Master's thesis - Faculty of Arts 2020 - Masarykova univerzita
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Faculty of Arts
Department of Chinese Studies
Master’s thesis
2020 Bc. Kateřina MaškováFaculty of Arts
Department of Chinese Studies
Fantasy Genres of Chinese Internet Literature
Master’s thesis
Bc. Kateřina Mašková
Supervisor: Mgr. et Mgr. Dušan Vávra, Ph.D.
2020I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and it contains no other materials written or
published by any other person except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis.
Brno, 31st of May, 2020 …………………………..ABSTRACT The main focus of this thesis are the contemporary genres of Chinese Internet fantasy literature, namely qihuan, xuanhuan, and xiuxian. Generally speaking, Chinese fantasy genres fuse elements of Western fantasy with elements of traditional Chinese culture and enjoy mass popularity both in China and abroad. The Chinese Internet literature developed into widespread phenomenon, with its own terminology and specifics. Therefore, one of the goals of this thesis is to provide a basic introduction of the Chinese Internet literature discourse to the Western reader, with the description of relevant terms and brief overview of its history. The main goal is then to introduce and analyse above mentioned fantasy genres, and related terms, and to answer research questions: What are the narrative conventions of three Internet fantasy genres qihuan, xuanhuan, and xiuxian? How are the terms used by its readers? Does the concept of genre transform within the Internet literature discourse? This will be done based on analysis of three Internet fantasy novels – Panlong (Coiling Dragon), Douluo Dalu (Soul Land), and Xianni (Renegade Immortal), along with the analysis of relevant fan-made online content. Keywords: Internet literature, Chinese fantasy, genre fiction, xuanhuan
Acknowledgments My biggest thanks belongs to my supervisor Dr. Dušan Vávra – without his patience, support, brainstorming sessions, and advice this thesis would not exist. Another acknowledgment goes to my family and friends, who all put up with my fatigue, and provided much needed encouragement and support. I would especially like to thank Elis, as she was always willing to listen and to help with the google searches, when my brain refused to function anymore. Another thanks to my roommates, who always brought snacks (and beer). And my last thanks goes to the holy trinity of all students – the coffee, the pasta, and the Internet.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 7
METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 8
RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................................................... 9
1. PART 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1. Internet Literature in China - Introduction........................................................................... 9
1.2. History of Internet literature in China - Brief Overview ................................................... 20
1.3. Important Terms Relevant to the Internet Literature Discourse ........................................ 22
1.3.1. YY Literature/Fiction.................................................................................................. 22
1.3.2. Shuang 爽 - “Coolness/Thrill/High” ........................................................................... 25
1.3.3. Xiaobai 小白 versus Wenqing 文青 ............................................................................ 27
2. PART 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 30
2.1. Genre in Chinese Internet Literature.................................................................................. 30
2.2. Terms Relevant to Internet Genre Fiction ......................................................................... 44
2.2.1. Jiakong 架空 − ‘Overhead’ ........................................................................................ 44
2.2.2. Chuanyue 穿越 − Transmigration or ‘Time-travel’.................................................... 50
2.2.3. Chongsheng 重生 − ‘Rebirth’ ..................................................................................... 56
2.2.4. Chuanyue and Chongsheng – Analysis and Conclusions ........................................... 60
2.3. Chinese “Fantasy” Internet Literature Genres ................................................................... 63
2.3.1. Qihuan 奇幻................................................................................................................ 65
2.3.2. Xuanhuan 玄幻 ........................................................................................................... 68
2.3.3. Xiuxian 修仙 ............................................................................................................... 73
2.3.4. Novels’ Analysis, Comparison and Conclusions ........................................................ 77
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................... 89
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................ 93
Primary sources ......................................................................................................................... 93
Secondary literature .................................................................................................................. 95INTRODUCTION
This master’s thesis deals with the topic of Internet literature in (Mainland) China. Internet
literature is a phenomenon, which first started to spread among Chinese citizens during the 1990’s.
During that time, the literary enthusiasts started to explore a newly emerged creative space – the
Internet. Since then, the Internet literature has turned into a great industry on a scale, which has no
alternative in the West. The Internet literature has introduced innovative forms, themes, aesthetics,
and practices into modern Chinese literature, and despite the initial negative evaluation of this type
of works by the academics and literary critics, it has been enjoying widespread popularity among
Chinese people for over 20 years. Even though it has been influenced by foreign works, most of
the Internet fiction genres have roots in the traditional Chinese literature, and the 20th century
popular fiction wuxia 武侠 – the martial arts novel. However, the scholarly interest remains largely
disproportional to the size of its readership so far.
This work thematically connects to my bachelor’s thesis from 2017, where I analysed the
existence of wuxia topoi in the contemporary xuanhuan fiction. The goals I have set for my
master’s thesis are a bit broader, as I aim to provide a basic introduction of the Chinese Internet
literature discourse to the Western reader, and to conduct an analysis and comparison of the
contemporary Internet fantasy genres. Therefore, the thesis is divided in two parts:
The first part will provide an introduction to the topic of Internet literature in China based
on secondary literature, along with the brief overview of Internet literature’s history and the trends’
development from 1990’s to approx. 2014. Also, key terms related to the discourse will be
described, again based on secondary literature with the additional information from the Internet
forums discussing Chinese Internet literature.
