REDD+ in Madagascar: YOU CAN'T SEE THE WOOD FOR THE CARBON - FIELD CASE STUDY IN MADAGASCAR, JULY 2013
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REDD+ in Madagascar: YOU CAN’T SEE THE WOOD FOR THE CARBON FIELD CASE STUDY IN MADAGASCAR, JULY 2013
REDD+ in Madagascar:
You can’t see the wood for 4.2 Projects which place new constraints on local communities
without providing any benefits 20
the carbon 4.2.1 Restricted access to land and natural resources
4.2.2 Poor compensation and an absence of alternative practices
4.2.3 Reforestation projects with short-terms benefits (monetary or
20
20
alimentary). But then what? 22
Contents 4.3 Social tensions caused by projects
4.3.1 Aerial surveillance
23
23
4.3.2 The Forest police: from fines to prison 24
Summary 4 4.3.3 Sanctions: a cause of fear but difficult to apply 25
4.3.4 The impact on women 25
4.3.5 Who benefits from the profits? 25
01 Introduction: Les Amis de la Terre 5
1.1 The REDD+ mechanism 5
1.2 REDD carbon credits: a strategy for putting pressure
05 The HCPF Project: an example of the risks and
on the airline industry? 6
limitations of REDD+ 28
1.3 Carbon offsetting on the voluntary market 6
5.1 Too much attention given to carbon storage, and higher
transaction costs 28
5.2 Is there any real benefit to the environment? 30
02 REDD projects in Madagascar: context and history 8
5.2.1 Is it possible to predict the future? The impossibility of drawing up
2.1 Key figures for Madagascar10 8 a truly scientific baseline scenario 30
2.2 The importance of conservation in Madagascar 8 5.2.2 The difficulty of accounting for the effects of leakage 31
2.3 REDD+ Conservation Projects 9 5.3 Carbon offsetting: a socially unjust scheme 32
2.4 Focus on the Holistic Conservation Programme for Forests 10
Conclusions and recommendations 34
03 Agriculture: essential for local communities, and Appendix 1:Carbon market, Kyoto, clean development mechanism,
primary cause of deforestation 13 European Union Emission Trading System: what do these
3.1 National context: food insecurity 13 things mean? 36
3.2 Spotlight on the traditional practice of slash-and-burn agriculture 15 Appendix 2: The thorny problem of the baseline scenario 37
3.3 Poorly defined and disputed land rights 16
04 REDD+ Projects: a solution or a new source of problems
for local communities? 18 A project in support of investigative journalism
4.1 Projects that aggravate tensions over land – who wins, who loses 18 Within the framework of a European project, Friends of the Earth France and its partners have chosen to
4.1.1 What about free, prior and informed consent? 18 support reportage and journalism projects. This report is one of a series of five case studies focusing on
issues surrounding the carbon markets and their impact on agriculture and forests.
4.1.2 Timber harvesting permits: a source of conflict between communities 20
This report examines the Holistic Conservation Programme for Forests in Madagascar, led by WWF
Madagascar and GoodPlanet and funded by Air France. It was written by Sophie Chappelle, a journalist
for the news website Basta! (www.bastamag.net) and is the result of a field mission organised in May
2013.
Part 1 and the Recommendations of this report were written by Sylvain Angerand, for Friends of the Earth
France. Part 5 was co-written.
REDD+ in Madagascar : you can’t see the wood for the carbon
Summary
01
I
n 2003, Madagascar’s previous president set the objective of increasing the size
Introduction
of the country’s protected areas from 1.7 to 6 million hectares. Ten years after this
announcement, REDD+ has become an essential part of national conservation
strategies. The country has launched four REDD+ pilot projects, each led by large
conservation NGOs. For these NGOs, carbon finance now seems the most promising
option for the sustainable management of protected areas. Some of the NGOs have
Les Amis de la Terre
already started selling carbon credits from protected areas on the voluntary carbon
markets. Others intend to follow suit, such as the French foundation GoodPlanet/Etc
Terra and WWF Madagascar, who have been in charge of the Holistic Conservation
Programme for Forests (HCPF) in Madagascar since 2008, with the financial support
of Air France.
