PUBLIC EDUCATION TO COMBAT XENOPHOBIA: AN EXAMINATION OF THE ROLE OF THE PRINT MEDIA - Vicki Igglesden
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No. 117
PUBLIC EDUCATION TO COMBAT XENOPHOBIA:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE ROLE OF THE PRINT MEDIA
Vicki Igglesden
April 2002Working Paper No. 117
ISSN 1474-3280
PUBLIC EDUCATION TO COMBAT XENOPHOBIA:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE ROLE OF THE PRINT MEDIA
Vicki Igglesden
April 2002
Development Planning Unit
University College London
9 Endsleigh Gardens
London, WC1H 0ED
dpu@ucl.ac.ukABBREVIATIONS
CEC Commission of the European Communities
CoE Council of Europe
ECRI The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance
EUMC European Union Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia
IMRAX The International Media Working Group Against Racism &
Xenophobia
OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentEDUCATION TO COMBAT XENOPHOBIA:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE ROLE OF THE PRINT MEDIA
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1: Understanding the Basis of Xenophobia 2
1.1 Identify Politics And The Nexus Of ‘Race’ And Nation 2
1.2 The Cognitive And Affective Bases Of Xenophobia 4
1.2.1. Cognition: Categorisation And Stereotypes 7
1.2.2. Affect 8
1.3 Conclusion 10
CHAPTER 2: Institutional Factors In The Generation Of Xenophobia And
Policy Responses 10
2.1 Institutions of the state: legislation, immigration policy and
political culture 10
2.1.1. Immigration Legislation And Citizenship Policy 11
2.1.2. Immigration Policies and Integration 11
2.1.3. Political Institutions and Political Culture 14
2.2. Strategies For Effective Public Education Policies To
Counter Xenophobia 15
2.3. Conclusion 17
CHAPTER 3: Possibilities For And Constraints On The Newspaper Media’s
Role In Public Education To Combat Xenophobia 18
3.1. Objectives For A Newspaper Media Based Public Education Policy 19
3.2. Constraints 19
3.3. Possibilities For A Future Orientation Of The Newspaper Media In Public
Education 21
CONCLUSION 22
BIBILOGRAPHY 24
ENDNOTES 32EDUCATION TO COMBAT XENOPHOBIA:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE ROLE OF THE PRINT MEDIA
INTRODUCTION exclusion through ‘othering’ in the context of
the nation-state promote discriminatory
Although the contemporary levels of ideologies and practices. I will then discuss
xenophobia1 may be alarming, the what role cognition and affect play in the
phenomenon is certainly far from new, being a creation and support of discriminatory
central theme in twentieth-century world ideologies. Cognitive and affective
history (Thomas 2000:48). Muller (1998:33) understandings of the basis of xenophobia are
declares that immigration ‘is likely to be a important as they provide some insight into the
major concern in OECD countries for decades ‘irrational’ fears and anxieties that accompany
to come’ and that the increase of nativism2 prejudice. Schul and Zukier (1999) argue that
signals the need for greater understanding of the contemporary tenacity of stereotypes is
how immigrants can be integrated into host indicative of the need to re-examine their
societies. The contexts in which xenophobia impact and origin in order to understand how
arises represent particular conjunctions of to combat them.
socio-economic and political conditions, In Chapter 2, I will consider aspects of
necessitating the comprehension of the the role of institutional factors in the generation
specifics of individual contexts of of xenophobia and, in the light of this, will
contemporary prejudice. Such knowledge is propose what policy responses should be with
crucial for the formulation of effective policies regard to public education to combat
for the reduction of xenophobia. xenophobia. The institutional framework is
Public education3 is an essential important in so far as it plays a central role in
component of policies aimed at facilitating defining attitudes to those understood as
social justice for immigrant minorities. As much ‘other’ within a polity. The first aspect of the
as it is widely recognised to be essential, there institutional framework that I will discuss is
is little discussion as to what exactly public legislation, both that designed to control the
education should set out to achieve and how flow of immigrants and that designed to
this might be approached. There is, however, combat discrimination. I will then consider a
wide acknowledgement of the role of selection of immigrant integration policies and
politicians and the media in influencing public how these influence beliefs about criteria for
opinion. belonging4.. Finally, I will briefly discuss the
Broadly, an examination of the nature role of political culture in both generating and
of xenophobia as a basis for public education supporting xenophobic ideologies. In my
policy formulation needs to take a holistic and review of institutional frameworks I will indicate
integrated approach. Analysis of the politics of how ambiguity and incoherence have
‘race’ needs to deal with the complex generated conditions that not only encourage
intertwining of national, local and everyday the racialization of social relations but also
processes of racialisation and broader make the formulation of a coherent public
processes of political and social change education policy difficult.
(Solomos & Back: 1995), along with In Chapter 3, I will propose a set of
psychosocial concerns. Sniderman et al objectives for media participation in public
(2000) argue for an integrated approach that education initiatives to combat xenophobia. I
takes account of both instrumental and will argue that the role of media in countering
expressive aspects of xenophobic ideologies. xenophobia is to promote and provide a forum
The components of ‘a properly rounded for national debate regarding national identity,
account of prejudice’ include three main areas the nature of pluralism, a revised vocabulary
of consideration: the group basis of bias, co- for discussing ‘race’ and ethnic minority
operation and conflict over interests, and issues, and a human rights language that
psychological make-up and prejudice (ibid:61), takes a moral and ethical stance to both rights
all of which will be considered, to varying and obligations of inclusivity. An important
depths, in this report. component of the media’s role is to generate
In this report I will argue that public understanding of the too often disregarded
education to combat xenophobia needs to take psychological aspects of prejudice and
account of both the institutional framework and vulnerability. Focussing on the British
the cognitive and affective aspects of newspaper media, I will argue that despite
xenophobia in order to build understanding of considerable constraints, the press has a role
the range of factors contributing to xenophobic to play in the promotion of a democratic public
ideologies. In Chapter 1 I will begin by briefly sphere through the fulfilment of what Sparks
considering the role of identity politics and the (1999) terms its ‘public enlightenment
nexus of ‘race’ and nation. This will highlight function’. Despite scope for resistant
the ways processes of identity formation and interpretations, it is indisputable that media
1does influence audiences and there is which perceptions of belonging are held. I will
therefore a moral imperative for this capacity to then examine the role of cognition and affect in
influence to be directed in the pursuit of a the formation and support of xenophobic
broader consensus on the scope and limits of ideologies.
social justice. The creation of greater
understanding of the dynamics of immigration 1.1 Identity Politics And The Nexus Of
and xenophobia can only contribute to such an ‘Race’ And Nation:
objective.