The second part will be based on the work with primary sources, in this case the Internet
novels, fan forums, relevant websites and YouTube channels, and their comparison with the
approaches and genre descriptions conducted by other scholars. Firstly, I will discuss the topic of
the genre fiction in Chinese Internet literature, which influence comes from two main directions –
the traditional Chinese fiction and the literary medium – cyberspace. Therefore, I will first analyse
the sources of the contemporary Internet genre in the traditional Chinese literature, and then
analyse the existing methods of genre categorization among the readers and publishers. Next
important topic also revolves around the terminology, as I will discuss and describe recurrent
topics in the Internet genre fiction with the help of secondary literature, which will be followed byan analysis of those topics in exemplary novels. In the last part of my thesis, the fantasy genres of
Chinese Internet literature will be discussed. Due to certain discrepancies between the usage of the
genre terminology in the academia and in practice, said genres will firstly be described according
to the secondary literature, followed by my own analysis based predominantly on the primary
sources – in this case, the three Internet fantasy novels Douluo Dalu 斗罗大陆, Panlong 盘龙,
and Xianni 仙逆, along with the discussion and entries by the fans of the genre on online forums
and YouTube.
METHODOLOGY
This thesis main goal is to introduce and analyse three fantasy genres of Chinese Internet
literature – qihuan, xuanhuan, and xiuxian. This will be done for the bigger part on basis of analysis
of exemplary novels. For each genre, I have selected one novel on basis of its general popularity
among its readers, both in China and abroad. The selected novels are:
- Panlong 盘龙 (Coiling Dragon) (2008) from author Wo Chi Xi Hong Shi 我吃泗洪是
for qihuan 奇幻.
- Douluo Dalu 斗罗大陆 (Soul Land) (2008) from author Tang Jia San Shao 唐家三少
for xuanhuan 玄幻.
- Xianni 仙逆 (Renegade Immortal) (2012) from author Er Gen 耳根 for xiuxian 修仙.
For the analysis of chosen topics and terms related to Chinese Internet genre fiction, various
exemplary xiaobai 小白 and danmei 耽美 novels were chosen, whose complete list can be found
in the references.
With regards to real-life usage of the terminology, I will analyse relevant primary sources,
such as online (fan) literary forums on relevant websites – Douban, Jinjiang Literature City, Novel
Updates, Qidian, Readlightnovel, Wuxiaworld, and Zongheng, along with videos from YouTube
channels dedicated to this topic.
However, the discussion of previously conducted research will not be omitted from my thesis,
as I will consult available secondary literature dealing with Chinese Internet literature. Here, I
would like to highlight the work of Professor Shao Yanjun, who published three books about
Internet literature on basis of her 5-years-long research (Wangluo Shidaide Wenxue Yindu 网络时
代的文学引渡 [2015], Wangluo Wenxue Jingdian Jiedu 网络文学经典解读 [2016], Wangluo
Wenhua Guanjianci 网络文化关键词 [2018]), and which provided the theoretical basis for my
8own research. Another such publication is the doctoral thesis from Sheila Chao Desire and Fantasy
Online (2013), where she conducts an empirical research of the literary website Qidian, on which
basis she provides an overview of commercial mechanisms of Internet literature in China, along
with textual analysis of chosen published texts.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
- What are the narrative conventions of three Internet ‘fantasy’ genres qihuan, xuanhuan,
xiuxian?
- What are the differences among qihuan, xuanhuan, xiuxian? Is it possible to give viable
definitions of these three genres?
- How are the terms – qihuan, xuanhuan, xiuxian – used by its readers?
- What are the shared characteristics of Chinese Internet fantasy?
- Does the concept of genre transform within the Internet literature discourse? How?
1. PART 1
1.1. Internet Literature in China - Introduction
Internet literature (wangluo wenxue 网络文学) in China is a type of literature that has
spread massively among Chinese citizens in the past ten years. It is a phenomenon that is specific
to East Asian societies, and “has no real equivalent of the same scale and scope in Western
countries” (Hockx 2015, 4). Although currently being over 20 years in existence, it has been paid
a little attention among Chinese and foreign scholars in proportion to how widely it has spread
among the Chinese netizens. This is mostly due to the fact that such literature is usually considered
being ‘pulp fiction’ of low quality with little to no literary value. However, the number of Chinese
netizens reached over 800 million in 2018 and is estimated to reach around 975 million in 20231.
In 2012, the number of readers was 202.67 million, amounting to 39.5 percent of netizens in China,
out of which 55.5 percent is between ages of 20 to 40, thus indicating its popularity among young
people (Jing, 2012). With the sheer number of people within the Internet literature community,
readers and writers alike, one cannot simply ignore the significance of this phenomenon and its
impact on Chinese society. Moreover, due to its use of new literary medium and production model,
Internet literature becomes more and more intertwined with other areas of cultural production,
1
Information published on the Statista website. Available from:
9such as radio, gaming industry, TV dramas and even influenced trends in traditional printed
literature.
In the past, the tendency between scholars have mostly been to analyse Internet literature in
terms of traditional literary discourse. However, Shao argues in her book Wangluo Shidaide
Wenxue Yindu (Literature Guide in the Internet Age) (2015) that Chinese Internet literature cannot
be judged by the same criteria as a traditional literature, and given its significance, future research
of Internet literature should focus on creating its own special discourse that is different from
traditional literary discourse. She even compares the arrival of online literature to the arrival of
Gutenberg’s paper-print in 16th century. However, some scholars expressed doubts about the
ascribed significance of Internet literature and its influence on the future of literature. Jing Chen
in her essay Refashioning Print Literature - Internet Literature in China (2012) questions the
emphasis on the revolutionary power of Internet literature, and states that “most writers and critics
still insist on print literature proper” (Jing 2012, 544), and that most writers and even researchers
still prefer to publish their better works in print over posting them online. Personally, I am more
favourable towards approaches that regard Internet literature as phenomenon of significant
influence, with characteristics that are distinct in contrast with print literature. When reading
Internet novel, I would argue that the experience differs greatly from reading a printed book, given
its reading medium and the way this medium works. For this reason, I think it is appropriate to
explain the difference between traditional and Internet literature. Because my main sources in this
thesis are the books about Internet literature written by professor Shao, namely previously
mentioned Wangluo Shidaide Wenxue Yindu and also Wangluo Wenxue Jindian Jiedu
(Interpretation of Internet Literature Classics) (2016), I will mostly be using her model of division
between print-based (‘traditional’) and internet-based (online) literature.
