Prevalence of coliform bacterial contamination in cat drinking water in households in Thailand
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Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231-0916 RESEARCH ARTICLE
Available at www.veterinaryworld.org/Vol.14/March-2021/22.pdf Open Access
Prevalence of coliform bacterial contamination in cat drinking water in
households in Thailand
Suttiporn Srikullabutr1 , Panpicha Sattasathuchana1 , Anusak Kerdsin2 and Naris Thengchaisri1
1. Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
Thailand; 2. Department of Community Health, Faculty of Public Health, Kasetsart University, Chalermphrakiat Sakon
Nakhon Province Campus, Sakon Nakhon 47000, Thailand.
Corresponding author: Naris Thengchaisri, e-mail: ajnaris@yahoo.com
Co-authors: SS: sutti-sri@hotmail.com, PS: psatta99@gmail.com, AK: noksak99@gmail.com
Received: 13-11-2020, Accepted: 08-02-2021, Published online: 22-03-2021
doi: www.doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2021.721-726 How to cite this article: Srikullabutr S, Sattasathuchana P, Kerdsin A,
Thengchaisri N (2021) Prevalence of coliform bacterial contamination in cat drinking water in households in Thailand,
Veterinary World, 14(3): 721-726.
Abstract
Background and Aim: Bacterial contamination of drinking water is a leading cause of gastrointestinal infections. Cats
may be at risk of water contamination from feces due to poor sanitation and hygiene. The objectives of the present study
were to (1) evaluate the prevalence of coliform bacteria in cat drinking water and (2) identify possible risk factors leading
to contamination.
Materials and Methods: Fifty-five drinking water samples were collected from water containers used by cats (median age
[range]: 5 years [8 months-15 years]) at their home. Using a sterile syringe, 50 mL water was collected directly from water
containers. The water samples were stored in coliform enhancement media for 24 h and then submitted for bacterial culture.
Results: The prevalence of fecal coliform contamination of cat drinking water was 67.27% (37/55; 95% confidence interval:
53.29-79.32%). There was no significant difference in the prevalence of coliform bacterial contamination of drinking water
by age or gender of the cat or by water container type. However, bacterial contamination differed significantly between
shorthaired cats and longhaired cats when comparing Escherichia coli (9/44 [20.45%] vs. 8/11 [72.72%], pAvailable at www.veterinaryworld.org/Vol.14/March-2021/22.pdf
The objective of this study was to evaluate the to identify the type of bacteria, including E. coli,
prevalence of coliform bacterial contamination of cat Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., and Citrobacter
drinking water in households in Thailand. Factors spp. using standard biochemical reaction tests, as pre-
influencing coliform contamination of cat drink- viously described [14,15].
ing water (age, breed, sex, hair length, container Statistical analysis
type, water source, and time of sampling) were also Commercially available statistical software
determined. packages (JMP Pro 10, SAS Institute, Cary, North
Materials and Methods Carolina, USA; GraphPad Prism version 6.0,
Ethical approval and Informed consent
GraphPad Software, Inc., La Jolla, California, USA;
The protocol was approved by the Kasetsart STATA version 12, StataCorp, College Station,
University Institutional Animal Care and Use Texas, USA) were used for the statistical analyses. A
Committee (approval number #ACKU62-VET-030) Shapiro–Wilk W-test was used to assess the normality
and by the Ethical Review Board of the Office of of the data. Student’s t-test was performed to compare
National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT license age and body weight of the cats. The categorical vari-
U1-00500-2558). Written consent was obtained from ables, including age, breed, sex, hair length, container
all cat owners and the experiment complied with the type, water source, and time of sampling were com-
Kasetsart University Institutional Animal Care and pared using Fisher’s exact test. The significance level
Use Standards. was set at pAvailable at www.veterinaryworld.org/Vol.14/March-2021/22.pdf water of adult cats (
Available at www.veterinaryworld.org/Vol.14/March-2021/22.pdf
Table-4: Proportion of cat drinking water samples positive for coliform bacteria, by water source.
Type of bacteria Tap water (n=28) Processed water (n=27) p‑value
No. positive % Positive No. positive % Positive
Escherichia coli 7 25.00 5 18.52 0.561
Enterobacter spp. 16 57.14 9 33.33 0.076
Klebsiella spp. 9 32.14 6 22.22 0.409
Citrobacter spp. 1 3.57 0 0.00 0.322
Total 22 78.57 15 55.56 0.089
Table-5: Proportion of cat drinking water samples positive for coliform bacteria, by sampling time and water source.
Time of sampling (h) Water source Coliform bacterial contamination p‑value
Number of positive Number of negative % positive
12 h Tap water 16 3 84.21 ---
Processed water 9 8 52.94 0.047
Total Tap water 22 6 78.57 ---
Processed water 15 12 55.56 0.089
from households with a longhaired cat were associ- of water may be caused by other behaviors, such as
ated with a significantly higher prevalence of coliform when cats stir their water while drinking or otherwise
bacterial contamination, which was likely due to the dip their feet in the water bowl.
