New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited

 
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New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
new energy
futures paper:
batteries &
the circular
economy

                 ©2019 Vector Ltd

          1
New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
about Vector                                                                                                                                                contents

Vector is New Zealand’s largest                                                 of the Battery Leaders Group, attendees                                     FOREWORD                                     5        TRANSITION TO THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY 34
energy distribution company, and is                                             of the Vector New Energy Futures Lab                                        What to do with EV batteries: How the                 9R Applied to Batteries            35
creating a new energy future through                                            on batteries and other stakeholders who                                     problem – and potentially the solutions –             Transition 1: ‘Battery karma’ -
investigation and investment in new                                             were interviewed or provided case studies.                                  will arrive first in New Zealand             5        giving batteries a second life     36
and innovative technologies. This is                                                                                                                                                                                 Challenges                      41
                                                                                Primary author: Juhi Shareef                                                INTRODUCTION, PURPOSE & SCOPE
about unlocking for its customers                                                                                                                           OF PAPER                                     7        Transition 2: Remanufacture        42
the benefits of smart meters, solar                                             Reviewed and approved by:                                                                                                            Challenges                      42
                                                                                                                                                            Why batteries?                               7
panels, batteries, electric vehicle                                             Kate Beddoe, Karl Check, Cristiano                                                                                                Transition 3: Material recovery    42
                                                                                                                                                            Purpose of this Paper                        8
charging infrastructure, and energy                                             Marantes, Jonathan Bishop & Jo Phillips.                                                                                          Emerging transition opportunities:
                                                                                                                                                            Who we talked to                             9
management services.                                                                                                                                                                                              beyond lithium-ion                 48
                                                                                A special thanks to colleagues at Vector,                                   Scope: what’s in and what’s out             10
This New Energy Futures Paper -                                                 particularly Jo Phillips and Philip Ivanier,                                The role of the Battery Leaders Group       12        OUR CIRCULAR FUTURE                        50
Batteries and accompanying Technical                                            for their contribution.                                                                                                           Key uncertainties influencing the future
Addendum has been made possible                                                                                                                             EVERYTHING YOU WANT TO KNOW ABOUT
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  value chain of large batteries in NZ       50
thanks to the following people:                                                                                                                             LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES (AND MORE)  14
                                                                                                                                                                                                                     1.		Battery recovery and reuse vs
                                                                                                                                                            Legislative and Policy Context              14                materials recovery                 51
Duncan Wilson of Eunomia Consulting
NZ, Ariel Muller and Jiehui Kia of Forum                                                                                                                    Lithium-ion battery chemistries,                         2.		 Local vs global solutions          52
for the Future, Jeff Vickers and Ben                                                                                                                        characteristics and construction            14        Three 2030 scenarios                       53
Fisher of ThinkStep NZ, the members
                                                                                                                                                            CURRENT STATE OF PLAY:                                OPPORTUNITIES IN THE NEW BATTERY
                                                                                                                                                            OUR LINEAR SYSTEM                           18        ECOSYSTEM                                  57
                                                                                                                                                            What is a linear economy?                   18        The new battery ecosystem                  58
                                                                                                                                                            The linear battery value chain              18        New players & enablers: Innovation
                                                                                                                                                            Key materials in lithium-ion batteries      19        opportunities for NZ                       59
                                                                                                                                                            Retail & uses of large batteries in                   Commercial opportunities for NZ            66
                                                                                                                                                            New Zealand                                 20
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  WHAT’S NEXT?                               67
                                                                                                                                                            Stationary Storage                           21
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  The Battery Industry Group (B.I.G.)        70
                                                                                                                                                            Applications: Household                     22
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Join us on the journey to a New Energy
                                                                                                                                                            End-of-life collection & disposal           22
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Future			                                  70
                                                                                                                                                            Summary: why the linear economy
                                                                                                                                                            doesn’t work                                27

                                                                                                                                                            THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY                        28
                                                                                                                                                            What is a circular economy?                 28
                                                                                                                                                            3+3 principles for a circular economy       28
                                                                                                                                                            Circular economy and the Doughnut           29
Disclaimer                                                                                                                                                  Ōhanga Āmiomio: the circular economy in
Vector Ltd has taken due care in the preparation of this                                                                                                    Aotearoa		                                  30
report to ensure that all facts and analysis presented
are as accurate as possible. However, no guarantee is                                                                                                       Six enabling factors                         31
provided in respect of the information presented, and                                                                                                       A circular economy for large lithium-ion
Vector Ltd is not responsible for decisions or actions                                                                                                      batteries		                                 31
taken on the basis of the content of this report.
© Vector Ltd 2019                                                                                                                                           Signals of Change                           33

Through its partnership with Ngāti Whātua Ōrākei and its Kupe Street 30-home residential development for first-home buyers, Vector has created a real-
world lab enabling observation of how a future community grid might operate, in which access to new technology – specifically networked solar and battery
storage - is provided equally amongst all residents.

                                                                                                                                                                                                              3
New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
table of figures                                                                                             foreword
                                                                                                             What to do with EV batteries: How the problem – and potentially
                                                                                                             the solutions – will arrive first in New Zealand
                                                                                                             By Ariel Muller, Managing Director, Asia Pacific, Forum for the Future