As a final point, any discussion that Contemporary concerns in Europe over what
encompasses issues of ‘race’, ethnicity and are perceived as high levels of immigration
identity is fraught with difficulty with regard to have generated debate regarding entitlement
terminology. Much as I would like to contribute to the collective goods of nation-states,
to the ‘policing and refurbishment’ that Carter provoking for some a preoccupation with
et al (1996:135) advocate for the political maintaining a distinction between ‘them’, who
constructs of ‘race’, nation and national identity should be excluded from entitlement to
- plus several other concepts they do not collective goods, and ‘us’, who are perceived
mention – I do not have space to expand on as having a primordial right to share in such
the many understandings of such volatile and goods. The exclusionary discourses
differently understood concepts. In addition to frequently degenerate into xenophobia.
the contextual valence of such terms, the The complexity of the debate over
available vocabulary for discussing various understandings of ‘race’ and racism
immigration issues has severe shortcomings. precludes a review of the various positions
Not only is ‘host population’ or ‘indigenous here7. Suffice it to say that it is generally
society’ poorly suited to is usage (McGown understood that the heterophobia manifest in
1999), but ‘minority’ increasingly is no longer contemporary racism assumes the existence
an apt description of many immigrant of distinct ‘race’s with essential characteristics
communities, means very different things in and a hierarchy of difference embodying
different contexts (Dummett 1998) and carries higher and lower values (Wistrich 1999).
its own negative connotations (Brah 1996:186- Despite the fact that racism is often expressed
190). Moreover, lack of clarity seems in terms of biology, it represents ‘a discourse
inevitable as muddle regarding terminology, of naturalized social relations that deems
Dresch (1995:81) proclaims, is essential in certain people to be degraded’ Schirmer
official public language. (1998:xx). Wimmer (1997) indicates that for
A further complication lies in the fact xenophobia, the ‘them’ and ‘us’ distinctions
that US scholarship has dominated studies of draw on fears of inundation, phobias of
ethnicity and ‘race’, leading to the interbreeding and creolization and the
incorporation of unstated assumptions that are ‘perception of a zero-sum game between
misleading when the terminology is transferred foreigners and ‘ourselves’’.
to non-US contexts (Banton 1999)5. I therefore In recent times, cultural racism has
leave most of these terms undefined, but added to the dimensions of inequality that
acknowledge implicitly or overtly (as, for were once assumed to rest on skin colour
example, in the use of ‘race’ in scare quotes) (Alibhai Brown 2000). Whilst religious racism
the contested and socially constructed nature of the early nineteenth century generally
of many of the terms used6. preceded biological racism, cultural racism
emerged as the preferred racist ideology in the
mid-twentieth century as imperial nations
CHAPTER 1 sought to integrate the demands for equality
from national liberation and civil rights
Understanding The Basis Of Xenophobia movements into a framework that would allow
the continued domination of (predominantly)
Theories attempting to explain the genesis of Europeans (Blaut 1992)8. ‘Modernisation’ was
xenophobia and racism tend to draw on one or envisaged as the vehicle for tutelage of
both of two principal groups of contributory nations of the ‘Third World’ which were
factors – those described as instrumental and considered to be potentially equal once their
those described as psychosocial. In so far as cultural development ‘progressed’ to European
instrumental factors (being those pertaining to levels (ibid). In many parts of the world, the
economic, political and social conditions) result elision of ‘race’ and culture and of group and
individual are responsible for the discursive
from and are shaped by prevailing institutional
functioning of ethnicity much as ‘race’ once
conditions, these will be considered in Chapter
functioned in those contexts (Dresch 1995).
2. However, in this chapter I will consider
Beyond cultural racism, there have recently
aspects of the psychosocial genesis of
emerged a number of racist attitudes that deny
prejudice by considering, firstly, the question of
the continued salience of racism – phenomena
identity politics and the nexus of ‘race’ and
variously called ‘modern racism’ and ‘laissez-
nation as these issues provide the context in
2faire racism’ (Goering 2000) or ‘new racism’ Rejecting rational choice,
(Alibhai Brown 2000)9. functionalism and discourse theory, Wimmer
The outcome of racist ideologies is (1997) argues that the phenomenological
racialization, wherein social relations are approach offers a more productive explanatory
‘structured by the signification of cultural and model, in combination with analysis of power
biological attributes in such a way as to define strategies and interest policy. The
and construct differentiated social collectivities phenomenological approach posits that
as ‘race’ collectivities’ (Carter et al 1996:136- xenophobia and racism occur in situations of
7). Although such socially constructed society wide crisis of identity. There are
categories are largely illusory, they have indications that people with little formal
‘undeniable potency’, particularly in times of education are particularly prone to adopt
crisis (Penrose & Jackson 1993:203)10. The xenophobic nationalism as a strategy for
dynamism and plurality of identities generates making the distinction between ‘us’ and ‘them’
a politics of identity in which ‘difference’ is in their quest to reduce complexity and
politicised ‘as groups and individuals become anxiety11. Where group prestige is more
aware of their differences, attach significance vulnerable as an effect of social and economic
to certain dimensions and contest the changes, dependence of that group on the
relevance of other designations’ (ibid:207). resources of the nation-state is greater and
Whilst there is agreement that racism thus the greater is their reliance on national
and xenophobia have shown a marked solidarity. In such cases the presence of
increase in the last two decades, there is immigrants engenders perceptions of
disagreement as to the basis for this. There is ‘invasion, inundation and existential rivalry’
no doubt that structural factors related to over limited future resources (ibid). Thus,
xenophobic discourse is to be understood as
population movements, increasing social
‘appealing to the pact of solidarity into which
inequalities, structural unemployment, top-
the ethnicized bureaucracy and a national
level corruption and political changes play a
community have entered and which at times of
large part in generating the fear and instability
intensified social conflict seem fragile,
that foster ideologies of xenophobia.