fact that longhaired cats become more easily soiled Several factors can influence bacterial con-
by dirt and feces from cat litter. This study revealed tamination of drinking water, including pipe breaks,
evidence that processed water is less likely to be con- low-pressure conditions, and low-chlorine concen-
taminated by bacteria (E. coli and Enterobacter spp.) trations, which result in the intrusion of pathogenic
compared with tap water. Tap water that had been left microorganisms [20,21]. The results of bacterial cul-
in the water container for more than 12 h had higher tures were also influenced by direct and indirect water
bacterial contamination compared with processed samples. In the present study, the prevalence of water
water. contamination in cat drinking water was based on the
E. coli is a normal flora in the intestines of result of the indirect bacterial culture, since the direct
humans and animals [16,17] and may serve as an bacterial culture of the water sample yielded signifi-
indicator of food or water contamination by microbes cantly lower detection. The World Health Organization
from the digestive tract. E. coli can be used as an indi- recommends that chlorine be present in sterile drink-
cator of contamination events based on evidence that ing water at a concentration of 0.2-1 mg/L. In the pres-
the bacteria cannot survive for long outside of the ent study, we found that tap water that was left in the
host nor create a biofilm habitat for regeneration [18]. water container for more than 12 h was more likely
The incubation period of E. coli is usually between to be contaminated than water that had been left in
12 h and 8 days, and the duration of illness is usually the container for less than 12 h. It is possible that the
between 1 day and 3 weeks. Detection of coliform effectiveness of chlorine may be reduced when water
bacteria in drinking water indicates recent contamina- stays in the container for more than 12 h. Therefore, it
tion (within 1-2 weeks). Coliform-contaminated water is advisable for cat owners to clean water containers
should not be consumed, because there may be other and change the drinking water twice daily to prevent
pathogenic organisms present [19]. bacterial infections in cats.
Bacterial contamination in food and water In humans, lack of access to clean water sources
can result from direct or indirect contact with fecal has been linked to up to 4% of deaths worldwide [22].
materials. It is possible that contamination may have Water contamination is a major cause of gastrointestinal
been caused by the cats. In the present study, E. coli, diseases in humans. From 1990 to 2004, 86 pathogens
Klebsiella spp., Enterobacter spp., and Citrobacter were identified as contaminants in the public drinking
spp. were identified in cat drinking water, which fur- water of the European Union [23]. In the United States,
ther confirmed the possibility that the drinking water 780 types of infections were associated with drinking
was contaminated with fecal materials. Coliform water from 1971 to 2006 [24], and every year, more
bacterial contamination was found more often in the than 20 million people are infected with waterborne
drinking water of longhaired cats. Thicker coats may diseases [25]. The occurrence of waterborne diseases
trap more dirt and feces from cat litter. As such, insuf- is caused by many factors, such as an inefficient water
ficient grooming may lead to coat contamination and system [26-28], inadequate disinfection systems [1,29],
subsequent water contamination. Fecal contamination cracks in the pipes transporting the water source that
Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231-0916 724Available at www.veterinaryworld.org/Vol.14/March-2021/22.pdf
link waste and drinking water [30], or decreases in the and Desenclos, J.C. (2006) A large multi-pathogen water-
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Authors’ Contributions 10. Ahmed, W., Neller, R. and Katouli, M. (2005) Host spe-
cies-specific metabolic fingerprint database for enterococci
SS: Designed study, conducted literature review, and Escherichia coli and its application to identify sources
performed study, interpreted data, and drafted manu- of fecal contamination in surface waters. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol., 71(8): 4461-4468.
script. PS: Designed study and reviewed manuscript. 11. Odonkor, S.T. and Ampofo, J.K. (2013) Escherichia coli as
AK: Performed study and reviewed manuscript. an indicator of bacteriological quality of water: An over-
NT: Designed study, interpreted data, and reviewed view. Microbiol. Res., 4(1): e2.
manuscript. All authors read and approved the final 12. Burton, G.A. Jr., Gunnison, D. and Lanza, G.R. (1987)
manuscript. Survival of pathogenic bacteria in various freshwater sed-
iments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 53(4): 633-638.
Acknowledgments 13. Sinclair, C., Jenkins, C., Warburton, F., Adak, G.K. and
Harris, J.P. (2017) Investigation of a national outbreak of
The present study was financially supported STEC Escherichia coli O157 using online consumer panel
by the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart control methods: Great Britain, October 2014. Epidemiol.
University (KU-VET-RA#006/61), Thailand. The Infect., 145(5): 864-871.
14. Markey, B., Leonard, F., Archambault, M., Cullinane, A.
authors would like to thank the staff at Kasetsart and Maguire, D. (2013) Clinical Veterinary Microbiology
Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Bangkhen, and the cat E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences, St. Louis. p239-272.
owners who participated in this study. 15. Salih, M.K., Alrabadi, N.I., Thalij, K.M. and Hussien, A.S.
(2016) Isolation of pathogenic gram-negative bacteria from
Competing Interests urinary tract infected patients. Open J. Med. Microbiol.,
6(2): 59.
The authors declare that they have no competing 16. Bonten, M., Stobberingh, E., Philips, J. and Houben, A.
interests. (1990) High prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia
coli in faecal samples of students in the South-East of The
Publisher’s Note
Netherlands. J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 26(4): 585-592.
Veterinary World remains neutral with regard 17. Schroeder, C.M., Zhao, C., DebRoy, C., Torcolini, J.,
Zhao, S., White, D.G., Wagner, D.D., McDermott, P.F.,
to jurisdictional claims in published institutional Walker, R.D. and Meng, J. (2002) Antimicrobial resistance
affiliation. of Escherichia coli O157 isolated from humans, cattle,
swine, and food. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 68(2): 576-581.
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