Policies and practices in different countries
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8th International Conference on Green and Sustainable Innovation (ICGSI)
On “Driving the New Normal towards a Sustainable New Future”
10-12 November 2021, Krabi, Thailand
Please indicate the conference and topic selected from the list below: (D) Sustainable Energy and Mobility
PM2.5 reduction measures in transport sector:
policies and practices in different countries
Salita Kamsook1, Phatcharakorn Sakpheng1, Sinthunon Chavanaves1, Chutinthorn Mankhong2, Seksan Saengdao3,
Heekwan Lee4, Wongpun Limpaseni5, Sirima Panyametheekul6, Shabbir H. Gheewala7,8, and Trakarn Prapaspongsa1*
1
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom,
Thailand
2
Office of Transport and Traffic Policy and Planning (OTP), Ministry of Transport, Bangkok, Thailand
3
Pollution Control Department (PCD), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Bangkok, Thailand
4
Department of Environmental Engineering, Incheon National University, Incheon, South Korea
5
Institute of Metropolitan Development, Navamindradhiraj University, Bangkok, Thailand
6
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
7
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment (JGSEE), King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi,
Bangkok, Thailand
8
Centre of Excellence on Energy Technology and Environment, PERDO, Ministry of Higher Education, Science,
Research and Innovation, Bangkok, Thailand
Abstract
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a particle with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 µm or smaller
(≤2.5 µm), a hazardous air pollutant for human health, especially premature mortality. Most
countries have attempted to develop various PM2.5 reduction measures, including policies and
practices to cope with this problem. This study aims to review and analyze the PM2.5 reduction
measures in terms of existing policies and practices in nine selected countries: the EU, Germany,
the UK, Thailand, China, Japan, South Korea, and Singapore. The National ambient air
quality standards in all the studied countries were higher than the World Health Organization
guidelines (an annual mean of 10 µg/m 3 and a 24-hour-mean of 25 µg/m3). All countries have
improved higher Euro standards for different vehicles depending on their specific situation. In
addition, most countries were strict in setting targets relating to PM 2.5 emission reduction shortly.
Policies and measures for PM2.5 emission reduction have been divided into six categories: Low-
sulfur fuels, Electric cars, Emission standards, Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), Low Emission Zone
(LEZ), and Age limit of on-road vehicles. Policies and practices have been implemented in various
ways depending on the formulation of their respective countries. However, all countries have
attempted to keep updating their measures.
Keywords: Fine particulate matter; PM2.5 reduction measures; National ambient air quality standard; Vehicle
emission standards; PM2.5 reduction targets.
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +66-2-889-2138, Fax: +66-2441-9731
E-mail address: Trakarn.pra@mahidol.edu.
Introduction
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is fine aerosol particles that are released by diesel engines and
biomass burning or that are generated through chemical reactions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Consequently, exposure to PM2.5 has a
potential risk to human health, especially premature mortality (Shi et al., 2018). In 2016, the World
Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide were caused by
exposure to PM2.5, which causes cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and cancers. (WHO, 2018).
Additionally, it has various indirect consequences for society and the economy (OECD, 2016). This
is a critical issue at the present that requires urgent attention, since the majority of countries have
18th International Conference on Green and Sustainable Innovation (ICGSI)
On “Driving the New Normal towards a Sustainable New Future”
10-12 November 2021, Krabi, Thailand
experienced PM2.5 issues and attempted to solve them via a range of PM 2.5 reduction methods.
Therefore, this study aims to review available policies or practices used for PM2.5 reduction and to
analyze the PM2.5 management approaches for nine selected countries including the European
Union, Germany, the United Kingdom, Thailand, China, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and
Philippines. These studies focus on the road transport sector as an essential source of PM2.5
pollution.
Material and methods
This research used a literature analysis to examine and compare existing policies or practices for
PM2.5 reduction in nine countries: the European Union, Germany, the United Kingdom, Thailand,
China, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and Philippines. PM2.5 reduction policies and practices were
collated and collected from worldwide and national papers, websites, and publications. These
focused on both national ambient air quality standards and vehicle emission standards for PM2.5,
including national targets relating to PM2.5 emission reduction and policies and measures for PM2.5
emission reduction in each country. Then the management approaches were compared and
analyzed. These included national standards for ambient air quality and vehicle emissions of PM2.5
and national objectives for PM2.5 emission reduction and strategies and actions for PM2.5 emission
reduction in each country. Following that, the management strategies were compared and analyzed.