This pilot project has invested a large sum of its funds into means of measuring carbon
and monitoring the forests. The logic of which is lost on the local communities who are
1.1 The REDD+ mechanism However the strategy’s supporters have not abandoned
hope of integrating REDD credits into the carbon market
nonetheless the ones who suffer the consequences including the restriction of available It is estimated that around 12 to 15% of annual
and are now proposing a three-phase approach: firstly
land for agriculture and collecting wood. What began as a project intended to benefit anthropogenic CO2 emissions are related to
a period of development for REDD, supported by public
local communities by fighting against deforestation has become a project essentially deforestation and forest degradation. Therefore, the
funds; secondly, the use of public funds to set the
focused on measuring the consequences of deforestation, and which contributes to fight against deforestation is a major issue for climate
strategy in motion and generate the first carbon credits;
food insecurity. This study uses money that could have been spent on taking grassroots stabilisation. With this in mind, in 2005 a group
lastly, the introduction of the credits into the market if
action and putting in place real incentives for the local population. We must look to of countries led by Papua New Guinea brought a
and when certain conditions are met. This approach
develop methods other than carbon finance to make real headway in the fight to stop proposition to the negotiating table to create a new
has the advantage of silencing critics by specifying that
deforestation and forest degradation. Ecological intensification, through agroecology strategy for reducing emissions from deforestation
the REDD strategy is financed by public funds whilst
and agroforestry, as well as land tenure security for communities living in forested areas, and forest degradation (REDD). Two years later, the
mobilising those same funds in order to construct a
should be at the centre of the REDD+ agenda. proposal was upheld by the United Nations Framework
system whose ultimate aim is to generate carbon credits
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Bali
that can be legitimately traded on the carbon market.
(COP13). In December 2010, REDD was incorporated
This report is the result of a field mission organised in May 2013 in a new protected area
into the Cancun Agreements (COP16) despite strong But this approach does not address the problems raised
of Madagascar’s spiny forest. It would have been interesting to compare the outcome of
criticism regarding the absence of operational efficiency in connection with REDD carbon credits: the absence
the HCPF in a different environment, such as the moist forests, but this was not possible
and flaws in the mechanism. of additionality (the guarantee of a real reduction in
as GoodPlanet/Etc Terra declined to help the report’s author to carry out his mission.
emissions) and leakage (the shifting of deforestation
In actual fact, the idea of developing a strategy to
from one area to another), problems that cannot be
combat deforestation is not a new one and had already
resolved by hypothetical conditionalities. For example,
been discussed at Kyoto in 1997. At the time, the
it is impossible to draw up baseline scenarios for
greatest concern was whether such a strategy would
deforestation, the principal driving force behind the
compromise the environmental integrity of the Kyoto
REDD programme, that are scientifically rigorous
Protocol by introducing fictitious forest carbon credits
enough to guarantee additionality but no leakage (see
into the markets (but also whether it would threaten
Appendix 2).
state sovereignty over forests for countries like Brazil).
These crucial issues, and the solutions proposed by the
Currently, these criticisms have not received a
HCPF project, will be discussed in Part 5 of this report.
satisfactory response and a relative consensus has
been reached recognising that the integration of REDD The REDD programme has continued its operations as
carbon credits into the carbon market is not desirable if their approach had already been accepted: bypassing
(see Appendix 2). Thus, in 2011, the European Union climate negotiations with parallel processes, mobilising
announced that REDD credits would no longer be public bodies and funds to create favourable conditions
accepted within the European Union Emission Trading for the integration of REDD into the carbon market and
System until at least 2020. increase the number of pilot projects.