Figure 1: 	Battery Leaders Group Joint                                                                      The momentum toward sustainable transport is              As used EV batteries begin to enter the
                                                            CASE STUDIES                              PAGE
             Statement                             13                                                        now undeniable. We just passed the 4 millionth            second-hand market, there is the need for
Figure 2: 	Cathode composition of lithium                  Waste            Household Battery         11    electric vehicle (EV) sold globally. Bloomberg            proactive action to build the technical and
             batteries, excluding lithium. Image            Management       recycling Programme             estimates that by 2040, 55% of all new car sales          social infrastructure for reuse, recycling
             reproduced from (Electrek, 2016).    16        New Zealand      Trial                           and 33% of the global fleet will be electric.             and responsible disposal solutions. Left
                                                                                                             Auto-manufacturers and countries are setting              unchecked, New Zealand runs the risk of facing
Figure 3: A Nissan Leaf Battery Pack               17       Envirostream     Large lithium-ion         23    ambitious targets and making measurable                   unintended environmental consequences, as
Figure 4: 	Linear Economy Conceptual                                        battery processing in           progress towards 100% electrification of                  current lithium-ion EV batteries can be highly
             Material                             18                         Australia                       cars. In New Zealand, the rate of adoption is             polluting and pose a fire risk if not disposed of
Figure 5:	An example linear battery value                  Toyota New       Large battery             25    exponentially rising from just 210 cars in 2013 to        properly. However, if seen as an opportunity to
             chain                                18        Zealand          collection, material            10,000 in 2018.                                           introduce innovative new market offerings, New
Figure 6: 	Growth of the Stationary                                         recovery and reuse                                                                        Zealand could become a leader in approaches
                                                                                                             The benefits of EVs are well understood. They are         demonstrating the new ecosystem of business
             Storage Market                        21
                                                            BMW              Closed life-cycle loop    38    low carbon, don’t produce tailpipe particulate            models that will emerge around the worldwide
Figure 7: 	Estimates of end-of-life EV                                      and collaborating on            emissions, quiet, and can act as a flexible storage       electrification of vehicle fleets.
             Battery Packs 2019 -2030             24                         a sustainable value             solution for intermittent renewable energy.
Figure 8: A linear vs a circular economy          28                         chain for EV batteries          However, with these benefits come challenges.             Aligning public and private interest to facilitate
Figure 9: 	The Doughnut of social and                                                                       One of the most pressing challenges faced by              policy and infrastructure change can be
                                                            Strategic Lift   Feasibility study         39
             planetary boundaries (2017)          29                                                         this industry is how to treat EV batteries at the         complex and laborious, requiring investment
                                                                             for second-life EV
                                                                                                             end of their useful life in vehicles. An EV battery       and engagement across multiple stakeholder
Figure 10:	Linear, recycling and circular                                   batteries in New
                                                                                                             is the single largest value item in a car and is          groups to build consensus. There will also
             economies                            30                         Zealand
                                                                                                             made with precious resources that are finite. In          be the need for education and incentives for
Figure 11: 	The 9R Framework adapted from                  Renault          Second-life batteries     39    addition, once EV batteries are no longer fit for         new behaviour from vehicle owners or users,
             Potting et al. (2017)                35                         power all-electric              purpose in vehicles, they still have approximately        whose participation would be key for the
Figure 12: 	Example EV battery lifecycle.                                   passenger boat in               80% of their battery storage capacity left and            success of solutions such as battery take-back
             Source: McKinsey & Company           36                         Paris                           therefore can operate as small scale, flexible            programmes.
Figure 13: 	Where electric vehicle batteries are           Vector &         End-of-life vehicle       40
                                                                                                             energy storage. In this challenge emerges an
                                                                                                             opportunity: How might we maximise the life               It is in this regard that New Zealand might
             being used and tested for new                  Relectrify       batteries could power
                                                                                                             of a battery through reuse and responsible                have an advantage in implementing system-
             roles. Source: Bloomberg, company                               homes and businesses
                                                                                                             recycling at end of life – and perhaps even more          wide change. In short, it is easier to bring the
             filings                              37
                                                            Audi             Battery material reuse    43    importantly, what will be the business models to          system together here. New Zealand has a
Figure 14: 	Outline of a circular economy.                                                                                                                            relatively small population that prizes its nature
                                                                                                             enable these solutions?
             Source: Ellen MacArthur Foundation,            ReCell           Closed-loop recycling     44                                                              and environment as a defining characteristic
             SUN and McKinsey Centre for                                     for lithium-ion                 The need to innovate around this challenge                of its identity. There are a few leading private
             Business and Environment.                                       batteries in the USA            is especially front of mind in New Zealand.               sector actors with a vested interest in the
             Drawing from: Braungart &                                                                       The country’s current EV uptake programme                 reuse, recycling and responsible disposal of EV
                                                            The Faraday      Research vehicle          44
             McDonough,                                                                                      relies heavily on the import of second hand               batteries.
                                                            Institution      working to develop,
             Cradle to Cradle (C2C).              45                                                         EVs. This means EVs entering the market come
                                                                             design and
Figure 15: 	Cost of raw materials used in                                                                   with semi-depleted batteries that are likely to           The government has also shown interest and
                                                                             manufacture world-
             batteries. Image reproduced from                                                                reach end of usable life in the vehicle sooner.           willingness to work with industry to introduce
                                                                             leading batteries in
             (Electrek, 2016)                     46                                                         Simultaneously, the absence of an indigenous              enabling policies such as a product stewardship
                                                                             the UK
                                                                                                             auto-manufacturing sector in New Zealand,                 scheme for large batteries. This momentum –
Figure 16: 	Critical uncertainties and three
                                                            Fortum &         Increasing the            47    coupled with the significant geographical                 and the relative ease of convening all the actors
             2030 circular scenarios for large
                                                            Crisolteq        recycling rate of               distance to other auto-manufacturing hubs,                – could allow New Zealand to leap frog other
             batteries                            53
                                                                             EV batteries in                 mean that solutions to maximise the use of EV             markets in Europe and Asia, when it comes to
Figure 17: 	An example circular ‘value loop’                                Scandinavia                                                                               introducing solutions at the national level.
                                                                                                             batteries are likely to come from beyond the
             for large batteries                  57
                                                            Sustainable      New Zealand Product       49    automotive sector.
Figure 18: 	The new Battery Ecosystem in
                                                            Energy Storage   Accelerator (NZPA)
             a new circular economy               58
                                                            Group
Figure 19: 	Product Stewardship Scheme
             Scope                                64        Victoria         Aluminium ion battery     49
                                                            University,      research
                                                            Wellington
                                                            Dynantis         Sodium aluminium          49
                                                            Aotearoa         battery research

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New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
foreword continued                                                                                            introduction, purpose
What to do with EV batteries: How the problem – and potentially                                               & scope of paper
the solutions – will arrive first in New Zealand
                                                                                                              Vector’s vision is to Create a New Energy Future. A key part of
By Ariel Muller, Managing Director, Asia Pacific, Forum for the Future
                                                                                                              this future is enabling distributed energy technologies including
                                                                                                              solar, EVs and batteries.
We are heartened that Vector, a Partner of                2.	Collaboration between private sector and the    These technologies are part of Vector’s value                         mining of cobalt that uses child labour; and
Forum for the Future, has taken the lead to                   government is needed, to introduce collective   chain, and batteries are now an essential part                        the degradation of the salt flats in Bolivia in
catalyse the conversation, acting as a “lighting              frameworks such as a product stewardship        of our lives, with the global battery market                          the search for plentiful lithium; the potential
rod” to attract current and future actors                     scheme that will enable new market              anticipated to be worth $100 billion by 2025.                         for thermal runaway fires from used batteries
from both the public and private sector, who                  solutions.                                                                                                            and the current lack of on-shore processing at
can present solutions to realise a circular                                                                                                                                         end-of-life in New Zealand. Add to this rapidly
economy for batteries in New Zealand. Last                3.	It is critical to bring consumers along from    Mobile technology and a low-                                          changing battery chemistries and the evolution
year, we worked with Vector to convene over                   the start. They can help to shape new
30 stakeholders, from EV and battery retailers,               markets and finesse new solutions in a          carbon future are unthinkable                                         of other technologies such as hydrogen.

users, recycling and waste management                         rapidly changing landscape.                     without batteries, a core                                             It’s a complex, dynamic and rapidly evolving
solution providers, industry associations and
                                                          The challenge is now for those who recognise        technological enabler of the Fourth                                   system.
regulators, to innovative start-ups and interest
groups.
                                                          the opportunities to drive the change we need.      Industrial Revolution.                                                All organisations in the battery value chain need
                                                          Maybe then what is first solved in New Zealand      - World Economic Forum Global Battery Alliance                        to work together in ways we never have before
Through an exploration of future scenarios of the         can be shared with the world.
                                                                                                                                                                                    to get in front of this challenge. We need to
battery value chain in New Zealand, we agreed                                                                                                                                       innovate to retain the value of the metals we dig
                                                          Watch the kiwis.
on three things:                                                                                              Batteries, particularly lithium-ion batteries power                   out of the earth. We need to invest in facilities
                                                                                                              everything from toys to cameras, computers,                           to manage our resources if we want a truly
1.	The need to solve the problem of EV batteries
                                                                                                              power tools, energy storage, e-scooters and                           circular economy. We need to be flexible in our
    at end-of-life presents opportunities to create
                                                                                                              e-bikes, trains and now electric aircraft. The                        approach.
    new market offerings and services.
                                                                                                              Global Battery Alliance, a World Economic
                                                                                                              Forum (WEF) initiative, has called batteries a
                                                                                                              ‘backbone technology’ in the transition from                          The New Zealand Ministry for the
                                                                                                              fossil fuels to a low-carbon future. The Fourth
                                                                                                              Industrial Revolution, which WEF’s Founder and                        Environment defines a circular
                                                                                                              Executive Chairman Klaus Schwab argues we                             economy as an economy “in
                                                                                                              have entered, relies on the hyperconnectivity                         which we keep resources in use
                                                                                                              of products and technologies, and therefore,
                                                                                                              energy storage solutions.                                             for as long as possible, extract the
                                                                                                                                                                                    maximum value from them whilst
                                                                                                              Thanks to high power and energy densities,
                                                                                                              lithium-ion batteries are key to the Fourth                           in use, then recover and regenerate
                                                                                                              Industrial Revolution (4IR). One characteristic of                    products and materials at the end
                                                                                                              4IR is the electrification of transport (E-mobility).                 of each service life.”
                                                                                                              This Paper focuses on large lithium-ion batteries,
                                                                                                              such as those used for energy storage or
                                                                                                              E-mobility which can be repurposed for second-                        Vector has been closely engaging with the
                                                                                                              life battery applications such as stationary                          Ministry for the Environment and we know
                                                                                                              energy storage for our electricity network,                           that a regulated Product Stewardship Scheme
                                                                                                              industry and households.                                              for large batteries including lithium-ion is due
                                                                                                                                                                                    to be developed as part of a suite of other
                                                                                                              They pose significant sustainability challenges                       schemes (see Technical Addendum for further
                                                                                                              (and by sustainability, we mean interconnected                        information).
                                                                                                              environmental, social and economic issues). As
                                                                                                              we transition to a low-carbon economy, in which                       Vector’s focus is on ‘large’ lithium-ion batteries
                                                                                                              E-mobility plays an increasing role, we all share                     for mobile (electric vehicle) and stationary
                                                                                                              some responsibility for managing batteries                            battery energy storage. Our view is that, if we as
                                                                                                              sustainably.                                                          industry proactively address repurposing and
                                                                                                                                                                                    end-of-life solutions, we will be well positioned to
                                                                                                              Sustainability challenges include resource                            innovate and shape regulation to avoid a cost-
                                                                                                              extraction which is reportedly responsible for                        prohibitive model.
                                                                                                              half of the world’s carbon emissions and more
                                                                                                              than 80% of biodiversity loss1; unregulated