especially from the viewpoint of those
Competition for jobs, housing and state threatened by loss of their social standing…[to
resources produce insecurity, most particularly whom] the foreigner appears as an illegitimate
amongst those who perceive themselves to be competitor …[It is] a political struggle about
in danger of being marginalised through who deserves the right to be cared for by the
competition from foreigners. However, in state and society: a fight for the collective
order to understand these ideologies goods of the state’ (ibid:32).
sufficiently well to generate initiatives to The salience of collective identity is
combat them, a more complex analysis of their particularly marked in time of crisis. At such
genesis is necessary. times, the social compact implicit in the nation-
Wimmer (1997) cites the principal state disintegrates, leaving room for the
explanatory theories for xenophobia and formation of social movements seeking to re-
racism as being those derived from rational establish their own particular vision of the
choice, functionalism, discourse theory and desired order (Wimmer 1997). Revitalization
phenomenological approaches. Very briefly, of national solidarity is one of the principal
the rational choice model posits that under objectives of such movements, often in the
conditions of competition people form face of a moral panic generated by
collectivities to maximise their potential for perceptions of imminent chaos. In such
access to scarce resources; functionalist contexts, the presence of immigrants and
approaches make the claim that cultural asylum seekers spawns xenophobic hatred
differences between groups are so large as to and their advocates are seen as traitors to
create a barrier to integration; and discourse national solidarity. ‘Popular’ direct action is
theory argues that discourses of exclusion and then regarded as justified as ‘last stand’
self-empowerment are institutionalized by defence of national integrity.
official and semi-official power holders, such Wimmer’s assertion is that the politics
as politicians and the media, in the process of of identity and the politics of interests meet in
which immigrants are rendered responsible for the politicization of cultural affiliations that go
their own exclusion and impoverishment. As into the making of the nation-state12. Schirmer
Wimmer points out, neither rational choice nor (1998) regards racism as both integral to
functionalism as explanatory models of racism modernity and a function of collective
and xenophobia reveal what conditions lead to identity13, both of which are predicated on the
perceptions of, in this instance, scarcity or existence of ‘the nation’. However, being an
difference, nor, in the case of discourse theory, abstract category, ‘nation’ is empirically empty
is an explanation forthcoming as to why the from an individual perspective, which gives
relevant discursive practices are successful in rise to the need for what Benedict Anderson
generating xenophobia. has described as ‘imagined communities’.
Thus the nation is, at the same time, both
3contingent and ‘a source of a sense of This latter aspect is founded on her assertion
belonging’ (Schirmer 1998:xix). Moreover, the that, firstly, identity is constituted in interaction,
symbolic repertoire on which nationalism and that, secondly, the notion of ‘the other’ is
draws in the process of its ‘imagining’ invests inherent in national identity and nationalism
the concept of nation with strong affective and that therefore national identity is only
resonances, the violation of which (whether meaningful in contrast to other nations.
perceived or actual) equate with violation of ‘Significant others’ are those other nations or
the integrity of its individual members (ibid). ethnic groups ‘that are perceived to threaten
Clearly, ascribed ‘race’ becomes a basis for the nation, its distinctiveness, authenticity
exclusion where the notion of an equation and/or independence’ (ibid:594). They may be
between territory and a particular group of internal or external and may be viewed as a
people underlies the vision of the nation. This minority or a majority group15. It is in periods
may leave those excluded in this process with of instability and crisis, where either territorial
little alternative but to resort to ‘strategic and symbolic boundaries are threatened or
essentialism’ by drawing on the ascribed social, political and economic upheavals
differences as a basis for resistance, thereby question the basis of national identity, that
effectively endorsing the racist ideology ‘significant others’ become a focus for
(Penrose & Jackson 1993). overcoming the crisis and for possible
Racism shares several important transformation to be in a better position to
characteristics with nationalism, including respond to emotive and material concerns of
reliance on primordial factors, a taxonomy members of the nation (ibid:603).
based on the rationale of homogeneity-
heterogeneity, and provision of ‘a cure for the 1.2 The Cognitive And Affective Bases Of
coldness of the disembedded existence of Xenophobia:
modern human beings’ (Schirmer 1998:xxi).