Les Amis de la Terre Les Amis de la Terre
4 Basta! Basta! 5
REDD+ in Madagascar : you can’t see the wood for the carbon REDD+ in Madagascar : you can’t see the wood for the carbon
In parallel with climate discussions, several multilateral reducing the demand for air transport”, as is stipulated “Our primary objective is to facilitate the integration would be considerably watered down if compensation
initiatives have been put in place to prepare countries in the appendix, which no doubt means that the market of the forest carbon component into the post-Kyoto mechanisms were recognised.
for REDD, such as the World Bank’s Forest Carbon will operate largely through flexibility or compensation agreement”, explains Jean-Paul Paddack, International
European airline companies are currently in the same
Partnership Facility (FCPF) and the United Nations mechanisms. Business Development Director for the WWF, in an
situation: on the one hand they are opposed to any new
REDD global fund, as well as numerous bilateral interview with Paris Match5. “But we are also considering
1.3 From voluntary offsetting to carbon obligation to reduce their emissions and on the other,
partnerships, including Norway’s donation to the ways of stimulating the market. We are currently working
market by investing in voluntary projects to help them gain
Amazon Fund and support given by development with major banks, such as Crédit Suisse, BNP Paribas
recognition, companies can anticipate the possibility
agencies to numerous pilot projects (the Agence Voluntary compensation, or offsetting, enables entities and Goldman Sachs, to develop specific financial tools,
that they fail to block legislation. Thus the IATA’s
Française de Développement is currently considering (organisations, companies or individuals) wishing for example ‘forest obligations’, which will allow the
resolution of 3 June 2013 stated in its Core Principles
financing the HCPF in its second phase). voluntarily, and outside of any regulatory constraint, to private sector to invest in forest conservation”. Hence,
that: “Governments should consider acknowledging
compensate for their own emissions by buying CO2 the journalist reminds us, the importance of pilot projects
1.2 REDD carbon credits: an escape stra- voluntary industry commitments”7.
emission credits on the carbon market. like those in Madagascar that can precisely calculate
tegy for an airline industry under pres- Without claiming that this is the only context in which
Carbon offsetting supposedly represents a further effort carbon stocks. As the article goes on to explain: “‘The
sure ? the intentions and interests that led to the creation of
beyond regulatory requirements and has little influence ‘market’ for forest carbon is still tentative’, highlights
Greenhouse gas emissions from aviation currently Johannes Ebeling, a carbon finance specialist, and the HPCF project can be explained, we nonetheless
on official negotiations (like the obligation to join a
account for 2 to 3% of global emissions. According independent consultant in Madagascar, who works think it is crucial to understanding the way the project
carbon market or to pay tax). A point of view Friends
to the projections of the International Civil Aviation for private investors looking for projects in the region: has been carried out and its consequences for the local
of the Earth does not share for a number of reasons.
Organisation (ICAO) these emissions will have ‘They are still extremely wary. The success of forest community.
quadrupled by 2050 but global emissions must be Firstly, voluntary carbon offsetting is based on the conservation programmes is dependent on a number
reduced by a factor of 4 before 2050 in order to maintain same methodological errors and lacks the same of factors: the development of agricultural methods,
global warming below 2 degrees centigrade1. scientific foundations as officially recognised carbon population growth, State action, the political climate…
compensation mechanisms, particularly in the case of Theoretically a market exists, but it very much hinges
Until now, the airline industry has never been under
carbon related to forest projects. upon the hope of reaching an international agreement’.”
any obligation to reduce its impact on the climate.