                                                                                                              1
                                                                                                                  https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/mar/12/resource-extraction-carbon-emissions-biodiversity-loss?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other

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New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
introduction, purpose                                                                                          who we talked to
& scope of paper continued

Industry needs key insights in order to plan for
the future. These include:
                                                          Purpose of this Paper                                We engaged with a number of stakeholders across the large battery value chain in New
                                                                                                               Zealand and beyond from the stakeholder groups below. Many thanks to those who
                                                          We understand that we are not alone in asking        contributed advice, data, information and support.
•	What are the likely volumes of batteries that
                                                          these questions and we don’t attempt to answer
   will be coming to the end of their use / life,
                                                          all of these in this Paper, rather these will be
   given trends and new technologies?
                                                          addressed by a Battery Industry Group (B.I.G.)
•	What is the dollar value of a battery at               focussed on large batteries.
   different points in its lifecycle, particularly                                                                    Battery retailers and organisations such as PowerSmart NZ Ltd (part of the Vector group)
                                                          As organisations across the battery value                   New Zealand Battery Leaders Group (which Vector founded and whose members include
   end-of-life?
                                                          chain, we have a shared need to understand                  stakeholders on this list as well as Original Equipment Manufacturers such as Audi, BMW,
•	What is the impact of changing battery                 the potential regulatory, volume and market                                        Toyota and stationary battery manufacturers).
   technology / chemistry? What about                     ‘scenarios’ that we will face over time. We have
   disruptive technologies such as hydrogen?              therefore attempted to pull together all available
   What is the potential or need for                      data on the current battery ‘landscape’ here in                 Academic institutions                                                Charging infrastructure providers
   standardisation of battery design and battery          New Zealand and what opportunities are on the                 such as Victoria University                                                     e.g. ChargeNet
   storage?                                               horizon.

                                                                                                                                                                STAKEHOLDERS WE TALKED TO
                                                          Our current ‘linear’ system of extracting              Car wrecking individuals or companies
•	What are the second and third life                                                                                                                                                        Circular economy organisations such
   opportunities?                                         materials from the ground to make a battery,
                                                                                                                  Vehicle industry bodies such as Drive                                      as the Circular Economy Accelerator,
                                                          using a battery once then putting the ‘waste’
                                                                                                                   Electric, Electric Vehicles Leadership                                   an initiative of the Sustainable Business
•	How can we safely use, store and transport             battery into landfill at end-of-life is simply not
                                                                                                                  Group, the Motor Industry Association,                                                      Network
   used batteries?                                        sustainable. A commercially sustainable model
                                                          will require a shift across the entire system.           Vehicle Import / Industry Association
•	Can we have cost-effective on-shore end-of-                                                                                                                                                  Electricity distribution bodies,
   life solutions in New Zealand?                         We have a unique opportunity to work                                                                                              generators and organisations including
                                                          together to find the answers, which is why we            Sustainability consultants such as                                        the BusinessNZ Energy Council (BEC)
•	Is there a cost to stewardship / end-of-life           have commissioned research and engaged                   Forum for the Future and Eunomia                                         and Sustainable Energy Association New
   management? If so, what is the cost, who               stakeholders in thinking about a circular                                                                                                    Zealand (SEANZ)
   should pay and by what mechanism?                      economy future for lithium-ion (and other)                International battery and product
                                                          batteries. In the interest of transparency, and in        stewardship organisations such as                                              Government agencies and
•	How will we need to engage with different
                                                          the hope that it will benefit New Zealand Inc.,         Australian Battery Recycling Initiative                                   departments such as the Ministry for the
   stakeholder groups (esp. customers and end
                                                          we are sharing this information publicly in this       (ABRI), Australia New Zealand Recycling                                    Environment, Callaghan Innovation and
   users) to prepare them for the transition to a
                                                          Paper.                                                      Platform (ANZRP), Clean Energy                                         the Energy Efficiency and Conservation
   product stewardship scheme? How can we                                                                                                                                                               Authority (EECA)
                                                                                                                      Council, Australia, Envirostream,
   ensure the appropriate plans are in place for
                                                                                                                   Equilibrium, University of New South
   this transition?
                                                                                                                  Wales Sustainable Materials Research
                                                                                                                                                                                               Innovators in battery technology
•	If there is to be a Product Stewardship                                                                           & Technology Centre, University of
                                                                                                                                                                                             including circular economy innovators
   Scheme regulated by Government, to whom                                                                           Technology Sydney’s Institute for
                                                                                                                                                                                               and battery lifecycle management
   should it apply? How could we shape it so                                                                       Sustainable Futures, ELVES and the
                                                                                                                                                                                                     technology innovators
   that it works for industry and delivers positive                                                                          Faraday Institution
   environmental and social outcomes?

                                                                                                                          Small businesses who engage with the informal battery economy such as BlueCars

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New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
scope: what’s in and what’s out