In her book, Shao refers to the paper-based and print-based literature as ‘traditional literature’
(chuantongwenxue 传统文学), as she is pointing out the fact, that paper is the contemporary
mainstream medium. However, I found more convenient to use the term ‘paper-based/paper
literature’ in this sense, since the term ‘traditional literature’ can be a bit misleading. As Shao said:
“In the near future, the concept of "web literature" should no longer exist. On the
contrary, the concept of "paper literature" will be used more and more. Because as the
"dominant medium", the Internet will be a platform for all literary and literary forms” (2015,
6).
In China, the tradition of print-based literature is much longer than in the West, although the
beginning of print literature in the “post-Gutenberg” sense can be traced to the late 19th century,
10when the arrival of new printing technologies from the West caused a significant transformation
in the print culture (Reed 2010, 6). The modern literary tradition in China was mostly established
in the early 20th century under the May 4th New Literature Movement (xinwenxue yundong 新闻
学运动). Access to the information and the technology has been for the most of the 20th century
regulated by the state (Reed 2010, 24), and the printing establishment controlled by the
government was again reconfigured in 80’s and the 90’s, “first by computerization and then by the
Internet, producing ever-newer postmodern forms of texts along with redefined author-audience
relationships” (2010, 24).
In this case, the central position of traditional literary production mechanism in China is
occupied by the literary journals (wenxue qikan 文学期刊), which in the past years were the main
tool that helped to enforce the government-controlled model of literary production. China’s first
literary journals were published in 19th century, although their first true spread began after 1910,
namely around intellectual groups based in Shanghai. The majority of the works produced during
the Republican era were first published in such journals. They were periodical subscriptions which
at the given time served mainly as a kind of a “virtual meeting place” and took important part in
building author (contributor) - reader community. A vital position was taken up by the journal
editors, which were seen as ‘authors’ of each issue of the journal as a whole (Hockx 2004, 105-
111). After 1949, most of the published journals were so-called ‘serious journals’, underlined by
the government’s efforts to eliminate popular entertainment literature, and promote such works
that have certain moralistic and ideological tendencies. Therefore, literary journals played a crucial
role in the cultural establishment of the socialist regime, as they served as an official venue for the
writers to publish their works. The editors of these journals thus became “the liaisons between the
Party and the writers”, as they were always government employees (Kong 2002, 93-99). In this
context, the literary journals have three main functions: they are the main channel for
communication of ideology; they serve as means of education, thus improving the level and quality
of literature; and they aid with the cultivation of writers and forming writers associations (Shao
2015, 4-5). The problem with such model lays in its aging readership and obsoleteness, since it
largely ignores popular demand, and it also never underwent the marketization process that took
place in the ‘popular journals’ which emerged during the 80’s, and also in the rest of the society
during the late 20th century. For this reason, printed literature in China came into crisis.
The relationship between the two most important segments of literary production −
producers (writers) and consumers (readers) − is therefore influenced by the literary journal editors
and the literary publishers, which often have a direct say in which works and articles are going to
11be put in print. The status of author in the field of print literature is therefore somehow sacred −
the authors need to overcome an obstacle in form of convincing the publisher and editor that his
or her work is worthy of investing resources in. Thus, the marker of successful writer is the number
of copies sold. Terminologically speaking, the writers of print-based system are usually referred
to as ‘authors’ (zuojia 作家), and those being active on the Internet are referred to as ‘writers’
(xieshou 写手), which again hints at the elevated cultural status of the traditional writers, whereas
Internet writers tend to be considered on the lower level in terms of quality of their works (Hockx
2015, 5).
Chinese Internet literature is international in its origin, and the first works in Chinese
appeared in online newsletters, magazines and groups run by Chinese students overseas (Yang
2010, 334). When internet arrived in China in 1994, it is safe to say it significantly transformed
many aspects of the creative industry, literary field included. To provide a single, clear definition
for Internet literature proved to be an issue among the scholars so far. It is important to separate
Internet literature from ‘online’, ‘digitalized’ or ‘electronic’ literary works that might include
literature previously published in print and subsequently made available online. I decided to use
the direct translation of Chinese wangluo wenxue 网络文学 − Internet literature, instead of the
term online literature, because I think it better reflects the fact that this kind of literature is
completely web-based. This means that its production base, publishing process and reading
medium are all placed on the web. As Shao says:
“Internet literature does not mean all literature published and spread on the Internet,
but literature produced on the Internet. In other words, the network is not only a publishing
platform, but also a production space. [...] Internet literature is "hypertext", which is
composed of "networks" of "node links", and the destination of the link can lead to the inside
or to another "hypertext" outside. Network technology makes "hypertext" infinitely open and
fluid” (2015, 126).
She emphasizes the openness of the text (wenben 文本) to the authors’ and readers’ infinite
interpretations, which is put in contrast to paper-based literature. Hockx in his book Internet
Literature in China (2015) provides a similar definition:
“So what, then, is Internet literature in China? [...] It is Chinese-language writing,
either in established literary genres or in innovative literary forms, written especially for
publication in an interactive online context and meant to be read on -screen” (2015, 4).
12Guobin Yang, on the other hand, stresses the fact that Chinese Internet literature
encompasses wider array of works than the traditional print literature:
“Chinese internet literature thus includes works that are clearly “literary” and others
that are not. A blog entry may or may not be literature, depending on how it is viewed by its
author and readers. What counts as internet literature is thus a matter of social construction”
(2010, 333).