From 1 January 2012, the industry should have been Secondly, voluntary and official carbon offsetting are This is not the only so-called scientific project to have
officially included on the European carbon market – very closely linked. A significant number of voluntary evolved in this manner, from assessing carbon stocks to
the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) – but carbon compensation project developers present their generating carbon credits6. In 1998 the first carbon sink
under pressure from airline companies, the European projects at the same time as similar proposals are project set up in Brazil by Peugeot and ONF International
Commission suspended their inclusion for a year in being discussed within the context of official climate (the international branch of the French National Forests
order to allow industry representatives to draw up negotiations. Numerous negotiators are invited to Office) was presented as a scientific project whose only
regulations that will satisfy airline companies as well attend these presentations. For example, during the purpose was to develop methodologies for calculating
as the EU. If much of the opposition comes from non- Durban Climate Change Conference, where important carbon stocks. In the face of criticism, Peugeot and ONF
European airline companies who do not believe they discussions were taking place regarding the REDD International have always denied that they wished to
should be subject to EU regulations, the European mechanism, WWF Madagascar and GoodPlanet generate carbon credits . But in 2011, ONF International
companies have joined the resistance to try and block organised a parallel event to present the HCPF project and Peugeot announced that they were issuing the first
the process, as the Chairman and CEO of Air France- in Madagascar. Sometimes a project is not even carbon credits generated from the project.
KLM, Jean-Cyril Spinetta, stated: “It is simply not presented as one of voluntary compensation but simply
as a project aimed to measure carbon storage. This is, Voluntary carbon offsetting is often used as a Trojan
possible for Europe to impose its will on the rest of
yet again, the case for the HPCF. Initially the project was horse by companies who wish to anticipate and influence
the world”2.
presented as “an environment investment programme”, regulatory constraints. In the United States, companies
Grouped together under the aegis of the International like General Motors or Chevron have financed powerful
and claimed that the HCPF aimed to “advance scientific
Air Transport Association (IATA), on the 3 June 2013 lobbies against climate legislation whilst at the same
knowledge of forest carbon”. In December 2010, the
the airline companies submitted a resolution to put in time financing numerous voluntary offsetting projects led
project developers gave their assurance that “no carbon
place a strategy to ensure carbon neutral growth for by NGOs, notably REDD+. If they fail to block legislation
credits would be generated at the project’s close”.
aviation3. Central to this resolution is the creation of then, to avoid putting all their eggs in one basket, they
Two and a half years later, as the second phase of the
a carbon market specific to the aviation industry by can try to influence legislation. This is a strategy that
project was beginning, GoodPlanet stated that it had the
2020. This should halve the industry’s net emissions pays off because if discussions are at a dead end at
ambition of “valuating knowledge of Carbon component
by 2050, based on emission levels for 2005. According federal level, in California – the only statecurrently in
from phase I in order to generate carbon credits and
to the airline companies, this new market should in the process of adopting climate legislation – the laws
extra outcome for local communities”4.
no way “be considered as a means of raising tax or
1 See the Issue Paper by the Ministry of Ecology, August 2011: durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Note_thematique_N14.pdf. 5 See: http://www.parismatch.com/Actu/Environnement-et-sciences/Durban-Madagascar-Climat-a-la-recherche-du-carbone-vert-avec-WWF-et-Good-Planet-150839.
2 See Reuters press release, 7 June 2011: http://www.euractiv.fr/entreprises-et-emploi/secteur-aerien-hostile-entree-marche-quotas-carbone-8168.html. 6 “Renault have insisted that they chose not to include this project in the clean development mechanisms put in place by the Kyoto Agreement’’. See: http://www.actu-environnement.com/ae/
3 See the closing statement for the IATA AGM: https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Documents/agm69-resolution-cng2020.pdf. news/1377.php4.
4 See: http://www.goodplanet.org/hcpf-in-madagascar-successful-results-and-future-perspectives-2/. 7 See: http://www.iata.org/policy/Documents/consumer-rights-principles-2013.pdf.
Les Amis de la Terre Les Amis de la Terre
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REDD+ in Madagascar : you can’t see the wood for the carbon
or slash-and-burn agriculture – and wood collection for Forests (HCPF) in Madagascar since 2008, with the
from natural forests to provide firewood and charcoal. financial support of Air France.