Nationalism often becomes racialized via the As I have indicated above, notions of identity
naturalization of culture in an effort to and belonging rely on perceptions of shared
‘strengthen its own homogeneity-heterogeneity characteristics generated through processes of
rationale and to legitimate claims of superiority’ categorisation and response to sentiment. At
(ibid:xxii). There may be little apparent a basic level, the interactive nature of identity
coherence in this transformation, but its logic is presumes communication, which itself is
in the orientation it provides (ibid). founded in psychosocial processes of
The relationship between a nation and cognition and, as I will argue, of affect - without
how it deals with difference over time have which cognitive processes are unsuccessful.
direct bearings on the development of national Speculation as to the psychological basis of
identity and conditions of tolerance (Degler prejudice was popular in the 1950s and 1960s,
1998). The way in which national identity is but was then superceded by explanations
construed is also reflected in the way in which based on more instrumental theories of group
immigration policies are formulated. Parekh conflict and resource competition. However,
(1994) posits a three-fold typology of how the current prevalence of xenophobia and the
modern states view themselves. In the liberal inability to satisfactorily account for it within the
view ‘the state exists to create conditions in confines of such instrumental theories has led
which its autonomous and self-determining to a reconsideration of psychological theories.
citizens can freely pursue their self-chosen The CoE (Kaltenbach 2000:3), has
activities’ (ibid:93). The communitarian view, recently highlighted the need to ‘get a better
on the other hand, assumes that members understanding of the phenomenon of racism,
have shared understandings and a common its philosophical and psychological bases’.
ethical life through which their lives are Writing on anti-semitism, Wistrich (1999:6)
regulated and individual and collective identity observes that the psychological dimension has
are defined. Similar to but distinct from the often been overlooked in preference to ‘the
communitarian view, the ethnic or nationalist supposedly more “objective” economic, social
views the state as a hereditary group of people and political factors on the surface’ and warns
who, over time, have established kinship ‘ties that ‘we cannot afford to ignore unconscious
of blood’ through notions of common factors and more hidden sources’ if we are to
‘forefathers’. Each has a different basis for build a better understanding of prejudice.
qualification for state membership14. Sniderman et al (2000:5) argue for a synthesis
Triandafyllidou (1998) extends the of psychological and ‘objective’ approaches
discussion of national identity and its as relying only on the latter seems ‘to miss the
relationship to outsiders by the introduction of distinctively irrational, emotional, and
the concept of ‘significant others’. She argues expressive character of prejudice’. The
that national identity has two aspects – an advantage of the study of prejudice and
inward looking self-consciousness and an personality is that it broadens the focus from
external focus that conditions national identity relations between racial groups to the
according to the perceived characteristics examination of ideological work carried out by
and/or claims of those defined as not national.
4racializing groups (Wieviorka 1995) and the increases in heart rate), behaviour aimed at
institutions they are able to hold sway over. coping with the event that gives rise to the
Before proceeding further, it is helpful emotion, and the cognition (or thinking) that
to give a brief account of aspects of has gone into the evaluation of the event
psychological approaches to human (Cornelius 1996:10).
functioning in order to clarify the terms of this Although Oatley & Jenkins (1996)
discussion. A key development in the concern claim that a consensus about the definition of
of the Western philosophical tradition with the emotion17 is developing, it has proved an
nature of human mental activity was the idea inordinately difficult concept to define, giving
that it consisted of three distinct and rise to much controversy. Whilst some have
complementary faculties – those of affect made the claim that emotion is not a
(feeling), cognition (knowing) and conation substantive psychological category and
(willing) (Forgas 2000c)16. Our concern here is therefore does not warrant separate
with affect and cognition. Cognition consideration, many others strive to develop
encompasses the so-called ‘rational’ thinking greater understanding of its characteristics.
that depends on what are regarded as logical Most students of emotion would, however,
inferences. Affect, however, is somewhat concur with Cornelius (1996:9) when he states
harder to define – and therefore requires that emotions are ‘complex, multifaceted
greater explanation - not least in view of the phenomena’ giving rise to a range of
traditional bias towards ‘rationality’ as a definitions that reflect not only the interests
‘proper’ basis for knowledge. Franks & Gecas and methodological and theoretical
(1992:8) make the distinction between preferences of the psychologist concerned but
cognition as being concerned with ‘distanced also the prevailing ‘movement’ dominating
thoughts’ that are hypothetical and transcend psychology and the aspect of emotion under
actual events whereas emotion involves analysis.
thoughts that are ‘embedded in very personal Far from dismissing emotions as
concrete happenings’. For Wentworth & Ryan impossible to quantify or study objectively, the
(1992:29) cognitive knowing is characterized psychologist Nico Frijda has argued that they
by being literal and ‘attuned to detail and display ‘empirical regularities’ that allow
sequences’ in an effort to ‘grasp the precise description (Frijda 1988 in Cornelius
“thingness” of the world’. In contrast, 1996).18 Parkinson (1995:19) defines an
emotional knowing is ‘the quick…“seizing” of emotion as ‘a relatively short-term, evaluative
the object of consciousness with fixity, state focused on a particular intentional object
certainty and without detail’ in order to ‘rapidly (a person, an event, or a state of affairs).
assess, modulate and signal (in a felt emotion) …Emotional reactions typically include many
the strength and qualities of one’s attachments of the following four components: appraisal of
to the environment’. Frijda (1994:61) defines the situation, bodily response, facial
affect as simply ‘pleasant or unpleasant expression, and changes in action readiness.
feeling’. None of these factors is completely necessary
Popular understandings of emotion for emotional experience, but it would be
tend to equate it with ‘feeling’ and to oppose it implausible to describe as emotional any state
to thinking – thus the relation of cognition to that included none of them’.