The Internet literature is based on fan economy (fensi jingji 粉丝经济), which creates a
reader-centric environment, where the reader can have a direct influence on the creative process
and final appearance of the work. This aspect of Internet literature is stressed by Xiang Ren in his
research paper Chinese Online Literature - Creative Consumers and Evolving Business Models
(2012), where he describes the Internet literature in China as a fan-generated phenomenon:
“It is mainly comprised of original serialised fiction, written by amateur writers for
communities of fellow enthusiasts and intended for digital distribution. Although online
literature began as a popular grassroots movement that was largely free from commercial
ambition among either authors or website operators, as audiences have grown wider and
processes of economic reform have deepened, a formal online literature industry has begun
to emerge” (2012, 118).
The desires and wishes of the audience occupy a central position in the production process.
“Some people call it ‘economics of love’. The fans are both ‘excessive consumers’ (guodude
xiaofeizhe 过度的消费者) and ‘active producers’ (jijide zizishengchangzhe 积极的意义生产者).
They are not only the people that author’s livelihood relies upon, but also think tanks, and their
kith and kin, forming an ‘emotional community’ (qinggan gongtongti 情感共同体) with the author”
(Shao 2015, 128). The term ‘economics of love (youaide jingjixue 有爱的经济学)’ is a good term
for illustration of the importance of cultivating a good fanbase for the Internet writers. The
audience thus makes an integral part of the fan economy, and they become prosumers (chanxiaozhe
产销者). The word prosumer2 is a combination of words producer and consumer and refers to the
participation of readers on the creation process (2015, 59), and the term presents a good way to
characterize the role readers fill within the Internet literature ecosystem. Ren uses the term
‘creative user community’ to describe such environment. When talking about ‘literary text’ in a
traditional sense, the force it has towards its audience is centripetal. On the other hand, ‘hypertext’
2
The term ‘prosumer’ was originally used by Alvin Toffler in his book The Third Wave (1980).
13has more of a centrifugal tendency. In other words, traditional literary works are author-centred,
whereas the hypertextual works produced on the Internet are all very ‘reader-centric’ − the
audience often has a direct influence on the production process, because the author actually takes
into account readers’ comments and wishes.
Hypertextuality (chaowenbenxing 超 文 本 性 ) is an important factor in the creation of
Internet literature works. In the majority of websites that publish Internet literature, the visitor first
clicks on the genre it falls under. On the bottom of the page there are links to other texts under
‘book author recommendation’ (benshuzuojia tuijian 本书作家推荐), and on the right side of the
page the comment section can be found. Comment section is a very important part of every website
that publishes Internet literature: here, the readers can post comments, communicate with each
other, and make votes for popularity polls (Shao 2015, 127). The readers become ‘followers’ of
the work, which is vastly different process from simply downloading the book or purchasing and
reading a printed copy. The literary work in this sense becomes an opening post, and comments of
the readers follow-up posts. As the number of printed copies sold was a marker of success of the
traditional writer, for the Internet writer it is the number of ‘hits’ (dianji 点击) on the website. By
employing a new media type, the literary innovation that was brought by the Internet literature
therefore lies in its use of multimedia and hypertext.
Internet literature also provided an opportunity for a creative space that is free from elite-
centric governance to emerge, due to its connection to ACG culture (anime, comics and game),
which is currently the most prevalent in the Internet space, and the above-mentioned
hypertextuality. With relation to the fan-based economy, Shao also mentions another term −
tribalization (buluohua 部落化). Tribalization is a natural occurrence within fan economy, when
people with similar tastes, mindsets and believes gather together on the web, as a form of re-
tribalization after the print civilization era, in which the creation process became separate from the
readers and forced the people to emerge from their ‘tribe’ (local social group) as an individual.
Electronic technologies here play a role of ‘human extension’ (rende yanshen 人的延伸), where
the internet serves as the extension of the central nerve system and allows people to connect
instantly across great distances and thus surpassing the limitations of time and space of the past
(Shao 2015, 128). The advantages of Internet literature when building literary communities also
mentions Yang:
“The question is whether the internet adds anything new to the forms of association
and if so, how these new forms affect substance. The crucial difference here is interactivity
14and time-space compression. The internet facilitates the rise of translocal and transnational
online literary communities. The absence of physical locations also means that online
communities can be much larger than literary communities in print culture” (2010, 347).
Even though Internet literature and print literature are quite different, they remain
interconnected. As the popularity of Internet literature continues to rise, and its industry keeps
expanding, its influence on other cultural areas also increases. This can be illustrated by the
commercial success of Internet writers, and especially websites that publish Internet literature
online. With traditional printed literature in crisis, print publishers often began to turn to the
Internet literature in search of new works (Yang 2010, 337). Some of the literary works that
originated as Internet literature were later published as printed books, although they would still
remain under the ‘Internet’ label. “[...] Bookshops in China would group “novels” together on one
shelf and “online novels” on another shelf, the only formal distinction between them being that the
latter had originally been published on the Internet” (Hockx 2015, 5).
Although originally the websites that publish Internet literature emerged as spaces for the
literary enthusiasts and fans, and had little to no commercial ambitions, over the time they evolved
to present one of the top commercially successful websites in China and created very effective
business models. “Authors were not motivated by the possibility of financial gain, but rather by
the desire for creative expression, belonging and popularity, that plays such an important role in
other areas of user-generated content production” (Yang 2010, 346). As the online readership
grew, certain Internet authors began to gain a huge popularity, thus creating a new, untapped
market for genre fiction in China, especially when one keeps in mind that the demand for popular
literature was largely unmet during the 90’s. For this reason, the print publishers at the time began
to turn to amateur authors online that were popular, turning them into bestselling books
(changxiaoshu 畅销书). It did not take long for websites that published monetized, user-generated-
content to emerge. As Hockx said:
“It was against this background of typical postsocialist uncertainty, with familiar
institutions disappearing, market mechanisms kicking in, and traditional tastes lingering,
that Internet literature began to emerge” (2015, 26).