02
The threat facing this small island has attracted attention In 2008, a REDD Madagascar technical committee
from conservation organisations since the mid-1980s. (known both as CT-REDD and REDD Task Force)
The high rates of deforestation combined with a low was created and entrusted with coordinating efforts to
REDD projects in Madagascar:
level of forest cover have helped considerably in the draft a national REDD Readiness Preparation Proposal
provision of international funding for conservation (R-PP). At that time, Madagascar was one of the first
(Muttenzer, 2009). Funding comes largely from the countries to officially join the World Bank’s Forest
context and history United States (USAID Forest Sector Reform Program),
from French and Germans foreign aid services and
Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF). In 2011, according
to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, three
the World Bank. A National Environmental Action Plan strategic options had to be further explored to prepare
(NEAP) was put in place in 1989. In 1996, the NEAP Madagascar for REDD+: the improvement of forest
began the process of transferring forest management
to local communities.
Concerns for the island’s conservation date back to the
beginning of the twentieth century and in 1927 a decree
established Madagascar’s first ten nature reserves.
2.1 Key figures for Madagascar 2.2 The importance of conservation in In 2003, a second generation of protected areas (PA)
Madagascar is an island country situated off the north
Madagascar were created at the World Parks Congress in Durban
east coast of Africa. Amongst the 22 millions inhabitants The island’s extreme socio-economic poverty is in (South Africa). As part of the ‘Durban Vision’, former
of the ‘Red Island’, over 92% live on less than 2$ a day stark contrast with its rich biodiversity. 80% of the president Marc Ravalomanana committed to tripling
(World Bank, 2013). According to the United Nations fauna and 90% of the flora are endemic. Nevertheless, the protected areas of Madgascar within five years.
Development Programme (UNDP), Madagascar, along Madagascar’s forestland, estimated to cover 15.88% of The challenge: to increase the protected areas from
with Afghanistan and Haiti, is the country hardest hit the surface area of the country in 2009, is diminished 1.7 to 6 million hectares, an equivalent of 10% of the
by malnutrition. The latest figures from UNICEF show every year. The annual deforestation rate remains a land (in accordance with recommendations from the
that over 50.5% of the Madagascan population are concern, at around 0.53% a year between 2000 and IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature).
affected. Women and children are the most vulnerable: 2005 (MEFT, USAID and CI, 2009). The incredibly high To reach this objective, a new legal framework was Projetc’s sites
43 in every 1,000 dies before the age of one. In the levels of endemism found on the ‘Red Island’ coupled created in December 2005: the System of Protected
south of the island, 10 women every day die in childbirth with the significant threat to its biodiversity caused Areas of Madagascar (SAPM), which redefines and
(UNDP, 2011). by man have qualified Madagascar as a biodiversity simplifies the legal process used to create a protected
hotspot. The main cause of the country’s deforestation area. The management of protected areas was opened
Madagascar has been politically instable for many
is small local farming – which relies heavily on hatsake, up to a wide range of stakeholders, notably NGOs, local
years. For the last four years, the country has been
community associations and private owners.
governed by the High Transitional Authority (Haute
Autorité de Transition, or HAT), led by the former 2.3 REDD+ Conservation Projects
Mayor of the capital Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina. Not
Ten years after this announcement, REDD+ is an
recognised internationally, the HAT came to power in
essential part of national conservation strategies. The
March 2009 as the result of a coup d’état overthrowing
REDD+ mechanism was introduced into the country The Holistic Conservation Programme for Forests (HCPF), led by
the previous president, Marc Ravalomanana, whose
via pilot projects, of which there are currently four, GoodPlanet/Etc Terra and WWF Madagascar, has spread its activities
election in 2002 was also contested. Since 2009, the over five sites. This report concentrates on a zone of spiny forest, at Fort
all based in protected areas and covering over 1.7
country has paid a high price for this serious political Dauphin, in south east Madagascar.
