A hospital pen is
include a large amount of watery tears Pneumonia/shipping fever/bovine an option so sick animals can be closely
that often flow down the face, excessive respiratory disease (BRD) is caused by a observed and easily treated but must be
blinking, squinting, and sensitivity to complex interaction of bacterial and viral cleaned and sanitized regularly.
light. In 1 to 2 days, the cornea appears organisms along with stress in an animal, Prevention includes reducing stress
white and a small ulcer or “pit” develops leading to infection and inflammation of and exposure while promoting resistance
towards the center of the eye. Some cases the lungs. Clinical signs include depres- to infection. Preconditioning is one suc-
will resolve while others progress to deep sion, fever, off-feed, an increase in the cessful approach. This management and
ulceration and corneal rupture. rate and depth of respiration, cough, nasal marketing program significantly reduces
Treatment with a long acting antibiotic discharge, and open-mouth breathing. illness and death due to BRD. The Ken-
along with topical fly repellant is the best BRD is associated with the stress reaction tucky Certified Preconditioned for Health
course of action to reduce the spread to changes in diet, a new environment, CPH-45 program ensures that the calves
of pinkeye in the herd. Active cases of weather, water, dehorning, castration, have been vaccinated, weaned a mini-
pinkeye with excessive tearing attract flies weaning, handling, confinement, hauling, mum of 45 days and have learned to eat
that spread the bacteria quickly. Work and mixing with new groups of calves. from a feed bunk and drink water from a
with a veterinarian to determine the best Several viruses are major contribu- trough. The calves must be offered a free
antibiotic for the situation. Isolation of the tors to BRD. They are highly contagious choice mineral with minimum specifics
affected animals will also help limit the and include bovine respiratory syncytial for copper, selenium, zinc, manganese,
spread. A patch can be used to protect an virus (BRSV), bovine viral diarrhea virus and salt content. The program includes
affected eye however it is difficult to see (BVD), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis required vaccinations (IBR, PI-3, BVD,
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