Results and discussion
According to results from the national ambient air quality standard for PM2.5, some nations used the
same standard while others used a different standard. National ambient air quality standards for
PM2.5 are divided into two categories: annual standards and 24-hour standards, except for the
European Union, Germany, and the United Kingdom, which have only annual standards. The
summary of national ambient air quality standards, as shown in Table 1, can be classified into three
groups. Singapore (12 g/m3), South Korea (15 g/m3), and Japan (15 g/m3) all had a low annual
mean. The annual mean for the second group was in the middle: Thailand, the EU, Germany, and
the United Kingdom, all of which had the same value of 25 g/m3. The next 24-hour mean was
classified into three groups: Group 1 was a low annual mean, including Japan (35 μg/m 3 ), South
Korea (35 μg/m3 ), and Singapore (37.5 μg/m3 ). Next in the second group, the 24-hour mean was at
the middle level: Thailand has the value of 50 μg/m3. Same as Annual mean that China was placed
in Group 3, with the annual mean being high, which was 75 μg/m3. However, the national ambient
air quality standards in all the studied countries were higher than the World Health Organization
guidelines (WHO, 2018). The summary of PM2.5 emission standards is presented in Table 3. The
majority of nations have adopted Euro 6 standards for a variety of vehicles, which are important for
controlling the source of PM2.5 pollution. Due to the COVID-19 crisis, Thailand's implementation
of the Euro 5 standard has been delayed, since the industrial sector has been severely impacted.
Thailand continues to utilize Euro 4 standards as a result of the delay in adopting EURO 5/6
standards, which were originally planned for 2020 but have been postponed to 2024. (SEI, 2021).
The summary of national targets relating to PM2.5 emission reduction is presented in Table 4. The
existing targets of some countries that missed the deadline for implementation last year include the
UK, China, and Singapore.
28th International Conference on Green and Sustainable Innovation (ICGSI)
On “Driving the New Normal towards a Sustainable New Future”
10-12 November 2021, Krabi, Thailand
Table 1 Summary of national ambient air quality standards
Ambient air National ambient air quality standard
Countries quality
standard groups Annual mean 24-hour mean
WHO - 10 μg/m3 z 25 μg/m3 z
Singapore 12 μg/m3 n 37.5 μg/m3 n
Japan Low level 15 μg/m3 k 35 μg/m3 k
South
15 μg/m3 m 35 μg/m3 m
Korea
EU 25 μg/m3 a -
Germany 25 μg/m3 c -
UK Medium level 25 μg/m3 e -
Thailand 25 μg/m3 g 50 μg/m3 g
Philippines 25 μg/m3 x 50 μg/m3 x
China high level 35 μg/m3 i 75 μg/m3 i
Table 2 Summary of vehicle emissions standard
Vehicle emission standards
Countries
Light-Duty Vehicles Heavy-Duty Vehicles
b
EU Euro 5 and 6 Euro 6 b
Germany Euro 6 d Euro 6 q
UK Euro 6 f Euro 6 r
Thailand Euro 4 h, s Euro 3 s
China Euro 6 j Euro 6 t
Japan Euro 6 l Euro 6 u
South Korea Euro 6 m Euro 6 v
Singapore Euro 6 p Euro 6 w
Philippines Euro 4 x, y Euro 4 x, y
a
EEA ( 2019), EC ( 2020), UBA ( 2020), GPSM ( 2018), Defra ( 2020), Croner-I Limited ( 2021), g PCD ( 2010), h UNEP ( 2015), i
b c d e f
TransportPolicy.net ( 2016), j CCAC ( 2018), k TransportPolicy.net ( 2018), l Wang et al. ( 2014), m OECD ( 2020), n NEA ( 2021), p NEA ( 2020), q
German-sustainable-mobility (2014), r Department for transport (2018), s PCD, (2020), tIcct, (2016), uIcct, (2017), vLubrizol360, (2014), w Dieselnet
(2018), xEMB, (2015a), yEMB, (2015b), zWHO, (2005)
38th International Conference on Green and Sustainable Innovation (ICGSI)
On “Driving the New Normal towards a Sustainable New Future”
10-12 November 2021, Krabi, Thailand
Table 3 Summary of national targets relating to PM2.5 emission reduction.