million hectares of the island. These projects, led by
crisis: an increase in non-attendance at school (more
conservation NGOs, are presented as new funding
than 600,000 children according to the World Bank), governance, the management of access to forestland
and management systems for forest conservation and
severe malnutrition (more than 50% in some areas), and the development of alternatives to deforestation
the fight against climate change. Some of these NGOs
and the deterioration of roads as well as water and and degradation. An aspect of the REDD strategy
The lemur, a species endemic to Madagascar, feeds on the leaves from the have already begun selling carbon credits generated by
electricity infrastructures. The Madagascan economy native Madagascan ocotillo tree. particular to Madagascar has been the concentration
these protected areas on the voluntary carbon markets9.
has been more or less in recession since the country until now solely on the creation of new protected areas.
Others intend to follow suit, for example, the GoodPlanet
gained independence in 19608.
Foundation/Etc Terra and WWF Madagascar who have
been in charge of the Holistic Conservation Programme
8 Mireille Razadfindrakoto (IRD-DIAL), François Roubaud (IRD-DIAL) and Jean-Michel Wachsberger (Lille University 3, DIAL), Institutions, gouvernance et croissance de long terme à Mada-
gascar: l’énigme et le paradoxe, March 2013. 9 See: http://www.wcs.org/conservation-challenges/climate-change/forest-conservation-and-carbon-markets/makira-carbon-company.aspx.
Les Amis de la Terre Les Amis de la Terre Les Amis de la Terre
8 Basta! Basta! 8 Basta! 9
REDD+ in Madagascar : you can’t see the wood for the carbon REDD+ in Madagascar : you can’t see the wood for the carbon
Of the four REDD+ pilot projects in Madagascar, only agro-pastoral agriculture, as well as the implementation
one has begun selling carbon credits: the Makira of internal control and traceability procedures for
project in the north-east of the island, led by the forestry operations. Funded over a period of four
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and supported years (2009-2012), this project is coming to an end.
by Conservation International (CI). According to the But on visiting the site, the author noted a genuine
agreement signed with the government of Madagascar desire to integrate the fight against deforestation with
in 2008, the Makira Carbon Company has been selling the introduction of alternative agricultural practices
carbon credits generated by protected areas on the amongst local communities. 70% of the Madagascan
Voluntary Carbon Markets since the beginning of 2013, population still lives in isolation and is not connected
at 10$ per ton. According to the WCS, the creation of to the national power grid, prompting COGESFOR
the Makira Forest Protected Area will prevent over 33 to fund the installation of a cogeneration unit which
million tons of greenhouse gas emissions over 30 years will provide electricity either using agricultural waste
. WCS has assured that half of the net carbon revenues (corncobs and rice husks), or sawmill waste. Alternative
will be allocated to local communities living within and crop management techniques to that of slash-and-burn
around the protected area. agriculture have also been put in place and have helped
improve the lives of farmers who have adopted them. To the left, a rainforest in the Ankeniheny-Zahamena Corridor (north east Madagascar). This reforestation zone is funded through the COGESFOR project,
This report’s author also visited the Corridor Ankeniheny- implemented by CIRAD. To the right, a spiny forest at the Fort Dauphin site, part of the Holistic Conservation Programme for Forests,
Budgetary constraints have nevertheless meant that
Zahamena (CAZ) REDD+ pilot project. Launched in which is the subject of this report.
only a few dozen households have benefitted.