Currently, the most successful business model was pioneered by the website Qidian (qidian
zhongwenwang 起点中文网, sometimes also referred to as ‘Starting Point Website’) and is
currently used by most of the literary websites under Shengda Ltd. group (shengda wenxue
youxiangongsi 盛大文学有限公司, here also referred to as Shengda Literature). It is mostly
15known as the ‘freemium model’ or ‘VIP reading model’, and its employment by Qidian in 2003
marked the dawn of the commercialization of Internet literature (Jing 2012). The site operates as
a standard platform for online forums, where users have the opportunity to publish their literary
works and receive comments from readers. “There is an intricate ranking system for fiction based
on numbers of visits to particular work, numbers of published readers’ comments, numbers of
recommendations from readers to other readers, and the number of times a reader added a work to
their private collection” (Hockx 2015, 112), along with some other ranking categories, which can
provide useful information and statistics for the writer about how their work is being accepted by
the audience. The website also employs a certain number of ‘VIP authors’, “whose works appear
in serialization, chapter by chapter, initially for free, but usually about halfway through the novel
they are moved behind a paywall” (Hockx 2015, 110). Under this model, once the author managed
to cultivate a sizable readership and positive comments from readers, he or she is offered a contract
by the website, which is referred to as shangjia 上架 (“getting on the perch”) (2015, 124). The
first part of the work then can be accessed and read for free, but the readers have to pay in order
to access later chapters, which is mostly done by the system of micropayments (Ren 2012, 122).
Usually, the earnings from the work are divided 70 - 30 among the author and the web provider,
making this system attractive not only for the publishing platform, but also for the writers, as it
allows them to earn good money for their creative efforts, and for the readers which gain regular
access to many works of their favourite genre for relatively modest amount of money (Hockx
2015, 110). After signing the contract, the authors are required to assign all intellectual property
rights to the platform, which in practice means they are allowed to publish only on the contracted
website in the future.
“In 2006, Qidian attracted over 100 million daily page views and made more than 30
million RMB (about $476,000) profit. Qidian’s successful combination of a freemium
approach and micropayment system was regarded as one of the most significant commercial
innovations made in China that year” (Ren 2012, 122).
The freemium model enables the readers to first try-out the content for free, which effectively
combats the issue of plethora of relatively (or completely) unknown Internet writers that are able
to publish online. Since the only requirement in order to publish on the Internet is to have access
to the computer and Internet connection, the number of Internet literary works being posted is
extremely large. Therefore, one of the advantageous features of the freemium model is that it
allows the consumers − readers to decide if they are willing to invest money into the authors’ work.
This business model is therefore favourable for both producers and consumers: the consumers
16themselves filter the works they are interested in reading, thus the demand for popular literature is
being met even more effectively. For the producers, the benefit lies in the ability of this model to
significantly lessen the initial financial burden of publishing that is traditionally linked with most
areas of cultural production. “By allowing communities of users to filter content for commercial
viability and authors to assume the costs of creative production and experimentation, Qidian
radically reduced the costs of bringing each individual creative work to the market” (Ren 2012,
123).
When discussing business models of Internet literature in China, one cannot very well omit
mentioning the issue of copyright and censorship. Although the success of the freemium model
widened the perceptions of user willingness to pay for content in China’s emergent internet
economy (Hockx 2015, 110), and there is currently just about 20 websites providing licensed
access to Internet literature (Ren 2012, 119), countless of pirate websites exists and new ones keep
emerging every day. One of the key conditions for the freemium model to be successful is the
ability to enforce a copyright on their published works. After 2011, Shengda Literature began to
take more proactive strategies against unauthorised distribution of their VIP content and it even
resulted in the imprisonment of several ‘pirate’ web managers. However, at that time, only about
26 percent of estimated income came from the online reading platforms, and the earnings from
selling the printed copies were almost double of that (Ren 2012, 124). Therefore, it can be noted
that the development of more effective methods of copyright enforcement and better technological
protection against unauthorised copying should in the future be one of the key concerns of the
Internet literature industry.
According to Shao we can distinguish three important characteristics, that all Internet
literature works share (2015, 126-130):
1. “Consuming terminal decides all” (xiaofei zhongduan jueding yiqie 消费终端决定一
切)
The consuming terminal here means the readers, which have a significant impact on the
creative process and the appearance of the final product. Most of the big websites publishing
Internet literature can be filed under this category. The literature on the website is usually divided
into categories by genres (for example xuanhuan 玄幻，qihuan 奇幻, wuxia 武侠, kehuan 科幻,
danmei 耽美, tongren 同人 and others), or by other popular themes such as chuanyue 穿越,
hougong 后宫 or daomu 盗墓 . The genre fiction thus dominates the literature created and
published on this kind of websites. The main focus of the writers of genre novels is the readers’
17pleasure, who demand the constant supply of similar ‘products’. For this reason, a strict set of
conventions for each genre evolved, in order to satisfy such demand. This approach is marginally
different from the ‘serious literature’ (yansu wenxue 严肃文学). Shao compares the production of
novels on the Internet to a supermarket, where in ‘an exchange of desire’ (yuwangde jiaoliu 欲望
的交流) readers can choose from a selection of genre literature according to their preference.
“The author’s novel is like an opening post, comments in the comment section are the
follow-up posts. In the follow-up posts, there can emerge opinion leaders (yijina lingxiu 意
见领袖), the readers can gift flowers (songhua 送花), pour water (guan shui 灌水, which is
internet slang for spamming the forum) or throw bricks (paizhuan 拍砖; internet slang for
harsh criticism), or can send a real money by tipping (dashang 打赏) the author” (Shao
2015, 23).
To sum up, all of previously mentioned practices illustrate the characteristics of the fan
economy put in practice, where the terminal (reader) truly has the power to decide the final form
of the product (novel).