National targets relating to PM2.5 emission reduction.
Countries
Ambient air quality standards PM2.5 emission reduction
EU aims to reduce EU-wide
emissions of PM2.5 by 51% by 2030,
compared to the emission levels in
EU [n]
the base year 2005 under the
proposed new National Emissions
Ceilings (NEC) directive. a
The German Environment Agency (UBA)
proposes a target of keeping the exposure of
Germany the entire population below the WHO [n]
guideline value for PM2.5 of 10 µg/m³ as an
annual average by 2030. b
UK aims to reduce emissions of
UK [n] PM2.5 against the 2005 baseline by
30% by 2020, and 46% by 2030.c
The National Environment Board has
deliberated the plan to implement the lower the
daily ambient air quality standard of PM2.5
Thailand concentrations from 50 µg/m3 to 35 µg/m3 for [n]
the next three to five years and then to 25
µg/m3 (the WHO guideline level) in next 10 to
20 years. d
China aims to reduce PM2.5
concentration in regions with an
annual mean PM2.5 concentration
China [n]
more than double the standard will
strive to reduce PM2.5 concentrations
by a third by 2020.e
Tokyo’s new plan aims to reduce the
level of PM2.5 air pollutants detected
Japan [n]
at its 80 monitoring stations to 10
micrograms or lower by fiscal 2030.f
The new Comprehensive Plan on
South Korea aims to reduce the annual PM2.5
South Fine Dust Management in 2017 aims
concentration to be decreased to 17 to 18
Korea to reduce PM2.5 emissions by 35.8 %
μg/m3 from 25 μg/m3. g
by 2022 from the level of 2014.
Sustainable Singapore Blueprint (SSB) target
Singapore launched in 2009 to achieve an annual mean of [n]
3 h
12µg/m of PM2.5 by 2020.
Philippines [n] [n]
[n] = There was no detailed clear information on topics.
a AirClim (2014), b UBA (2020), c Defra (2019), d PCD (2017a), e Wang et al. (2019), f The Asahi
Shimbun (2020), g Ministry of Environment (2018), h NEA (2021), i PCD (2017b)
48th International Conference on Green and Sustainable Innovation (ICGSI)
On “Driving the New Normal towards a Sustainable New Future”
10-12 November 2021, Krabi, Thailand
Table 4 summarizes policies and measures for PM2.5 emission reduction. It is classified into six
categories of measures, including low sulfur fuels (10 ppm), electric cars and buses, emission
standards, low emission zones (LEZs), age limits for on-road vehicles, and diesel particulate filters,
as well as four degrees of status achievement, including policies and practices that have already
been enacted, voluntary incentive measures, proposed with future targets, and data unavailable. The
sulfur content in vehicle fuel has been reduced to 10 ppm in most countries, with Thailand
scheduled to follow the same path by 2023. (UNESCAP, 2018). In addition, policies and practices
related to electric cars and buses have been proposed with targets in the future by most countries.
Vehicle emission regulations (Euro 5/6) have been addressed in a variety of countries. The Low
Emission Zone (LEZ) has been enacted in some selected countries in a few cities such as Berlin,
Hannover, London, Bangkok, Beijing, Seoul (SUTP, 2014; Jeong and Shon, 2020; DieselNet, 2015;
Connective Cities, 2018). Additionally, two countries implemented optional incentive measures
relating to the age restriction for on-road vehicles, like in 2009, the German government gave 2,500
euros to purchasers of new passenger cars in exchange for scrapping an older vehicle that was at
least nine years old (ICCT, 2020). Japan has mandated that all new automobiles undergo an
examination procedure. Additionally, cars 13 years or older are required to undergo annual
inspections and pay an extra 10% of their annual taxes (Lease Japan, 2021). Diesel particle filters
(DPF) are required in the European Union, Germany, Japan, and South Korea (Johnson, 2019;
Bureau of Environment, 2003). Additionally, the other two nations have suggested future objectives
for diesel particulate filters. Thailand, for example, plans to install diesel particle filters by 2023.