This New Energy Futures Paper will:                                     technologies which, in the literature, appear
                                                                        to be regarded as having the best chance of
                                                                                                                             Size matters                                         CASE STUDY:
•     Focus on large lithium-ion batteries.                             commercial viability in the next 10 years or         Although small batteries, such as those found
                                                                        so. According to the world’s leading climate         in toys, power tools and electric scooters are a
•	Identify opportunities for New Zealand in the
   context of a circular future.
                                                                        scientists, this, coincidentally, is approximately   potential fire hazard at end-of-life management,     Waste Management
                                                                        how long humans have to keep global warming
                                                                        to a maximum of 1.5oC, beyond which even half
                                                                                                                             they are not a key part of Vector’s value chain.     New Zealand (WMNZ)
•	Highlight environmental, societal and
   commercial barriers and challenges: by                               a degree will significantly worsen the risks of      ‘Large’ batteries are made up of small battery       Household (Small) Battery
                                                                        drought, floods, extreme heat and poverty for        cells and while this Paper focusses on large
   tackling these challenges we will help to
                                                                        hundreds of millions of people.                      batteries, we recognise that we must align           Recycling Programme Trial
   enable a new energy future.
                                                                                                                             with any areas of synergy regarding end-of-life      Waste Management is New Zealand’s leading
                                                                                                                             management of small batteries in New Zealand.
•	Offer an overview of battery types and
   technology changes, how this impacts
                                                                        Lithium-ion vs lead-acid                                                                                  waste and environmental services provider
                                                                                                                             Vector is interested in large batteries for energy   and is committed to finding solutions for
   recovery options, key trends and market                              Given the Government’s focus on large batteries                                                           problematic waste streams.
   drivers.                                                                                                                  storage on the network, to help even out the
                                                                        including lithium-ion for regulated product
                                                                                                                             ‘peaks and troughs’ of energy demand and for         Waste Management Technical Services is
                                                                        stewardship (part of their E-waste commitment),
•	Introduce the concepts of a circular economy                                                                              resilience. In addition, businesses which are part   undertaking a trial to recycle household
                                                                        and that lithium-ion batteries are part of
   and product stewardship for batteries to                                                                                  of the Vector group sell large batteries as part     batteries. Reusable battery material will be used
                                                                        Vector’s value chain, there is a focus on lithium-
   ensure we retain a battery’s financial and                                                                                of their energy solutions for commercial and         to make new batteries and other components
                                                                        ion technologies in this Paper. The Technical
   material value over its lifecycle.                                                                                        household use.                                       – which means whole batteries will be diverted
                                                                        Addendum covers all batteries types with the
                                                                        exclusion of lead-acid. Vector currently uses a      This Paper therefore focusses on large batteries,    from landfill.
•	Explain the difference between materials
   recovery and battery recovery.                                       lot of lead-acid batteries but these batteries       defined by use to include batteries which are        This trial aligns with Waste Management’s
                                                                        are currently considered to have viable end-of-      used in:                                             sustainability strategy For Future Generations
•     Share industry case studies.                                      life recovery pathways and mature recycling
                                                                                                                             •   Electric vehicles (EVs)                          which provides the foundation for our future
                                                                        processes. In this Paper we are also pleased to
All research supporting each section of this                                                                                                                                      focus on the sustainability of their company and
                                                                        show case studies from innovators working with
Paper, plus a discussion of battery chemistries                                                                              •   Stationary energy storage solutions i.e. for     the communities in which they operate.
                                                                        various battery chemistries in New Zealand,
and technologies beyond lithium-ion, is                                 beyond lithium-ion.
                                                                                                                                 – The electricity network or ‘grid’              The programme will be trialled at various hotels,
presented in a Technical Addendum. This is a
                                                                                                                                                                                  aged care facilities and Refuse Transfer Stations,
compilation and evaluation of available New
Zealand data and provides future projections                            System vs product                                        – Commercial or household energy storage         and will work in parallel with a wider industry
                                                                                                                                                                                  battery recycling working group to develop
including recovery pathways, markets and                                Resource use and waste are systems challenges            – Industrial applications                        solutions for rechargeable battery applications
trends.                                                                 that require systems thinking. This Paper                                                                 such as electric trucks and cars.
                                                                                                                             Knowledge sharing and collaboration is key if
                                                                        therefore focusses more on the battery ‘system’
                                                                                                                             we are going to get ahead of the impending
Technology                                                              rather than batteries at a product level. Some
                                                                                                                             systemic challenge of battery management in
                                                                                                                                                                                  Once the trial is proven, this programme will be
                                                                                                                                                                                  offered to other Waste Management customers.
                                                                        analysis of the embodied carbon of stationary
                                                                                                                             New Zealand. We recognise that while storage,
Development of battery technology is being                              batteries is provided in the Technical Addendum.
                                                                                                                             transport and end-of-life management present         Right: The new
undertaken by a large number of organisations
                                                                        However, one systems area is not covered.            common challenges / areas of synergy for             Battery Recycling
from major battery manufacturers and auto
makers, to research institutions. By the time this                      This Paper doesn’t discuss the carbon                both large and small batteries, other parts of       Station prototype
                                                                        associated with the electricity that feeds (or       the value chain such as retail, use and second       to be trialled.
Paper is launched or read, new technologies or
                                                                        charges) batteries. In New Zealand, while            life opportunities may present very different
chemistries may have emerged which will not
                                                                        approximately 82% of our electricity is generated    challenges.
be reflected in its content: rather, this Paper is a
snapshot in time.                                                       from renewable sources2, so at first sight,
                                                                                                                             We will therefore seek synergies with small
                                                                        electrification of transport (E-mobility) and
                                                                                                                             battery management where possible and aim to
There are many possible battery technologies,                           increased battery use makes sense for our
                                                                                                                             align with emerging small battery activities such
but one thing that all appear to have in common                         environment, society and economy. However,
                                                                                                                             as on-shore collection e.g. through the Australia
is that there is a long gestation period between                        it must be noted that renewable energy
                                                                                                                             and New Zealand Recycling Platform3 (ANZRP)
what is theoretically possible in a laboratory and                      generation mix in New Zealand has associated
                                                                                                                             and end-of-life processing which is shortly to be
the eventual commercial production of a viable                          carbon emissions, and of our energy generation
                                                                                                                             piloted by Waste Management New Zealand –
battery. In this Paper, we have focussed on the                         mix, only approximately 60% is low-carbon2.
                                                                                                                             see the case study.

2
    Data extrapolated from https://www.mbie.govt.nz/assets/d7c93162b8/energy-in-nz-18.pdf
3
    https://www.anzrp.com.au/

                                                                   10
New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
scope: what’s in and what’s out continued

EV vs grid energy storage                                 The aims of the Battery Leaders Group were to:        Vector would like to thank the Battery Leaders
                                                                                                                Group for their contribution to the research and
                                                                                                                                                                          •	In parallel, trial second life and end-of-life
                                                                                                                                                                             management of large lithium-ion batteries to
                                                          •	Be part of creating a vision for a commercially    insights in this Paper. The Group is now forming             inform the scheme.
For those who know us as an electricity
                                                             and environmentally sustainable, circular          the core of a wider ‘Battery Industry Group’
distribution business, some may be surprised
                                                             future for large lithium-ion batteries             (B.I.G.) which will be creating a proposal for a          •	Share practical guidance regarding safe
that in this Paper we don’t talk more about
                                                                                                                product stewardship scheme for large lithium-                storage and transport of used lithium-ion
batteries as energy storage solutions for the grid        •	Identify the reuse and end-of-life commercial
                                                                                                                ion batteries. This proposal to the New Zealand              batteries.
or other applications. Rather, the data focusses             or financial value of a battery
on batteries from EVs which can then be given                                                                   Ministry for the Environment will be unique in
a second life on the grid before being managed            •	Be better placed to advise vehicle leasing         that it aims to:
at end-of-life as part of a circular economy. This           companies and second-hand retailers
                                                                                                                •	Offer a flexible framework able to respond to
is because in volume terms, most ‘end of use’                regarding the on-sell of batteries, currently
                                                                                                                   different battery chemistries, technologies
batteries will be coming from increasing use of              one of the barriers to EV uptake
                                                                                                                   and end-of-life management scenarios.
EVs rather than the currently small proportion of
batteries on the electricity network.                     •	Understand the commerciality of battery
                                                             reuse / recycling and what volumes we can
                                                             expect
The role of the Battery                                                                                         Figure 1. Battery Leaders Group Joint Statement

Leaders Group                                             •	Understand our roles in product stewardship
                                                             and shape the upcoming Government
Businesses involved in the battery value chain               Product Stewardship Scheme to avoid                Working to improve our battery karma
in New Zealand share significant common                      onerous, cost-prohibitive regulation which
                                                             still delivers positive environmental and social
challenges including the rapid uptake of
renewable technologies in the context of climate             outcomes                                           Vector. Audi. BMW. Toyota New Zealand. The Scrap Metal
change; the potential expansion of scope of                                                                     Recycling Association of NZ. Waste Management.
                                                          •	Plan for customer and stakeholder
China’s National Sword policy to include e-waste;
                                                             engagement regarding battery reuse / end-          As organisations across the battery value chain,          These include both stationary batteries (e.g. used
media and public attention on materials and
                                                             of-life                                            we share common sustainability challenges.                in home energy storage) and mobile batteries
waste management; a lack of on-shore recycling,
and Government’s new focus on E-waste as a                                                                      Once valuable metals and raw materials have               (e.g. from electric vehicles) in the context of:
                                                          •	Demonstrate to Government that industry            been taken out of the ground, it makes sense to
priority issue.                                              is being proactive and helping to create a                                                                   • Climate change and the role of batteries in the
                                                                                                                retain their value for as long as possible, rather
                                                             circular economy                                   than returning them to the ground through                    decarbonisation of our energy and transport
As discussed above, with the convergence of
the transport and energy systems, there is also                                                                 end-of-life disposal.                                        systems
                                                          •	Demonstrate to wider stakeholders that work
a unique opportunity for businesses from both                is already underway in New Zealand to help                                                                   • A rapid uptake of electric vehicles
sectors to collaborate to drive change, support                                                                 The convergence of transport and energy
                                                             generate momentum                                  systems means we have a unique opportunity to
the emerging circular economy, and create the                                                                                                                             • Increasing use of battery storage in commercial
environmental, societal and commercial future             •	Ensure clarity in the market regarding             collaboratively drive change, contribute towards
                                                                                                                                                                             and residential applications
we wish to see.                                              messaging around lithium-ion batteries on          building a more circular economy and create the
                                                             repurposing options, including safety and          environmental, societal and commercial future             • Global developments in waste management
In August 2018, Vector convened the Battery                  financial value                                    we wish to see. Achieving a shift across the value           and recycling, specifically the ongoing impacts
Leaders Group to seek circular solutions                                                                        chain will require pre-competitive collaboration.            following implementation of China’s National
for batteries. The Leaders’ Group members                 •	Keep battery resources out of landfill                                                                          Sword policy
include Audi, BMW, the Scrap Metal Recycling                                                                    That’s why we have convened this Battery
Association of New Zealand (SMRANZ), Toyota               •	Help to create a New Energy Future                 Leaders Group.                                            We are working together to research and
New Zealand, Vector and Waste Management.                                                                                                                                 evaluate the nascent New Zealand end-of-life
Members represent different aspects of the                                                                      What goes around, comes around                            battery market. Collaborating now will better
battery value chain, from stationary and mobile                                                                                                                           prepare us – both as a country and as individual
                                                                                                                The Battery Leaders Group seeks circular                  market participants - to find sustainable
battery manufacturers and retailers, to end-of-
                                                                                                                solutions for large batteries with a focus on             solutions as the market emerges.
life management.
                                                                                                                lithium-ion.