2. Gamification (youxihua 游戏化) of the Internet literature
As was previously hinted, the Internet literature in China remains interconnected with other
areas of cultural production, namely the area of online gaming. The generation of young readers
of Internet literature belongs to the ‘internet generation’ (wangluo yidai 网络一代), which also is
the ‘gaming generation’ (wangyou yidai 网游一代). Therefore, one can notice the influence of
online games on the Internet novels, the most significant being the linearization and acceleration
of the plot, which is the biggest selling point of the Internet novels. Usually, in the Internet novel’s
‘take off’ (qipao 起跑), which are the initial free chapters about 20 thousand characters long − the
length of a usual novel − the plot devised by the writer is usually rather extravagant. Then, as the
novel goes, the plot gets more and more dangerous, just as the online game gets more difficult the
further we play. However, the plot usually lacks more intricate foreshadowing, and is very
straightforward.
“Reading of Internet novel thus reminds one of playing an online game. The
protagonist takes a straight line towards the goal and the terminal point of the story. There
is a great quantity and variety of this kind of novels, the plot just goes straight ahead. The
18feeling of thrill is easy to achieve, and the together with the ‘high3’ of playing the game
makes [the novels] compatible with the fast-paced and instant-reading rules of the internet”
(Shao 2015, 23).
The thrill mechanism of the online games became internalized by the Internet novels, and it
is increasingly common that the popular novels are also being adapted as online games with Wo
Chi Xi Hong Shi’s Xingchen Bian, or Tang Jia San Shao's Douluo Dalu as a prime example.
3. “Big bytes (dazijie 大字节) and microtext (weiwenben 微文本)”
Most of the text produced as the Internet literature is in form of hypertext and big bytes4,
counting over tens of thousands of characters. This is mostly derived from the salary system, which
rewards the Internet writers for the word count, and is also influenced by the reader’s demand for
a regular supply of big amount of their favourite works.
“Most of the contemporary Internet writers upload about 10 thousand characters a
day, some of them are [even] scheduled twice or thrice. This amount of work is already
reaching the limits of the human body, however, under the scrolling mouse of the Internet
reader it only amounts to a time it takes to drink a cup of coffee” (Shao 2015, 24).
The big bytes, which make up the substance of the Internet literature, are made up by the
modular aggregation of the microtext5. The textual form of microtext is adapted from the Internet’s
microcontent (weineirong 微内容), which is the smallest independent unit of the content on the
web − it can be a simple link, picture, video, blog post etc. The sheer size of the big bytes that
make up the long post of the Internet novels has nothing to do with the grand and complex narrative
but is in fact an aggregation of countless microtext modules. It is believed that as the Internet
literature will develop more towards the direction of the mobile reading apps in the future, and the
features of microtext will become more and more prominent, as it is suitable for easy and quick
reading.
3
Shuang 爽, see chapter 1.3.2.
4
Byte is a unit of digital information. One ‘byte’ is made up of eight ‘bits’ (abbreviation of ‘binary digit’ - 1 or
0). Several bytes then make up a word, or in this case, a character. The term ‘big bytes’ here refers to the fact, that
published Internet novels generally have a very large character-count, therefore making up a big unit of digital
information.
5
The typical example of ‘microtext’ is a tweet or sms message. It usually has a limited length and commonly
contains misspellings, slang, or abbreviations.
191.2. History of Internet literature in China - Brief Overview
As was previously mentioned, Internet literature in China is actually of international origin.
It was first pioneered by a number of literary enthusiasts that began to publish their works on
bulletin boards and personal web sites hosted outside China (Ren 2012, 120). Generally, the first
emerged online journal that used Chinese characters is considered to be China News Digest
(huaxia wenszhai 华夏文摘) in 1991. At that time, Internet network was not yet available in PRC,
and the journal entries were written by Chinese students studying in Northern America, namely
the United States. The journal became a channel for them to access news from China by
republishing articles from Chinese newspapers and magazines, and also, writing and reading of
Chinese articles provided an outlet for sharing their feeling of homesickness (Jing 2012, 540).
Although the limited email links to China were established as early as 1987 (Reed 2010, 11),
the Internet officially came to China in 1994. In its initial stages, the arrival of the Internet affected
only a fraction of Chinese population, but soon after, the Internet cafés (wangba 网吧) began to
spread and allowed greater number of Chinese, namely students, to connect to the Internet, thus
raising the awareness about Internet literature’s existence and the genre started to gain popularity
(Ren 2012, 121). The earliest Chinese Internet texts were usually shared in plain text documents
due to contemporary technological limitations, and were still largely influenced by the print
literature, mostly because the first generation of Internet writers, readers, and publishers grew up
in the 1980’s and thus was influenced by the print magazines of that time (Yang 2010, 335),
making the earliest Internet works a mixed hybrid of print and Internet literature. Aside from the
aforementioned China News Digest, a number of other overseas magazines started to emerge. The
first electronic journal devoted to literature was launched in 1994, and was called New Threads
(Xinyusi 新语丝), although except literary works, some non-literary writings were published, as
well as news. Other contemporary influential literary platforms on the Internet were Olive Tree
(Ganlanshu 橄榄树) and Cute Tricks (Huazhao 花招), both founded in 1995. Cute Tricks was
devoted mainly to women’s literature, and it was the first Chinese-language literary publication to
obtain its own domain name and ISSN number (Hockx 2015, 30).
In 1995, the Bulletin Board Systems (BBS) also appeared on servers at universities in China,
and were one of the commonly used instruments for distributing original literary works, the
example being Pizi Cai’s 痞子蔡 novel First Intimate Contact (Diyicide qinmi jiechu 第一次的
亲密接触), which was serialized through the BBS in 1998 in Mainland China and Taiwan.