(UNESCAP, 2018). The Action Plan for driving National Agenda on "Pollution Problem
Management (Particulate Matter)" Thailand has short-term measures in place for 2019-2021 to
encourage the use of fuel with less than 10 ppm of sulfur before the law is effective. As for the
short-term electric car policy 2019-2021, it is an incentive measure to support and promote the use
of electric cars. In other long-term actions, such as purchasing an electric vehicle to replace an older
government vehicle and promoting/supporting the usage of electric cars and public transportation
services. Additionally, there is a long-term goal of transitioning all BMTA buses to zero-emission
vehicles (DEQP, 2021). Regarding the short-term measure of limiting the age of on-road vehicles,
research has been conducted on the appropriateness of restricted vehicle life. The primary review
was unable to locate the Philippines' future national targets for PM 2.5 emission reduction in terms of
emission levels and ambient air quality standards. However, this study found that some cities in the
Philippines continue to use market-based instruments, such as emissions fees, to control both
stationary and mobile sources of pollution in Metro Manila.
Table 4 Summary of policies and measures for PM2.5 emission reduction
Countries
Policies and
No. South
Practices EU Germany UK Thailand China Japan Singapore Philippines
Korea
Low
sulfur
1 fuels (10
a-1 b-1 b-1 c-1 d-1 e-1 f-1 g-1 m-3
ppm)
Electric
m-1, n-1, p-1, s-1, t-1, u-
2 cars and h-1, v-1 i-1, w-1 j-1, k-1, x-1 c-1 z-1 a-2 b-2 1, c-2 n-3
buses
Emission
3 standards
d-2 e-2 f-2 c-1 h-2 i-2 j-2 k-2 p-3
Low
4 Emission l-2 m-2 n-2 L-3 q-2 r-2 s-2 t-2
Zone
58th International Conference on Green and Sustainable Innovation (ICGSI)
On “Driving the New Normal towards a Sustainable New Future”
10-12 November 2021, Krabi, Thailand
Countries
Policies and
No. South
Practices EU Germany UK Thailand China Japan Singapore Philippines
Korea
Age limit
5 of on-road u-2 c-1 y-2 z-2 a-3 b-3 q-3
vehicles
Diesel
Particulat
6 c-3 c-3 d-3, e-3 f-3 g-3 h-3 i-3 r-3,s-3
e Filter
(DPF)
Policies and Practices have been enacted.
Policies and Practices have been implemented. (Voluntary incentive measure)
Policies and Practices have been proposed with targets in the future.
Policies and Practices are unavailable.
a-1
TransportPolicy.net, (2018a), b-1 Stratas Advisors, (2019), c-1DEQP, (2021), d-1 CBCSD, (2013), e-1 Law
Library of Congress, (2018), f-1 OECD, (2020), g-1 UNEP, (2015a), h-1 EEA, (2021a), i-1 Gipa, (2021), j-
1
Automotiveworld, (2021) , k-1 Newautomotive, (2021) , m-1 CCAC, (2018) , n-1 Statista, (2020) , p-1IEA, (2021),
s-1
Channelnewsasia, (2021a) ,t-1 Channelnewsasia, (2021b) ,u-1LTA, (2021) ,v-1 Sustainable-bus, (2021a) ,w-1
Industry service for electric mobility, (2021) ,x-1 Automotiveworld, (2021) ,z-1 CCAC, (2018) ,a-2 Seetao News,
(2020) ,b-2 Industry service for electric mobility, (2019) ,c-2 Sustainable-bus, 2021a) ,d-2 EC, (2020) ,e-2 GPSM,
( 2018) ,f-2 Croner-I Limited, ( 2021) ,g-2 DEQP, (2021) ,h-2 CCAC, ( 2018) ,i-2 Wang, (2014) ,j-2 OECD,
( 2020) ,k-2 NEA, ( 2020) ,l-2 DieselNet, (2015) ,m-2 DieselNet, (2015) ,n-2 SUTP, (2014) ,q-2 WRI, (2021) ,r-2
Defra, (2009) ,s-2 Jeong and Shon, (2020) ,t-2 Fandom, (2021) ,u-2 ICCT, (2020) ,y-2 The New York Times,
(2009) ,z-2 Lease Japan, (2021) ,a-3 OECD, (2020) ,b-3 Budget Direct Insurance, (2017) ,c-3Johnson, (2009) ,d-
3
Government UK, (2013) ,f-3UNESCAP, (2018) ,g-3CCAC, (2018) ,h-3Bureau of Environment, (2003) ,i-
3
OECD, (2020), L-3 Pathumwan District Office, (2021, M-3Reuters Staff, (2015) , N-3UNEP, (2012) , p-3UNEP,
(2014) , q-3The Philippine News Agency, (2018) , r-3The World Bank, (2014), s-3EMB, (2015b)
However, implementing any changes in line with the aforementioned steps takes time. Such as
example, vehicle emission standards, which are shown in Table 5 as a Timeline between Europe
and Thailand. According to the study, the European Union spent 17 years developing Euro 1 to Euro
5, and another 5 years developing Euro 5 to Euro 6. When compared to Thailand's timeline, this is
discovered that the European Union's timeline from Euro 1 to Euro 4 is quite comparable. Until
Thailand's adaptation to Euro 5 and Euro 6 in the situation with COVID-19, the production side had
a significant effect. As a result, the period for standardization has been extended. as shown in Table
5.