2005 and covering 371,000 hectares along the eastern
escarpment of Madagascar, this project is overseen by 2.4 Focus on the Holistic Conservation The HCPF is the largest pilot project in Madagascar: >> eveloping alternative agriculture by diffusing
D
Conservation International (CI), which is working on Programme for Forests it occupies five sites, covering 380,000 hectares of alternative practices to local population, including
a detailed methodology for reducing greenhouse gas moist forest and 125,000 hectares of dry, spiny forest. farming and conservation techniques, development
The HCPF pilot project (Holistic Conservation According to the projects developers, their objectives of activities on the hillsides and converting valleys
emissions. According to the American organisation,
Programme for Forests) was co-founded in 2008 are as follows: in sustainable cultivable areas,
Winrock International, up to 10 million tons of CO2
by WWF Madagascar and the French foundation
emissions could be avoided over 30 years10. The aim
GoodPlanet, with funding from Air France. >> t o encourage and support local communities in the
>> reate 470,000 hectares of new protected areas,
C
is to reduce CO2 emissions by 4 million tons by 2017. conservation of biodiversity; in order to conserve forests and biodiversity,
A feature of this project is that it involves establishing The first phase of HCPF, overseen by WWF Madagascar Transfer management of natural resources to local
community-based forest management through a and GoodPlanet, began in October 2008 and ended in >> to improve human development by promoting
communities,
December 2012. This phase was funded entirely by Air alternative activities;
Secured local management contract (GELOSE,
Gestion local sécurisée) or a Forest management France at a cost of 5 million euros. >> to improve scientific knowledge on forest carbon
>> stimate precisely the CO2 emission reduction
E
potential: This scientific work led by several partners
contract (GCF, Gestion contractualisée des forêts). CI WWF Madagascar recruited around 50 people for assessment.
allows to estimate it at 35 billion tons during 20
has been trying to develop carbon projects in the CAZ the project, spread across several regions (Andapa, The benefits of the project should be both environmental years11.”
forest corridor for several years, notably with TAMS, a Fandriana and Fort Dauphin), who are working towards (reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, protection of
regeneration and reforestation project in the Andasibe reinforcing the following initiatives: the creation of “We have achieved or exceeded all our targets”, confirms
biodiversity, restoration of ecological services) and social
region, funded by the Clean Development Mechanism protected areas, raising public awareness on climate Pierre Caussade, former Environment and Sustainable
(improved living conditions for local communities, job
(CDM). The World Bank has recently funded a case change, the reduction of deforestation by promoting and Development Director for Air France, now Director
creation, strengthening the capacity of local authorities).
study on the distribution, management and use of encouraging alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture, of International Affairs. “This project was developed
carbon revenues from the REDD+ CAZ project in In a report released in April 2013, the GoodPlanet partly to help local communities better manage their
the transfer of forest and natural resources management
Madagascar. Consultation is currently taking place with Foundation stated: “All 2008 targets have been reached/ livelihoods and improve their living conditions. But
and the restoration of degraded forest landscapes.
local communities. achieved or even exceeded”. According to their website, there was also a scientific aspect, consistent with our
GoodPlanet acts as the liaison between Air France their programme “has already contributed to: concerns about climate change. We estimate that the
There is another project in the Didy region of the CAZ and WWF Madagascar and is responsible for the
corridor, alongside that of Conservation International, methodological and scientific aspects of the project, with
>> aise 34,000 households awareness regarding
R programme will enable us to reduce emissions caused
sustainable alternative to slash-and-burn cultivation by deforestation by 35 billion tons of CO2.”
known as COGESFOR. Overseen by CIRAD (a the support of several French research organisations
French agricultural research organisation working for practices: 5,000 have already adopted at least one Plans for the second phase are currently being
including the National Centre for Scientific Research
development in the South and the French overseas of these techniques, completed. Pending the finalisation of agreements,
(CNRS) and the Institute for Development Research
regions), this project combines coordinated land (IRD) as well as the Universities of Antananarivo and >> Restore 23,000 hectares of fragmented forest, funding should come from:
planning (based on transferring management to local Marne la Vallée. In 2012, the GoodPlanet Foundation >> eforest 2,200 hectares of land for energy and
R >> France, at a cost of 1 million euros (“subject to
Air
communities), the development of environmentally- delegated management of HCPF field operations of to construction wood, to support local population finalising a partnership agreement”, a representative
friendly recycling procedures (for example of wood, or of the association Etc Terra. needs, of Air France specified);
aromatic and medicinal plants), and the improvement of
10 See: http://www.wcs.org/conservation-challenges/climate-change/forest-conservation-and-carbon-markets/makira-carbon-company.aspx. 11 See: http://www.goodplanet.org/hcpf-in-madagascar-successful-results-and-future-perspectives-2/.