affect is equated with that of thinking to feeling. Emotion is thus conceived of as a
However, in psychological terms, affect is process, as a set of stages with particular
much more than emotion. It encompasses a consequences (Oatley & Jenkins 1996). Frijda
range of psychological states that include (1986) understands emotion as a set of
emotions, emotion episodes, mood, sentiment, mechanisms that evaluate stimuli in relation to
and, some would argue, temperament and the organism’s preferred endstates or
personality dispositions (Davidson & Ekman outcomes and that dictate and control
1994). These phenomena differ along a appropriate actions according to these
number of dimensions, such as duration (that preferences. Similarly, Oatley & Jenkins
is, an acute process such as an emotion or an (1996) regard emotion as the effect of a
enduring disposition such as a mood), intensity conscious or unconscious evaluation of an
and diffusion (Forgas 2000c), origin and event as relevant to a desired goal and as a
whether they refer ‘to a particular object or to a device that controls readiness to act. The
more general or undefined class of objects’ experience of emotion is ‘as a distinctive type
(Frijda 1994:59). Forgas (2000b) argues that of mental state, sometimes accompanied or
although mood and emotion both affect social followed by bodily changes, expressions,
cognition, the way that they do so is different. [and/or] actions’ (ibid:96). Thus, evaluation
Moreover, in the domain of psychology, and interpretation of the personal significance
emotions are more than feelings. Beyond of events are the principal determinants of
subjective experience, the scope of emotion emotion (Parkinson 1995:16). Expressive and
includes expressive reactions (such as smiles, physiological reactions, along with motivated
frowns), physiological reactions (such as tears, behaviour, indicate readiness for action, and
5consciousness of these responses to the that these prototypes are ‘a micro-concept of
appraisal process contribute to the subjective social structure, describing relational and
feeling (ibid:17). In fact it is the change in interactional patterns that are typical and
readiness for action that is regarded by some stable’. Thus, situated identities (such as
as the necessary condition of an emotion those of ‘physician’ or ‘femaleness’) are
(Oatley & Jenkins 1996). For Frijda (1986:474) ascribed ‘an interactionally appropriate
the central features of emotional behaviour is emotional character…as part of the overall
the conversion of ‘fixed action patterns’ into distribution of knowledge by differentiated
‘multifaceted, flexible programs that can be social structure’ (Wentworth & Ryan 1992:35).
inhibited and held in abeyance’. Emotional However, it is a mistake to assume that
behaviour is, therefore, distinctive from individuals have no agency in the way in which
‘instinctive’ behaviour, over which there is not emotions are expressed. Whilst society may
the range of control possible of emotional provide the public moralities that define
responses. Another feature of emotion is ‘the appropriate expression of emotion, the
preponderance of short-term over long-term individual’s biographical self plays a role in
gain’ (Frijda 1986:476). Ultimately, the function deciding the degree to which personal agency
of emotion is ‘concern satisfaction’ (Frijda will be exercised in deviating from the
1986) through the monitoring of events and the normative prototypes of emotion behaviour
control of requisite action. This may or may (ibid).
not entail the influencing of cognition (Ekman & Speculation on the relationship
Davidson 1994). Some emotion (such as between cognition and affect is divided
infatuation, bitterness and nostalgia) are between the view that affect is disruptive to
apparently non-functional However, their effective thinking and behaviour and the view
value lies in the fact that they, like all emotions, that ‘openness to feelings is a useful, and even
‘reflect and “express” what the individual is necessary, adjunct to rationality and to
concerned with’ (Frijda 1986:478). effective social thinking’ (Forgas 2000c:1).
A cautionary reminder is in order here Despite the fact that the popular ‘common
regarding the cultural specificity of evaluations sense’ view opposes emotion to rational
of emotion functionality. Franks & Gecas considered thought21, much of contemporary
(1992:5) draw attention to ‘the conceptual psychological theory holds that emotional
baggage embedded in a peculiarly Western feelings about a particular object or event are
notion of emotion’ that is built upon a particular crucially dependent upon the cognitive
view of the nature of individual experience and processes of evaluation and interpretation
on a set of dichotomies of suspect intellectual (Parkinson 1995:18). There is thus
pedigree. In particular, as White (1993:31) considerable debate as to how, if at all, a
contends, tacit assumptions about emotions in distinction can be made between cognition and
the Western canon work to naturalize and affect. Franks & Gecas (1992:8) note that
universalize emotions through a bifurcation of affect and cognition, as inherently social
human experience (into bodily affect and processes, are increasingly recognised as
‘higher’ mental processes), elaborated by ‘inextricably bound together [as a]ll emotion is
‘networks of dualistic propositions that frame involved with thought and all thought has some
experience in dichotomous terms’19. affect’. In fact, it is argued that thought without
In this respect, it is important to bear in affect amounts to a pathological condition
mind that the expression of all but ‘basic’ (Seeburger 1992). The relationship between
emotions are learned and patterned according affect and cognition is understood as
to socially defined norms20. As Denzin ‘fundamentally an interactive one’- it is
(1990:90) puts it, the expression of emotion is complex, context sensitive and ‘clearly
a ‘relational phenomenon’ in that it ‘is shaped bidirectional’ (Forgas 2000b:389,400). Though
by the ensemble of social relationships that an abstract distinction can be made between
bind human beings to one another’. Gordon them, neither can be purified of the other
(1990) attributes to ‘emotional culture’ specific (Seeburger 1992).
emotion vocabularies, the norms that regulate Given that emotions ‘serve important
expression and feeling and the beliefs about functions having to do with how we get along
emotions. These features of emotional culture in the world’ (Cornelius 1996:10) they need to
articulate with the macro-level of social be taken seriously by those aiming to build
structure through microsocial interpersonal ties understanding of inter-group relations. The
– it is therefore evident that the relationship of ‘process of being emotional’ states Denzin
emotions to social structure is one of (1984:3) ‘locates the person in the world of
bidirectional influence (ibid). The prototypes social interaction…for emotions are felt in
(or typical examples) that are culturally relation to other interactants’, to the extent that
established as the norms for emotional ‘[a] person cannot experience an emotion
behaviour become scripts which guide the without the implicit or imagined presence of
acceptable expression of emotion (Oatley & others’. Clark (1990) cogently illustrates the
Jenkins 1996). Gordon (1990:155-6) argues important role of emotions in the micropolitics
6of hierarchy creation and negotiation. A range fact, to transcend the pernicious binary
of micropolitical strategies rely on emotions, oppositions such as those that arise in racist
she claims, to both mark and claim place in categorisation would mean abolishing thinking
status hierarchies. These strategies may draw altogether for ‘categorization is to the mind
on the use of the actor’s own emotions or they what breathing is to the body’ (ibid:122).