                                                     12                                                                                                              13
New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
everything you want to know about
lithium-ion batteries (and more)

Legislative and Policy Context                                           products were identified as one of six priority
                                                                         product groups and the potential scope includes
                                                                                                                                            However, when damaged lithium-ion batteries
                                                                                                                                            can cause thermal runaway fires or catastrophic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Battery characteristics and
The current legislative and policy environment                           large rechargeable batteries designed for use in                   explosions which threaten waste companies’                              chemistries
in New Zealand is broadly conducive to the                               electric vehicles, household-scale and industrial                  licence to operate. An additional complication
                                                                                                                                            is that lithium-ion batteries can be accidentally                       Batteries can have a range of performance
uptake and expansion of battery systems,                                 renewable energy power systems including but
                                                                                                                                            or purposefully hidden in pallets of used lead-                         characteristics which make them more or
without there being any strong drivers (such                             not limited to lithium-ion batteries.6 The Battery
                                                                                                                                            acid batteries, thereby causing a fire hazard.                          less suitable for particular applications. Some
as subsidies to purchase EVs, or emissions                               Leaders Group mentioned above undertook                                                                                                    types of lithium-ion batteries have special
standards), or impediments that would                                                                                                       Finally, while lithium is fully recyclable, and
                                                                         research and stakeholder engagement with                                                                                                   characteristics e.g. Lithium Nickel Manganese
unduly limit battery uptake. The New Zealand                                                                                                reportedly being recycled in China, very
                                                                         Ministry support, and MfE representatives will be                  little lithium is recycled globally for battery                         Cobalt Oxide (NMC) batteries are well suited
Productivity Commission 2018 report on the                               working closely with the new Battery Industry                                                                                              to high power applications with many charge/
Low-emissions economy recommends a                                                                                                          production, as the processing of lithium from
                                                                         Group to advise on the development of a new                        used batteries is approximately five times                              discharge cycles such as home energy storage.
number of minor changes to facilitate the                                product stewardship scheme for batteries.                                                                                                  See below Table 1 for the main types of lithium-
                                                                                                                                            costlier that the virgin material.9
uptake of EVs and battery storage but does not                                                                                                                                                                      ion battery cell chemistries.
put forward any aggressive measures that would
ensure an accelerated uptake. More recently,                             Lithium-ion battery
the Government has indicated that there will
be stronger incentives for EVs, by reducing the
                                                                         chemistries, characteristics
upfront cost of electric, hybrid and fuel-efficient                      and construction                                                   Table 1: Main Types of Lithium-ion Battery Cell Chemistry
vehicles when sold in New Zealand for the first
time and putting a small fee on the highest                              Excluding lead-acid, which is outside the scope                        Type                    Description of power and operating range                         Applications
polluting vehicles when they are first sold.4                            of this Paper, there are two main types of large
                                                                         batteries that are most likely to have to be dealt                     Lithium                 Has a moderate specific power, moderate specific                 Electric powertrains
The management of end-of-life/end of use                                 with at end-of-life in New Zealand: lithium-ion                        Manganese               energy and a moderate level of safety compared to
batteries is, at present, largely unregulated.                           and nickel metal hydride (NiMH). This Paper                            Oxide                   other lithium-ion batteries. It is also low cost, but has
At the time of writing, there are no product                             focusses on lithium-ion batteries and this section                     (LMO)                   a poor operating range and short lifespan.
stewardship schemes in place for large batteries                         on their chemistries and characteristics. Nickel
and, beyond the need to comply with export                                                                                                      Lithium Nickel          High specific energy. Moderate specific power, safety, EVs, industrial
                                                                         metal hydride batteries and detailed information
requirements, there are no restrictions around                                                                                                  Manganese               lifespan and operating range. It can be optimised      applications
                                                                         about lithium-ion batteries are discussed in the
establishing e-waste and battery recycling                                                                                                      Cobalt Oxide            to have either a high specific power or high specific
                                                                         Technical Addendum to this Paper.
operations. Other than voluntary codes of                                                                                                                               energy.
                                                                                                                                                (NMC)
practice, there are currently no established                             The popularity of lithium-ion batteries is due
procedures or guidelines for how end-of-life
                                                                         chiefly to their energy density. Other advantages                      Lithium Iron            Low specific energy but a high specific power.                   Portable and stationary
batteries should be managed.
                                                                         include:                                                               Phosphate               Moderate operating range. High level of safety and               applications needing high
However, in May 2019 Hon. Eugenie Sage,                                                                                                         (LFP)                   lifespan and low cost                                            load and endurance
                                                                         -   Reliability
the Associate Minister for the Environment,
announced “The Ministry for the Environment                              -	They are less likely to suffer from ‘memory                         Lithium                 Very high specific energy. Moderate cost, specific               EVs
is developing a mandatory product stewardship                               effect’7 than other battery types                                   Nickel Cobalt           power, operating range and lifespan. Relatively low
scheme for e-waste, starting with lithium-ion                                                                                                   Aluminium               level of safety
                                                                         -   They don’t contain toxic cadmium
batteries, which would make manufacturers                                                                                                       Oxide
responsible for managing the ‘end-of-life’                               -	Use of lithium-ion batteries in transport                           (NCA)
aspects of their products.”5                                                avoid toxic tailpipe (exhaust) emissions
                                                                            / greenhouse gases which contribute to                              Lithium Titanate        High safety good operating range and long lifespan,              EVs
In August 2019, a consultation document                                     climate change                                                      (LTO)                   but low specific energy, and only moderate specific
was published by the MfE, Proposed priority                                                                                                                             power. Very fast recharge time. Very high cost
products and priority product stewardship                                -	The cost of these batteries has drastically
scheme guidelines. Electrical and electronic                                fallen8

4
     https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2018/09/government-promises-decent-incentives-for-electric-cars.html
5
   https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/funding-e-waste-project-announced
6
   https://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/waste/proposed-priority-products-and-priority-product-stewardship-scheme-guidelines
7
   https://phys.org/news/2013-04-memory-effect-lithium-ion-batteries.html
   Research from BloombergNEF shows that “the benchmark levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for lithium-ion batteries has fallen 35%
8 

   to $187 per megawatt-hour since the first half of 2018 and the LCOE per megawatt-hour for lithium-ion battery storage has dropped
   by 76% since 2012, based on recent project costs and historical battery pack prices”https://about.bnef.com/blog/battery-powers-latest-
   plunge-costs-threatens-coal-gas/#_ftn1                                                                                                   9
                                                                                                                                                Source: https://waste-management-world.com/a/1-the-lithium-battery-recycling-challenge

                                                                    14                                                                                                                                         15
New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
everything you want to know about
lithium-ion batteries (and more)
continued

There are other metals used in cathodes apart
from lithium, such as cobalt and manganese,
                                                                          Battery construction                                  Figure 3: A Nissan Leaf Battery Pack

and there are concerns about future supply of                             The method of construction varies between
some minerals such as nickel and copper due to                            manufacturers and depends on the applications
underinvestment in the mining sector10.                                   for which they are intended.
Figure 2 below provides some examples of these                            There may be several different components to
other metals and their uses.                                              a battery. These include:11 cells (EV battery packs
                                                                          for example may have hundreds of individual
                                                                          cells usually arranged in modules) a battery
                                                                          management system, cooling mechanisms and
                                                                          temperature monitors, relays (which control the
                                                                          distribution of the battery pack’s electrical power
                                                                          to the output terminals), temperature, voltage,
                                                                          and current sensors, cabling, contacts, metal
                                                                          and / or plastic casings and other electronics,
                                                                          such as inverters.