Another memorable website Under the Banyan Tree (Rongshuxia 榕树下) was founded in 1997
20and started as a personal web page (Hockx 2015, 35). It was the first major website devoted fully
to Internet literature (Yang 2010, 336), therefore occupying a prominent place within the Internet
literature history.
“In 1999, Zhu founded the Shanghai Under the Banyan Tree Computer Company and
turned his personal website into a full-fledged online literature portal, billed as “the global
website for original Chinese language works” (Hockx 2015, 35).
The website organized literary prize competitions, promoted print publications under its
brand, and in 2009 it was acquired by Shengda Literature. Number of famous Internet authors were
discovered by the site, namely Anni Baobei 安 妮宝贝 or Murong Xuecun 慕容雪村.
More rapid spread of the Internet in China began after 1998. The important development in
the online writing was brought around the year 2000, with the emergence of interactive discussion
forums, or ‘message boards’ (luntan 论坛) on the World Wide Web (Hockx 2015, 32). Forums
are usually devoted to specific genres of themes. Usually only registered members can upload their
works, which are further commented on by both members and non-registered users. Most of the
discussions are supervised by moderators (banzhu 版主), which help to filter unwanted content,
including deleting anything that might alert the Internet censors − this is more recent development
due to the increase in Internet censorship, as originally the online forums allowed to see the users
contributions on-screen almost instantly.
The Internet literature started to gain a massive popularity in China by 2004. Coincidentally,
Shengda Literature entered the market at the same time. It acquired seven well-known websites
publishing Internet literature − Qidian, Jinjiang Literature City (Pujiang yuanchuang 普江原创),
Under the Banyan Tree, Fragrant Red Sleeves (Hongxiu tianxiang 红袖添香 ), Read Novel
(Xiaoshuo yueduwang 小说阅读网), XXSY (Xiaoxiang shuyuan 潇湘书院), and Romance
Fiction Bar (Yanqing xiaoshuoba 言情小说吧) (Ren 2012, 123) − and began to employ its
freemium business model, so the era of commercialization of Internet literature officially began.
It is good to note that by 2005 the Chinese netizen population surpassed that of the United States
(Reed 2010, 30). By the end of 2008, the number was already 298 million 6.
6
The data on the number of Internet users retrieved from the Statista Research Department. Available from:
212014 was the next crucial year in the Chinese Internet literature development when Shengda
Literature was acquired by Tencent (Tengxun 腾讯)7 in November 2014. From this point, Tencent
became the biggest player in the Internet literature market, even launching a mobile reading
platform QQ Reading Tencent Literature (QQ 阅读的腾讯文学) within its ‘pan-entertainment
strategy’ (fanyuele hua 泛 娱 乐 化 ), which became the leading trend in Internet literature
production after 2014. Along with some other companies also starting their own mobile reading
platforms, namely Baidu (Baidu 百度) and Alibaba (Ali baba 阿里巴巴), we can mark the start of
Internet literature spreading on new media platforms, such as mobile reading apps. The pan-
entertainment strategy involves a series of copyright selling, and new mode of the business
structure, that implies direct connection of the Internet literature to the film and TV, ACG and
other areas of cultural production, and thus integrating Internet literature into broader market of
mass entertainment (Shao 2015, 167). Such development can signify a beginnings of new media
revolution, and therefore, it is possible for the Internet literature in this context to get into the same
position, as the print literature was in the previous era. Therefore, researchers in the future should
be able to observe, whether the Internet literature will be able to retain its independence.
1.3. Important Terms Relevant to the Internet Literature Discourse
Internet literature community over the time course of its existence has evolved into a wide-
spread subculture, and thus a number of terms, which might seem confusing to the outsider, have
developed. The aim of this chapter is to introduce these terms, provide a definition, and describe
them in such way that clarifies their position within the Chinese Internet literature discourse.
1.3.1. YY Literature/Fiction
When discussing or researching Internet literature, one often comes across the term ‘YY
literature’ (YY 小说). The word ‘YY’ is the combination of pinyin initials of ‘yiyin 意淫’, which
translated literally means ‘to fantasize’ or ‘sexual fantasy’, or “lust of the mind” (Hockx 2015,
112). The translation “fiction that makes oneself feel good” (Chao 2013, 225) could also be used.
Originally, the term was used to evaluate the main protagonist Jia Baoyu in the Dream of the Red
Mansion. However, in the context of the Internet literature, the term YY does not necessarily refer
to sex and erotic fantasies but is a general reference to all desires that transcend the reality.
7
Tencent Holdings Limited (Tengxun Konggu Youxian Gongsi 腾讯控股有限公司) is the developer of the QQ
instant messaging platform.
22Therefore, YY could be considered a basic feature of Internet novels, which is why some people
in Chinese cyberspace collectively refer to online novels as YY novels (Shao 2018, 224).
In her doctoral thesis Desire and Fantasy Online (2013), where she researches Qidian’s
models of production and affiliated genres, Chao makes a point that all of the produced genre
literature reflects the individual desires of the Chinese netizens, namely the desire to be different
and successful (Chao 2013, 224).
“This success is unanimously defined by wealth, high socio-political status and sex for
male netizens, and love/sex, wealth, high socio-political status by female netizens. In this
regard, male netizens’ version of ‘success’ and female netizens’ version of ‘success’ are
complementary to one another. This definition of success has a heavy emphasis on
materiality and sex, which were previously propagandised by the CCP regime in Mao China
as a backward heritage from the ‘decadent’ West” (Chao 2013, 224-225).