may be designed to elicit particular emotions Although categorisation is a
from others. fundamental basis of human action, the
Contemporary sociology of emotions problem arises when categorisations become
tends to be dominated by the social rigidified into stereotypes23. Stereotypes are a
constructionist perspective. As Wentorth and form of social control that justify oppressive
Ryan (1992) explain, this position holds that patterns of prejudice, often inflicting psychic
‘emotions function as social definitions’. devastation on the communities of which the
Norms of emotion expression define morality stereotype is a caricature (Shohat & Stam
in terms of the sentiments attaching to notions 1994:198)24. Stereotyping relies on an
such as obligation, respect and conscience. It essentialism that generates ahistoricism. It
is in society’s interest to maintain social control fundamentally conflicts with the notion that
through the regulation of emotions and it is in identities are ‘multiple, unstable, historically
the interests of individuals to practise situated, [and] the products of ongoing
emotion-management to negotiate social differentiation’ (ibid:49). Stereotypes sustain
reality. It is thus that emotion becomes the perception of invariable characteristics of a
inextricably bound up with power22. As the particular group membership, such beliefs
authors point out, actors, situations and being ‘accompanied and sustained by negative
organizations ‘that can evoke, manage and affect’, even in those cases where the
coordinate emotion can, by controlling the stereotype is positive (Schul & Zukier
content of reality, create the propensity for 1999:33). In situations of imperfect information,
certain actions and the inhibition of others’ stereotypes act as discriminatory guidelines,
(ibid:39-40). It is in the course of particularly in the pragmatic discriminatory
communicating that emotions become practices aimed at human survival that
validated and emotional meaning is naturally draw on categories of ‘race’ and
externalized to become evocative and socially ethnicity as an extension of nepotistic
persuasive (White 1993:36). The view of concerns (van den Berghe 1997). Most
emotions as a resource and as a source of importantly, stereotypic beliefs, as causal
social power in intersubjectivity provides theories, are particularly resistant to change
potentially useful insight into the nature and (Schul & Zukier 1999:34)25.
practice of xenophobia and racism. Crucially, Although a potential consequence of
affect ‘is intimately involved in how social stereotypical beliefs is prejudicial action, this
information is cognitively represented, and relationship is not unidirectional as it may also
plays a key role in the way attitudes, be that prejudicial action is subsequently
stereotypes, and self-concept are organized’ justified on the basis stereotypical beliefs.
(Forgas 2000a:xv). Evidence is manufactured to create a ‘reality’
This discussion of cognition and affect that supports stereotypic thinking to the point
and their role in human functioning provides a where ‘almost any behaviour can be
basis for the consideration of cognitive and interpreted in line with a stereotype’,
affective bases of xenophobia. Despite the particularly where restricted observation
fact that there is little evidence to support contexts produce biased samples of behaviour
making a rigid distinction between cognition patterns (Schul & Zukier 1999:35)26. Moreover,
and affect, I will for convenience now call on groups who are the targets of stereotypic
the possibility of making an abstract distinction beliefs may internalise the characteristics and
between them in order to consider, in turn, behaviour expectations attributed to them, thus
what role cognition and affect play in the imposing ‘a sense of order and coherence on
genesis and maintenance of xenophobic and the world at the expense of accuracy’ (ibid:34).
racist beliefs. It is not always, however, difference
that motivates stereotypes. Lack of otherness
1.2.1. Cognition: Categorisation And attributable to a group identified as different
Stereotypes: may threaten group integrity through its
potential to blur boundaries between the
Categorisation, taxonomic systems and binary groups (Schirmer 1998). Research has
oppositions are natural cognitive processes of indicated that ‘the strongest competition
organization and discrimination aimed at between two groups may be expected to occur
reducing chaos, misunderstanding and where in reality there is the least reason to
unpredictability (van den Berghe 1997). distinguish one group from the other’
Category definition stipulates the minimum (Triandafyllidou 1998:600). In such a situation,
qualities for membership and often establishes heterogeneity may be created in order to
a hierarchy of differences (Zukier 1999). In restore a threatened identity (ibid). Sniderman
7et al (2000) observe that the classic outside the context of its expression and looks
understanding of Eurocentrism as being a rather to socialization as origin (Wieviorka
relationship between ingroup affiliation and 1995). It is useful to note, in passing, that it
outgroup hostility does not necessarily hold as has been suggested that a generalised distrust
their findings suggest that outgroup hostility is of other people is correlated with distrust in the
accompanied by ingroup hostility, particularly political institutions and organizations of
where there is a generalised high intolerance pluralist democracies (Dogan 1997).
of diversity. There are a number of obstacles to
What is important to understand about accepting emotion as a factor in the genesis of
the nature of stereotypic beliefs is that they are xenophobic beliefs. In the first place, as I have
motivated by the need for justification, whereas already discussed in section 1.2, it is difficult to
other less pernicious forms of categorisation define the concept ‘emotion’ beyond the
are most likely to be motivated by the need for somewhat nebulous statement that it is
accuracy and truth (Schul & Zukier 1999). The ‘feeling’ (as opposed to ‘thinking’). Beyond
scapegoating that goes into stereotypic beliefs this, there is debate as to whether it can be
exonerates wrongdoing on the part of the held that there are certain universal emotional
holder of such beliefs (Befu 1999). states common to all humankind or whether all
Scapegoating is both a means of exorcising affective states are culturally conditioned
guilt and of defining social, religious and (Wierzbicka 1995) and whether the concerns
national identity. through the construction of a about ‘emotion’ represent a peculiarly Western
moral order ‘against the dangerous disruptive, way of understanding – to the extent that
defiling Other’ (Wistrich 1999:8). Although the emotion now stands as ‘a master concept of
spatial scale of that which is considered Western culture’ (Franks & Gecas 1992).