                                                                          While most of the weight of a battery generally
                                                                          consists of the cells, the other materials from
                                                                          a battery can potentially be recovered at
                                                                          end-of-life.

            Figure 2: Cathode composition of lithium batteries, excluding lithium.
            Image reproduced from (Electrek, 2016).

10
     https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-lithium-electric-tesla-exclusive-idUSKCN1S81QS
11
     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery

                                                                     16                                                                                                17
New energy futures paper: batteries & the circular economy - Vector Limited
current state of play:                                                                                                                     Key materials in lithium-ion batteries

our linear system
                                                                                                                                           Lithium                                                                 Cobalt
                                                                                                                                           Lithium, also known as ‘white gold’, is used as                         Mostly retrieved as a by-product from copper
                                                                                                                                           an electrolyte in lithium-ion batteries. Lithium                        and nickel production, cobalt is often used as
                                                                                                                                           mining, seen as a source of strategic advantage                         a ‘safe’, stable cathode material in lithium-ion
                                                                                                                                           in producer countries from Australia14 to the                           batteries.
                                                                                                                                           ‘Lithium Triangle’ of Argentina, Chile and Bolivia.
                                                                                                                                           In Bolivia15, where all natural resources have                          Sometimes called the ‘blood diamond of
                                                                                                                                           been nationalised, lithium mining has caused                            batteries’ from a conflict supply chain, cobalt
                                                                                                                                           water shortages impacting local farmers, and                            is regarded as the most strategic and highest
What is a linear economy?                                                      Figure 4: Linear Economy13
                                                                                                                                           toxic spills. A 2016 toxic chemical leak from the                       value material in the makeup of batteries.
                                                                                                                                           Ganzizhou Rongda lithium mine in the Tibetan                            The global market consumes in the order of
Modern economies are based on a linear                                                                                                     plateau damaged the local ecosystem, with                               110,000 tonnes annually.18 Supplies of cobalt are
economy model of ‘take make waste’ i.e. take                                                  linear economy                               dead fish and reportedly, cow and yak carcasses                         dominated internationally by the Democratic
resources from the ground, make products,                                                                                                  floating downstream, dead from drinking                                 Republic of Congo (DRC) where unregulated
create waste to landfill. Given that we are                                                                                                contaminated water16.                                                   and dangerous mining takes place, often
currently using the Earth’s resources 1.7 times                                                                                                                                                                    by children. Despite the 2017 Responsible
faster than they are being replenished12, our                                                                                      WASTE   The price of lithium has been climbing and                              Cobalt Initiative, long term security of supply,
growing populations, the environmental and                                                                                                 is currently over $12,000 per tonne. However,                           environmental pollution and human rights
social impacts mentioned earlier in this Paper                                                                                             because lithium is a small fraction of the                              violations are noted as ongoing concerns.19 While
                                                                                               TAKE      MAKE      DISPOSE
plus increased demand for products means that                                     NATURAL                                                  makeup of a lithium-ion battery (1-2%) the high                         it is recyclable, it is not routinely recovered at
                                                                                 RESOURCES
the linear economy is simply unsustainable.                                                                                                price of lithium is not expected to significantly                       end-of-life. In addition, cobalt tracks copper and
                                                                                                                                           impact battery prices. Although production                              nickel prices which can be too volatile to attract
                                                                                                                                           is projected to increase ahead of demand,                               investment in safer production. The impact of
                                                                                       technical & biological materials mix up             lithium supply is expected to remain tight as                           the high price of cobalt and uncertainties about
                                                                                             energy from finite sources                    demand continues to grow. Price forecasts                               its supply have led to two key responses by the
                                                                                                                                           suggest that the cost of lithium will drop from                         industry: moving to battery designs that use
                                                                                                                                           recent peaks but is expected to remain high. As                         less cobalt and seeking to recover cobalt from
                                                                                                                                           mentioned above, lithium is 100% recyclable, but                        used batteries. Tesla, for example has stated that
                                                                                                                                           uneconomic to recycle.                                                  no cobalt will be used in the next generation of
                                                                                                                                                                                                                   batteries.20
The linear battery value chain
Figure 5 below provides an example lithium-ion battery value chain. In a typical linear model (business
as usual), products end up in landfill, often a cheap alternative to recycling.

Figure 5: An example linear battery value chain

                                                                                                                             Recycling

      Battery        Source                       Distribution                                               Transport                     Image: Hundreds of trucks drilling under the                            Image: Unregulated ‘artisanal’ mining of
                                  Manufacture                       Import          Retail        Use
      Design        Materials                      Logistics                                                   Used                        once-pristine Bolivian salt lake Salar de Uyuni                         cobalt in the DRC21
                                                                                                             Batteries        Landfill
                                                                                                                                           in the quest for lithium17

                                                                                                                                           According to UNICEF and Amnesty International, around 40,000 children are involved in cobalt mining
                                                                                                                                           in DRC where they make only $1 – $2 USD per day. DRC’s cobalt trade has been the target of criticism
                                                                                                                                           for nearly a decade, and the U.S. Labor Department lists Congolese cobalt as a product it has reason to
                                                                                                                                           think is produced by child labor. More troubling, cobalt demand has tripled in the past five years and is
                                                                                                                                           projected to at least double again by 2020.
                                                                                                                                           Source: Union of Concerned Scientists – Science for a healthy planet and safer world
                                                                                                                                           https://blog.ucsusa.org/josh-goldman/electric-vehicles-batteries-cobalt-and-rare-earth-metals

                                                                                                                                           14
                                                                                                                                                 https://www.csiro.au/~/media/EF/Files/Lithium-battery-recycling-in-Australia.
                                                                                                                                                  PDF?la=en&hash=924B789725A3B3319BB40FDA20F416EB2FA4F320
                                                                                                                                           15
                                                                                                                                              https://www.smh.com.au/world/lithium-bolivia-20170523-gwb8me.html
                                                                                                                                           16
                                                                                                                                               https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lithium-batteries-environment-impact
                                                                                                                                           17
                                                                                                                                               https://www.smh.com.au/world/lithium-bolivia-20170523-gwb8me.html Photo: Matjaz Krivic, The Sydney Morning Herald
                                                                                                                                           18
                                                                                                                                                https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/critical-metals-investing/cobalt-investing/top-cobalt-producing-countries-congo-
                                                                                                                                                 china-canada-russia-australia/
                                                                                                                                           19
                                                                                                                                               https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-cobalt-batteries/
                                                                                                                                           20
                                                                                                                                                  Musk, E: Retrieved from Twitter: https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1006968985760366592?lang=en
                                                                                                                                           21
                                                                                                                                              Source: Washington Post, September 30th 2016 – The Cobalt Pipeline Story https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/
12
     Ecological Footprint Explorer: http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/                                                                        batteries/congo-cobalt-mining-for-lithium-ion-battery/?noredirect=on Story by Todd.c. Frankel, Photo: Michael Robinson Chavez, Video
13
     Source: https://www.mfe.govt.nz/waste/circular-economy                                                                                    editing: Jorge Ribas, Washington Post

                                                                          18                                                                                                                                  19
current state of play:
our linear system continued