She further notes that after the dawn of market economy in China, which came along with
economic reforms, the desires of Chinese people became much more individualistic, and
‘capitalistic’, especially in contrast with previously enforced ideals of Mao’s regime. Shao calls
this phenomenon the ‘I - generation (woshidai 我时代)’ (2015, 25). Such works of Internet fiction
could be used as a ‘mirror’ which reflects these fantasies and desires, even to the extent that many
of such works seem rather infantile or cheap (Chao 2013, 225). Similar observations towards YY
literature shares Hockx, when he notes that all of the genres share the intention to transport readers
into certain type of dream world “where they can identify with implausible superheroes whose
desires for fame, fortune, love, and sex are all fulfilled, often in grotesque proportions” (Hockx
2015, 112).
Most of the works that are produced as VIP on the Qidian website can be used as an example
of ‘peak YY’, and the most popular genres, such as xuanhuan, daomu, hougong, or danmei, fall
into this category (Shao 2015, 27). It seems that the deeper the desire is suppressed in the real
space, the easier it is for the YY to get out of control, resulting in certain YY text to become ‘over-
YY’ (guoduYY 过度 YY) (Shao 2018, 224).
However, YY is not exclusive only to the Internet literature − as was noted before, its origins
can be traced into some works of Chinese traditional literature. The famous wuxia writer Jin Yong
金庸 is considered as a founder of YY literature by some (namely his novel Deer Cauldron). Jin
Yong’s works all have a certain YY qualities, as the plot provides reader with satisfaction of the
mind. Some other characteristics − the world of jianghu that could be interpreted as a reflection of
23society, and the possible educational and aesthetic function of the novel, as we can usually come
across descriptions of the heroic spirit of xia upheld by the heroes, and also the rich use of Chinese
cultural elements in the books − are emphasized by writers and critics alike in an attempt to elevate
the value of popular culture (Shao 2015, 27).
Originally, the YY was seen as something shameful and low, especially by the literary elite,
but as the Internet literature community grew the views changed, as can be illustrated by an article
called YY is Innocent, Dreaming is Reasonable, in which the author dryorange argues that in days
where the value of money and power is celebrated, and the reality often seems harsh, the YY
novels serve as a break from the real world. Shao further argues that this article could be used as
an illustration of the cultural rebellion of the I - generation, which became much more consumerist.
She also points out that the recreational function of literature, previously repressed during May 4th
New Literature Movement, seems to be taken up by the YY literature (2015, 28). The purpose of
realist novels propagated by the New Literature movement is to broaden the reader’s understanding
of the real world, therefore such novels have a solid relationship with reality. Unlike the
imagination of realistic literature, the ontology of the fictional world in YY literature is not
morphed after the real world, but its purpose is to escape from the reality.
“Reality is to be ‘traversed’, and history is to be ‘overpassed’, because only by passing
through the reality and by overpassing history can the desire in the space of the novel be
fulfilled. [...] The more you ignore the rules of historical reality, the easier it is to fulfill your
own will” (Shao 2015, 30).
The setting (sheding 设定) is very important part of YY fiction. From different world
settings can be derived different narratives and story modes, thus stipulating the limits and
possibilities of each YY genre, showing trends occurring within YY literature works (Shao 2018,
225).
The readers of YY literature are sometimes referred to as zhainan 宅男 (for men) or zhainü
宅女 (for women). The word zhainan/zhainü is considered by some as a Chinese alternative of the
Japanese expression otaku おたく or is at least derived from it. Zhainan is generally a person who
stays at home all the time, typically spending a lot of time playing online games, or in this case,
reading Internet YY novels. Originally, the expression really was adopted from Japanese, and is a
further reminder of Internet literature’s interconnection with the ACG culture, as the
zhainan/zhainü is someone, who is ACG culture enthusiast, and originally the title was used among
ACG fans as an expression of subcultural identity (Shao 2018, 3). Over the time, the term spread
24even among the people that do not typically consume the ACG culture and the expression gained
a lot of derogatory undertones, becoming more synonymous with Japanese hikikomori 引きこも
り, which is a term that refers to a reclusive person that seeks different degrees of social isolation8.
However, among the ACG enthusiasts the word zhai 宅 (home) retained its positive connotation,
as it is a title that expresses their extreme enthusiasm for their hobby (being it manga, anime,
gaming, or the Internet novels), and within the context of fan economy of the Internet literature, it
drives them to use various media tools to create their own works, subsequently to be active on
various Internet platforms in order to discuss their common interests and share their homemade
texts with fellow fans. This leads to formation of Internet communities, which base their collective
identity on their shared interests, rather than their social group or geography (Shao 2018, 6) and
could be used as another example of tribalization within Internet literature discourse.
1.3.2. Shuang 爽 - “Coolness/Thrill/High”
Shuang 爽 is a term that one inevitably comes across when researching Chinese Internet
literature, but can be very confusing, because of its rather specific use within the Chinese
cyberspace. The literal translation means “feeling well”, and it usually refers to something that
makes us “feel good”. Within the Internet literature discourse, shuang refers specifically to the
feeling of refreshment and satisfaction one gets from the reading of the Internet novel (Shao 2018,
227).
Because shuang is a term that is quite complex, and is better understood in context, plus it
does not have any equivalent in English, I decided against using direct translation. In order to get
better idea of possible ways to translate this term, I decided to search through a discussion forums
like Quora and Reddit in hopes of gaining a better insight in how the word is used by netizens in
regards to Internet novels, and whether an established translation on platforms that translate
Chinese Internet novels to English9 exists. I was partially successful − although none of the threads
I found were discussing the term shuang specifically, it was mentioned in one of the answers in a
question thread on Quora. The name of the thread was Are Chinese Wuxia/Xianxia novels popular
in China? And how are they perceived?10 and within this thread, the users tried to explain the
8
Hikikomori. (2009) In Wikipedia: Accessed March. 2020, retrieved from:
9
I am referring to website like Wuxiaworld or Novelupdates, that publish english translations of Chinese Internet
novels. Such translations are mostly fan-made.
10
I accessed the thread on 17th of March 2020. Retrieved from https://qr.ae/pNniiK
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