‘inside’ is frequently the nation, it is Additionally, theories of the self fall into two
contextually flexible such that it may also, for principal categories: either social organisation
example, be confined to a single village or is based on the notion that the self is
ethnic group (Befu 1999). independent from others, or it is seen as
based on interdependence among group
1.2.2. Affect: members (Kitayama et al 1995). A further
difficulty arises in the ‘Janus-faced character of
Whilst cognitive approaches that theorise the emotions’, wherein they can be viewed both
process of stereotyping provide important negatively as a biasing source of error in
insights into xenophobic belief systems, they instrumental contexts and positively as
are not sufficient in the explanation of essential to the maintenance of social systems
psychological processes. Cognitive (Franks & Gecas 1992). Finally, there remains
categorization, after all, is significantly derived a series of dichotomies that place emotion as
from affect (Forgas 2000b), through which it is an inferior knowledge system by drawing on
energized (Schul & Zukier 1999). Sniderman Manichean mind:body distinctions, such as
et al (2000) argue that though useful, the that of objective:subjective, rational:irrational,
concentration on prejudice as a cognitive and so on.
process is constraining with respect to Despite these objections, I have
understanding of both causes and argued elsewhere that emotive-aesthetic
consequences of prejudice. It is the reasoning should be understood as a
persistence of negative affect in stereotyping, legitimate basis of knowledge (Igglesden
rather than the cognitive content of 2000). Feelings are a primary frame of
stereotypes, that is the key to understanding reference for cognition, such that aspects of
prejudice. Categorization is ‘a pivotal process emotion are ‘indispensable for rationality’
for prejudice’ but not a necessary condition. (Damasio 1996:xv). Forgas (2000) reports
They argue that there are two crucial that there is a ‘growing consensus that
mediators that affect prejudice by increasing affective responses are a useful and even
categorization. These are the assessment of essential means of dealing with the social
instrumental calculations and an expressive environment’. There is also evidence that
element that manifests as ‘a readiness to underlying emotional capacities give rise to
suspect and dislike other people in general’ fundamental ethical stances.
(ibid:80, 81). The expressive element reflects Emotional experience is a complex
a personality-oriented approach that holds that phenomenon that results from a ‘reciprocal
a cluster of fundamental core values, labelled interplay of individual agency, biology,
‘authority values’27, predispose the holder to biography and society’ (Franks & Gecas
particular concerns. The result is that such a 1992:13). The anthropological approach to
person displays both a lack of sympathy with emotion as culturally constituted understands
the values of compassion and empathy and an emotion as ‘a kind of language of the self – a
‘insistence on strictness, sacrifice and code for statements about intentions, actions,
authority’ (ibid:115). The value of this kind of and social relations’ and as the ‘primary idiom
approach is that it places the origin of racism for defining and negotiating social relations of
8the self in a moral order’ (Lutz & potentially productive frameworks that rely on
White1986:417)28. Emotion talk is a discursive the notion of abjection and the transfer of
practice concerned with issues of sociability negative emotions about the ‘I’/’us’ onto a
and power. As an interactional discourse, ‘you’/’them’, thereby creating a vehicle of
emotion language is intimately involved in the absolution for the ‘I’/’us’. Drawing on Kleinian
politics of everyday life through its deployment object relations theory, notions of the
to ‘establish, assert, challenge, or reinforce development of a sense of personal border
power or status differences’ and to negotiate and vulnerability to external threat suggest
solidarity (Abu-Lughod & Lutz 1990:14). possible outcomes that range from the ability
Ultimately, emotion talk is commentary and to embrace difference as a pleasurable
judgement on ‘the practices essential to social experience of merging to, at the other extreme,
relations’ in the form of ‘socially contested the rejection of difference as a threat to the
evaluations of the world’ (ibid:19, 11). integrity of the self. The development and the
Moreover, culture and social organization are nature of the sense of personal border is, of
dialectically related to emotional experience, course, an ongoing process that is a
each playing a part in shaping the other consequence ‘of relating to others and
(Franks & Gecas 1992). Discourses on becoming a part of a culture’ (Sibley 1995:7).
emotion are embedded in culturally defined Kristeva suggests that the permanent
understandings of identities (White 1990:47). presence of the abject – some ‘thing’ that is
The importance of including emotion in both beyond and yet part of the subject –
an explanation of xenophobia rests on the poses a threat to apparent unities and gives
general observation that people’s feelings are rise to an anxiety ‘to expel or distance from the
important for their effect on social interaction, abject other as a condition of existence’,
particularly where oppression takes place whether that abject other be other cultures or
29
(Sibley 1995). Affect is especially pertinent, matter out of place (Sibley 1995) . In
Forgas (2000) argues, in the process of Kristeva’s (1991:20) concern with the
anticipation of future events where judgement predicament of ‘the foreigner’30, she declares
is necessary to cope with uncertainty and that the habit of suspicion ‘provokes regressive
unpredictability. Rather than the emphasis on and protectionist rage’ that seeks to expel the
the social construction of emotions, which intruder or, at least, to oppress. She considers
tends to assume a ‘passivity in the guise of that ‘an invader reveals a buried passion within
non-dialectical emotion-as-consequence’, those who are entrenched: the passion to kill
Wentworth & Ryan (1992) point out that felt the other, who had first been feared or
emotions are self-constructed, arising in the despised, then promoted from the ranks of
biological self ‘and from the tension between dregs to the status of powerful persecutor
self and circumstances’. They thus signal the against whom a ‘we’ solidifies in order to take
relation of the self to the world, placed on a revenge’ (ibid).