Key materials in lithium-ion                                          Retail & uses of large batteries                                   Stationary Storage                                                      and/or stored closer to the point of demand,
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 such as a household with a solar and battery
batteries continued                                                   in New Zealand                                                     Stationary storage applications are expected to                         system, or an industrial facility with a wind
                                                                                                                                         increase significantly worldwide. Some forecasts                        turbine powering their manufacturing facility.
Graphite                                                              Unless sold for network, home or industrial                                                                                                Distributed energy systems can use new or
                                                                                                                                         suggest that the stationary storage market will
                                                                      energy storage systems, the retail of batteries                                                                                            second-life EV batteries as a source of energy
                                                                                                                                         grow from approximately U$4 billion in 2017 to
Graphite is the commonly used material for the                        takes place when an EV is sold. Given the clear                                                                                            during peak demand. Energy companies refer to
                                                                                                                                         US$35 billion by 2030.25 This is being driven by
anode in lithium-ion batteries.                                       majority of EVs in New Zealand are imported                                                                                                this as peak shaving.
                                                                                                                                         a shift towards renewable energy generation
                                                                      second-hand by a number of organisations
EVs can have in the order of 50kg of graphite in                                                                                         like wind and solar that requires storage to
                                                                      (approx. 70% using 2018 import data), this                                                                                                 The uptake of distributed energy systems will
each battery pack. 75% of flake graphite is mined                                                                                        overcome the disconnect between when power
                                                                      complexity provides a challenge when                                                                                                       take place within a wider context of potential
in China. There are concerns over environmental                                                                                          is being generated and when it is being used.
                                                                      considering chain of custody issues as batteries                                                                                           changes to the energy sector as a whole. It is
and labour practices, which has China’s graphite                                                                                         Manufacturing costs are expected to continue
                                                                      move from EVs to second or third life uses.                                                                                                likely that the changes afforded by technology
industry under scrutiny – Chinese mines have                                                                                             to fall due to technical advances, economies of
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 and changing demand profiles will see
even been shut down due to a “government                              In New Zealand, large batteries are used in the                    scale and efficiencies throughout the supply
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 distributed systems play a larger role in the
crack down on pollution”.22                                           following broad applications:                                      chain. Distribution costs have the potential to
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 future.
                                                                                                                                         fall if these technologies are integrated and
The US, Europe, Japan and South Korea are                             •   Hybrid, plug-in hybrid and battery EVs                         leveraged. Energy companies such as Vector
almost entirely dependent on imported                                                                                                    are also installing stationary storage to manage                        Applications: Utility and
graphite; therefore, the US and the EU have                           •	Stationary storage for local use (such as                       peak loads within networks and to provide
declared graphite a supply-critical mineral. Very                        storage of solar power and for off-grid                         backup power in the event of disruption of
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Industrial
little recycling of graphite takes place, and there                      systems)                                                        supply. Finally, a further benefit of the use of                        There is over 20 MWh of network utility and
are almost no substitutes for the material. This                                                                                         stationary energy storage solutions is that it                          industrial large battery storage capacity installed
                                                                      •   Stationary storage for utilities
has led to an increase in the price of graphite of                                                                                       offers a cost-effective alternative to traditional                      or due to come on-line in the near future in
over 40% in the last 6 months.23                                      •   Stationary storage for household use                           energy infrastructure.                                                  New Zealand. Two recent examples of large
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 scale battery storage also used for industrial
One forecast is that the battery anode market
for graphite (natural and synthetic) will at least
                                                                      •   Buffer units for fast charging stations
                                                                                                                                         Distributed energy                                                      applications totalling 5MWh are: the Glen Innes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 substation established by Vector (see case study
triple in size from 80,000 tonnes in 2015 to at                       •	Industrial applications (such as cellphone
                                                                                                                                         Distributed energy generation and storage                               below), and a second by Mercury Energy in
least 250,000 tonnes by the end of 2020.24                               towers or data centres)
                                                                                                                                         refers to systems where electricity is generated                        South Auckland, both using Tesla Powerpacks.
                                                                      There are also a range of potential emerging
                                                                      uses. For example, technology start-ups such                       Figure 6: Growth of the Stationary Storage Market26
                                                                      as Kitty Hawk and Zunum are investing in
                                                                      electric planes, and ships are using large battery
                                                                      power to manoeuvre into port to reduce local
                                                                      emissions.

Image22: Graphite miner

22
    http://www.energystoragejournal.com/2019/02/21/graphite-production-to-move-west-as-china-supply-chain-to-halve/                      25
                                                                                                                                              https://www.gminsights.com/pressrelease/stationary-battery-storage-market
23
    ttps://investorintel.com/sectors/technology-metals/technology-metals-intel/northern-graphite-becoming-an-important-market-player/
    h                                                                                                                                    26
                                                                                                                                               https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/stationary-battery-storage-market-worth-170bn-by-2030-global-market-insights-
24
   http://www.visualcapitalist.com/critical-ingredients-fuel-battery-boom/                                                                      inc-300803606.html

                                                                 20                                                                                                                                         21
current state of play:                                                                                                            CASE STUDY: Envirostream

our linear system continued                                                                                                       Around 18,000 tonnes of batteries require
                                                                                                                                  disposal each year in Australia and over 95% end
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Envirostream has constructed a commercially
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              viable battery recycling plant that can recover
                                                                                                                                  up in landfill posing a significant environmental                                           around 95% of the material including the copper,
                                                                                                                                  risk. As Australia’s first and currently only lithium                                       steel, aluminium and a graphene metal oxide
                                                                                                                                  battery processor, Envirostream is committed to                                             which is used as an input material in cathode
                                                                           Applications: Household                                reducing batteries in landfill by recovering the
                                                                                                                                  materials onshore and sending them back into
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              manufacture.

                                                                           In household applications, batteries typically         the manufacturing sector to be made into new                                                It’s not only Envirostream’s material recovery
                                                                           support solar photo-voltaic (PV) systems to            products, including cathode material for new                                                that is circular, the economics are too. By
CASE STUDY:                                                                                                                       batteries.                                                                                  utilising revenue from the recovery of materials,
                                                                           optimise solar self-consumption, meaning
                                                                           a household consumes most of the solar it                                                                                                          the front-end costs can be reduced to challenge
                                                                           generates and only exports a small amount to           This is a true circular business model designed                                             landfill as the cheapest option, in some cases
                                                                                                                                  to challenge the last decade of expensive battery                                           removing the cost to recycle batteries in
Vector Glen Innes substation                                               the grid.
                                                                                                                                  recycling that has led to only a 5% recovery                                                Australia altogether.
In 2016, the then Minister of Energy and                                   The number of domestic battery storage units           rate. Based on over     two years’ continuous R&D,
                                                                                                                                                      Innovative Resource Recovery

Resources officially opened Vector's renovated                             installed is currently small with approximately
Glen Innes substation, home to Asia Pacific's                              1-1.5MWh installed per year, however there is
                                                                                                                                                       ENVIROSTREAM SYSTEM
first grid scale Tesla Powerpack battery                                   potential for growth particularly if adoption of
storage system to be integrated into a public                              standalone rooftop solar was incentivised by                                The revolutionary Envirostream system is the result of two years of research and development. Our ISO 14001 accredited, modular

electricity network. With a storage capacity                               regulation, or the economic case was made                                   processing technology can process 40 tonnes per line, per month. We operate two dedicated, enclosed processing lines that can process
                                                                                                                                                       80 tonnes of batteries per month combined. Making expansion easy, we constructed the Envirostream system with efficiency in mind. The
of 1MW/2.3MWh - the equivalent to powering                                 more attractive through cheaper storage. This                               modular design lets us carry out line maintenance without compromising our processing ability and can be placed anywhere in Australia.

450 average homes for 2.3 hours - Tesla                                    could be provided through new or second-                                    For mixed consignments, we have developed an effective battery sorting solution. At Envirostream, we’re one step ahead.