Table 5 Timeline between Europe and Thailand (PCD, 2003 and Maikaew and Praiwan, 2020).
Light-Duty Vehicles emission standards EU Thailand
Euro 1 1992 1996
Euro 2 1996 1999
Euro 3 2000 2005
Euro 4 2005 2012
Euro 5 2009 2023
Euro 6 2014 2029
68th International Conference on Green and Sustainable Innovation (ICGSI)
On “Driving the New Normal towards a Sustainable New Future”
10-12 November 2021, Krabi, Thailand
Following that, the PM2.5 status of nine nations was compared, obtaining the following data: EU;
In metropolitan areas across the EU, the annual mean concentration of fine particles (PM2. 5) has
been steadily dropping, reaching 12.6 μg /m3 in 2019 (Eurostat, 2021). Germany; Between 2016
and 2019, Germany's annual mean PM2.5 levels were consistent with the standard. (German
Environmental Agency, 2020). UK; In 2020, the average PM2.5 concentration dropped by 48.0%
(Skirien et al., 2021). Thailand; PM2.5 concentrations on highways and in commercial districts
dropped by 12.5 percent and 11.0 percent, respectively, during the lockdown. (Dejchanchaiwong &
Tekasakul, 2021). China: The data show a general 30 %–50 % decrease in annual mean PM2.5
across China over the 2013–2018 period (Zhai, Shixian, et al, 2019). The average concentration of
PM2. 5 in 2020, the decline of 9.5 percent and the lowest measurement since the data was first
collected in 2013 (Xinhua, 2021). Japan; The average PM2.5 concentration in Tokyo over a month
dropped by 3.6%. (Ma, Chang-Jin, and Gong-Unn Kang, 2020). South Korea: In 2020, the month
mean PM2.5 concentration dropped by 10.4%. (Han, Beom-Soon, et al., 2020). Singapore; The
concentrations of the following pollutants PM2.5 decreased by 29%. (Li, Jiayu, and Federico
Tartarini, 2020). Philippines; During 2015, 2016, and 2017, the annual average PM2.5
concentrations at the Metro Manila location were 22, 20, and 18 (in μg /m3), respectively. PM2.5
levels were comfortably under the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). (ACAP,
2021)
Conclusions
This research reviewed and analyzed the PM2.5 reduction measures of existing policies and
practices in nine selected countries. Policies and practices have been implemented in a variety of
ways, depending on the country's formation. In addition, all nations have sought to upgrade their
PM2.5 reduction-related measures to meet the goal continually. Singapore, South Korea, and Japan
were ranked as having the lowest annual mean values. PM2.5 levels decreased and stayed within
the annual standard limit. According to the research, PM2.5 levels have been similarly reduced in
the other six nations, including the EU, Germany, UK, Thailand, China, and the Philippines.
However, the data may not clearly show that the impact of the stated policies or activities that
contributed to PM2.5 reduction has occurred. Except for the Philippines, as cited in the report, this
may be a result of the policy. The study also found important factors that should consider including,
Emission control costs (baht/person/year), Densities of population, and Area. The study identified
limitations in Thailand's regulations and plans for reducing PM2.5 emissions. Proceed gradually and
sustained adjustments are needed. This is because both the possible advantages and downsides of
the action must be considered. Therefore, viable solutions must strike a compromise between
improved air quality and societal well-being.
Acknowledgement
This research is a part of the project entitled “Awareness Raising and Policy Design for Reducing
Health Impacts and Costs of Fine Particulate Matter Formation from Passenger Transport in
Thailand” funded by Mahidol University (Policy Advocacy Grant and MU-Talents on Research).
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