continuum between identification and A Jungian perspective uses the
alienation. Xenophobia, from a psychoanalytic concept of ‘the shadow’, representing that part
perspective that focuses on the emotions, of the psyche wherein dwell unrecognised
reflects an incapacity to manage difference as desires and repressed aspects of the
well as, as already noted, incapacity ‘to cope personality (Gross 2000). Individuals or
with the resemblance with the Other’ collectives seek to free themselves from the
(Wieviorka 1995:23). undesirable, unpalatable aspects of the self
Central to the question of feelings which have yet to be integrated into the
about others is the construction of the self individual or group consciousness by
(Sibley 1995). Feelings about others are projecting them into the ‘not-I’ or ‘not-us’ (ibid).
intimately bound up with concern about the Shadow projections are made onto a
moral order and it is the morality of the self that scapegoat in times of crisis. Gross states that‘
is used in judgement of the ‘Other’ deemed not [w]hen one’s sense of identity either as an
to be partisan to the same moral order (Befu individual or as part of a collective is seriously
1999). In effect, the self is reflected in the challenged, then a certain psychic dynamic
Other in so far as selected ‘bad’ aspects of the becomes constellated whereby the conscious
self, with their ‘repressed sadistic impulses’, mind, threatened as it feels itself to be from
become embodied in the ‘bad’ Other, thus without, but really unable to tolerate the
displacing evil from the powerfully activated internal shadow content,
inside to the outside (ibid:27). Where the Self must now urgently find a way of ejecting these
is the nation, demonizing the Other ‘appeals to unwelcome and unmanageable affects, and so
group narcissism while reinforcing nationalist expels them, into a suitable other’ (ibid:80).
sentiments’ (ibid:28) Stevenson (1999:138) argues that
Whilst there is not space to attempt a psychonanalytic frames can generate
comprehensive review of theories of emotion understanding of the ‘irrational fears and
and xenophobia, there are a number of anxieties that inevitably accompany racist
9thinking’ by the ‘introduction of concepts of In this chapter I will argue that, in practice, the
psychic splitting, lack and projection’ and that relationship between xenophobia and
Klienian psychoanalytic theories (amongst institutional factors (in the form of legislation,
others) have ‘much to offer a contemporary immigration policy and political culture) is a
understanding of racist discourse in the circular one. As much as policy and political
context of modern popular culture’. However, rhetoric may intend to reduce the grounds for
Hauke (2000:62-4) maintains that for all its development of discriminatory ideologies, it is
attractions, object relations theory is frequently the case that the assumptions within
incomplete and, as others have pointed out, which these are framed serve rather to
has a number of important biases built into it. increase prejudice. In effect, state
Nonetheless, it seems to offer some promise interventions with regard to immigration and
as a starting point for further enquiry into the anti-immigration sentiment are more often than
affective basis of xenophobic beliefs. It not, particularly in the case of Britain, reactive
provides some insight into the tendency, in rather than proactive. The result is
Western societes at least, to a ‘robust and incoherence and contradiction, which not only
pervasive tendency to maintain and enhance allows the evolution of a range of conflicting
self-esteem’31 (Kitayama et al 1995:523), discourses regarding the presence of
whether as an individual or a collective effort. foreigners but also makes the formulation of
Individual emotional responses an effective public education policy to counter
become particularly powerful when they are xenophobia and racism particularly difficult.
manipulated by actors and organizations who Policy has, on the whole, taken little account of
the nature of xenophobia, and not infrequently
have the social power to evoke, manage and
simply ignores its existence. In the light of
co-ordinate emotions. Given that emotional
these difficulties I will propose a number of
experience and the expression of affect are
objectives for policy responses.
aspects of identity, particularly in relation to a
sense of belonging (Rew & Campbell 1999)32,
2.1 Institutions Of The State: Legislation,
there is enormous scope for powerful actors to
Immigration Policy And Political Culture
‘create the propensity for certain actions and
the inhibition of others’ through the control of
Richmond (1994:220) observes three
the content of reality (Wentworth & Ryan contradictory and incompatible trends in the
1992:40). Rew & Campbell (ibid:13) state that ‘new world order’ that have ‘significant
‘[b]ecause of the subjective, experiential implications for international migration and
dimension of identity, effective identity ethnic relations within a rapidly changing world
narratives such as those deployed by (ethnic) system’. Firstly, in the pragmatic scenario
nationalism are exercises in the mobilisation of majority groups seek to maintain the existing
emotion through a selective drawing upon distribution of political and economic power,
affective elements, for example a contextually which leads to a ‘fortress mentality’
defined sense of exclusion, fear and anxiety preoccupation with issues of security and
vis-à-vis significant Others’. border controls. Secondly, in the nostalgic
view, the goal is to protect a real or imagined
tradition of cultural values from perceived
1.3 Conclusion: threat from globalization through separation
and exclusion of ‘Others’. Finally, the utopian
The complexity of the relation between notions view has an ecological slant that seeks to
of national belonging and ‘race’ are clearly ensure the survival of human (and other)
important in building understanding of species through emancipation and
xenophobia. In this Chapter I have argued that empowerment, expressed in a concern with
both cognition and affect play a crucial role in the full implementation of existing human rights
the creation of distinctions between those who conventions in migration policies. However,
‘belong’ and those who do not. The despite the apparent promise of this latter
implication, therefore, for effective policies to approach, Richmond sees little positive
combat xenophobia is that they must take outcome for any of these scenarios (see Table
account of the cognitive and affective bases of 1.1). In effect, immigration policies often draw
prejudice and seek, moreover, to generate on aspects of each of these three different
greater understanding of these complex and outlooks, as is the case, for example, of
potent bases of knowledge construction. legislation and immigration policy in Britain,
CHAPTER 2 thereby contributing to their characteristic
incoherence and contradiction.
Institutional Factors In The Generation Of
Xenophobia And Policy Responses
Table 1.1: New World Order: Alternative Scenarios
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