Powerpack allows Vector to continue to provide                             life batteries. There are an estimated 15,000
a secure, reliable power supply and defer a                                households in NZ that are generating their own
conventional upgrade to the substation. This                               electricity27, however there is no official data
move represented a radical transformation in                               on what proportion of these also have battery

                                                                                                                                              WASTE
how Vector manages its electricity network                                 storage.
and responds to the need for innovative
infrastructure development to support growing
communities.
                                                                           End-of-life collection                                                          EV & HYBRID
                                                                                                                                                            VEHICLES
                                                                                                                                                                                       ELECTRONICS                 POWER TOOLS
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  ENERGY
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              STORAGE SYSTEM
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               POWER
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             GENERATION

                                                                           & disposal
                                                                           Lead-acid battery recycling is effective for several
                                                                           reasons:

                                                                           -   Standard design and disassembly protocols

                                                                                                                                            BATTERY

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            d
                                                                                                                                             TYPES

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          NiC
                                                                           -   A single chemistry type                                                                                           PLEASE SUPPLY HIGH RES

                                                                           -	Lead-acid battery recycling generates                                          LITHIUM
                                                                                                                                                                                         ALKALINE
                                                                                                                                                                                                                   NICKEL METAL                   NICKEL
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 LEAD ACID
                                                                                                                                                             (LI-ION)                                             HYDRIDE (NiMH)               CADMIUM (NiCd)
                                                                              revenue ie. currently the value exceeds
                                                                              recycling costs

                                                                           -   No need for segregation, plus                                                               ON-SHORE BATTERY PROCESSING
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 SPECIALIST                  SPECIALIST
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              LEAD ACID
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  CADMIUM
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             PROCESSOR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 PROCESSOR
                                                                           -	Regulation making it illegal to dispose to                                                                                                                                                     (in Australia)

                                                                              landfill.

                                                                           Unfortunately, each of these factors varies for

                                                                                                                                             PROCESS
                                                                           lithium-ion and other battery types, making
                                                                           them harder to manage at end-of-life. Notably,
                                                                           at the time of publication, there are no
                                                                           large-scale pre-processing, processing or
                                                                           full recycling facilities for large lithium-ion
                                                                           batteries in New Zealand although this is                                                                                            ENVIROSTREAM
                                                                           being investigated by several organisations.                                                                                             PROCESS
                                                                           Pre-processing plants break up batteries to
                                                                           be safe for transport by e.g. discharging them
                                                                           or removing cells. The nearest pre-processing
                                                                           facility to New Zealand is Envirostream in
                                                                                                                                            MATERIAL
                                                                                                                                             OUTPUT

                                                                           Victoria, Australia, which undertakes pre-                                                         STEEL                     COPPER                     ALUMINIUM
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                MIXED METAL
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 COMPOUND
                                                                           processing and processing to produce mixed
                                                                           metal dust used in other batteries.

27
     https://www.canstarblue.co.nz/energy/electricity-providers/battery-storage/
                                                                                                                                             Envirostream Australia Pty Ltd                                   E. info@envirostream.com.au          P. 1800 72 72 74       www.envirostream.com.au

                                                                      22                                                                                                                                               23
current state of play:
our linear system continued

End-of-life EV batteries:                                                   Modelling by Eunomia commissioned by Vector
                                                                            suggests between 500 and 1,000 EV batteries
                                                                                                                                     flow of end-of-life EVs is also apparent from the
                                                                                                                                     above projection.
                                                                                                                                                                                                CASE STUDY: Toyota
Volumes and Approaches                                                      coming to the end-of-life by 2020 rising to
                                                                                                                                     In addition to the above projection Eunomia
                                                                            between 9,000 and 17,000 by 2025 and 30,000                                                                         Toyota has a global commitment to resource
To date, end-of-life electric vehicles have been                                                                                     also modelled a number of alternative scenarios
                                                                            to 84,000 by 2030. Because stationary storage            with some varying assumptions including the                efficiency and the recycling of vehicle parts,
only a minor issue for New Zealand due to the                               applications are still a small (but growing) part                                                                   such as Toyota and Lexus hybrid batteries.
                                                                                                                                     government targets not being met, a higher
small numbers involved. Since 2014 only 181                                 of the market and have longer lifespans, the                                                                        This includes investing in battery second-life
                                                                                                                                     proportion of new vehicles and the impact of
EVs have been scrapped from the fleet in New                                numbers of batteries reaching end-of-life from           an assumed longer life for EV batteries. These             applications and new recycling facilities.
Zealand although the numbers are rising with                                such uses is expected to remain relatively small         projections are provided in the Technical                  In New Zealand, Toyota takes a value chain
49 scrapped in 2018, and 81 so far in 2019. Over                            between now and 2030.                                    Addendum.                                                  approach to environmental impacts,
half (101) of the EVs scrapped are Nissan Leafs,                                                                                                                                                demonstrated through its nationwide collection
                                                                            Assumptions detailed in the Technical                    In brief, if the adoption of EVs follows a similar
with these numbers also rising.28 It should be                                                                                                                                                  of hybrid batteries that have reached their end
                                                                            Addendum suggest that by 2030 there                      profile to global forecasts this would suggest
noted that the numbers of vehicles scrapped                                                                                          between 880 batteries coming to the end of life            of their life. The collection takes place through
                                                                            could be nearly 84,000 end-of-life EV battery                                                                       Toyota Stores, and includes a $100 bounty for
is not the same as the number of end-of-life                                                                                         by 2020 rising to 9,500 by 2025 and 30,000 per
                                                                            packs requiring management each year. The                                                                           batteries returned from vehicle dismantlers.
batteries, as when battery packs reach the end                                                                                       annum by 2030.
                                                                            projection is shown in the chart below.                                                                             Toyota New Zealand (TNZ) corporate and dealer
of their life (estimated at 10 - 15 years) they may
                                                                                                                                     In the other alternative scenario, if the vehicle          operations and premises are independently
be replaced in the vehicle, which continues                                 The chart illustrates the potentially steep                                                                         audited and certified to Enviro-Mark Diamond
                                                                                                                                     fleet composition targets are met, but the fleet
to operate. There is no data available on the                               trajectory that is likely to be facing the industry if   is assumed to have a higher proportion (50%)               or ISO 14001 certification, to ensure customer
numbers of vehicles that have had battery packs                             the adoption of EVs takes place at forecast rates.       of NZ new vehicles in its makeup, and a longer             confidence in Toyota’s environmental
replaced.                                                                   The influence of the used car market on the              average battery life of 12 years is assumed, this          management processes. Technicians are trained
                                                                                                                                     would reduce the total number of end of life               in the safe removal, handling, transport and
                                                                                                                                     batteries to 54,000 per annum by 2030.                     storage of batteries.
Figure 7: Estimates of end-of-life EV Battery Packs 2019-2030                                                                                                                                   TNZ has partnered with Upcycle Limited to strip
                                                                                                                                     The approaches taken by manufacturers to end-
                                                                                                                                     of-life vary. Two manufacturers offer a take back          the metals and plastics (which are diverted to
                                                                                                                                     service for end-of-life vehicles, with one offering        local recycling systems) and send the cells to
                                                                                                                                     a $100 bounty for people to bring them in. This            Kobar Limited in South Korea (the closest of the
                    90,000                                                                                                                                                                      few global facilities equipped to recycle cells) for
                                                                                                                                     applies to both new and used vehicles imported
                                                                                                                                     to New Zealand. The batteries are consolidated             material recovery and re-use. Both Upcycle and
                    80,000                                                                                                           and then shipped via a local recycler to South             Kobar are ISO 14001 certified.
                                                                                                                                     Korea for processing. Other manufacturers have
                    70,000                                                                                                           a policy of shipping the batteries back to their           Toyota New Zealand is committed to sustainable
                                                                                                                                     factory for disassembly and reuse or recycling             business practices, and supportive of the
                    60,000                                                                                                           of the constituent parts. Tesla, for example,              development of battery re-purposing and
                                                                                                                                     operates a battery recycling programme                     material re-use in New Zealand.
                    50,000                                                                                                           together with Umicore (pyrometallurgy) in
                                                                                                                                     Europe (Tesla, 2011). This programme applies
                    40,000                                                                                                           to New Zealand customers but logistics are
                                                                                                                                     a challenge: battery shipments need to have
                    30,000                                                                                                           proper paperwork complying with the Basel
                                                                                                                                     Convention on the Control of Transboundary
                    20,000                                                                                                           Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
                                                                                                                                     Disposal.
                     10,000

                            0
                                2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

                                                  New                   Used                    Total

28
     https://www.transport.govt.nz/resources/vehicle-fleet-statistics/monthly-electric-and-hybrid-light-vehicle-registrations-2/

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