Les Amis de la Terre Les Amis de la Terre
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REDD+ in Madagascar : you can’t see the wood for the carbon
03
>> t he AFD (the French Development Agency) and the
FFEM (the French Global Environment Facility), at
a cost of 3.5 million euros.
Agriculture: essential for
This second phase has three objectives:
>> “Strengthening conservation activities in the
local communities, and primary
different sites (via local structures), ensuring proper
management of the new protected areas and the
monitoring of the transfer of natural resources
management contracts, for greater community
participation and empowerment,”
cause of deforestation
>> “Developing alternative agriculture by diffusing
alternative practices to local population, including
farming and conservation techniques, development
of activities on the hillsides and converting valleys
in sustainable cultivable areas,”
>> “Valuating knowledge of Carbon component from
phase I in order to generate carbon credits and 3.1 National context: food insecurity cultivate most crops: manioc, sweet potatoes, corn,
extra outcome for local communities12.” beans, pumpkins, watermelon, bananas, sugar cane,
The new protected areas (NPAs) are made up of
peanuts, potatoes, onions, cauliflower, tomatoes, and
To confirm that the aims of phase I of the HCPF have different zones, which require very different approaches:
the list goes on. The problem is that a large area of
been successfully achieved, the author of this report >> riority conservation areas: the only activities
p the land suitable for cultivation has been included in
asked GoodPlanet/Etc Terra to accompany him on a allowed are wood felling to make coffins, the the protected area, as several villagers have testified.
visit to one or two of the protected areas covered by the collection of medicinal plants and honey, and the
HCPF in order to meet local communities involved in the Patrol officers confirm these reports:
use of land for pasture between May and December;
project. After Etc Terra declined the request, we decided “Those caught breaching the protected areas say they
to go ahead with this field mission, which took place >> fully protected areas: these are areas of sacred
are hungry, that they don’t have enough land.”
from 17 to 30 May 2013. We are immensely grateful for forest used for burying the dead, where activity of
any kind is forbidden (fady). In this case, the area The establishment of the protected area, which includes
the help we received from our contacts on the ground.
was fady prior to being a designated protected area; land under cultivation, seems to be contributing to an
The following analysis concerns the new protected area
increase in food insecurity. Yet one of the objectives
(NPA) in south west Ifotaka, in the southern ecoregion >> sage rights areas: all activities are permitted (wood
u
outlined by REDD+ project developers was “to improve
of Madagascar, covered by the HCPF project. This area felling, firewood collection, collection of medicinal
human development”14.
of spiny forest is part of one of the first protected areas plants, etc.) but subject to certain conditions cited
to be jointly managed with local communities. According in the Forest management transfer contract (GCF);
to the project developers, the action plan put in place
should enable this new protected area to contribute
>> uffer zones: includes areas of controlled occupation,
b
controlled usage rights and rehabilitation (plantation,
to the conservation of biodiversity without impacting
creation of production areas). Activities permitted in
negatively on the lives of local communities. Has this
buffer zones include using land for pasture, firewood
been the case?
collection, collection of medicinal plants and wood
felling for non-commercial construction.
Slash-and-burn agriculture and the hunting of
endangered species are forbidden across the entire
of the protected area.
So how has the establishment of this protected
area impacted on the Malagasy people? 96% of the
inhabitants of Ifotaka work in agriculture13. Apart from
rice, which is impossible to grow because of the dry
climate, the inhabitants in the conservation zone
13 From an interview with Lea Onyksa, taken from her report on the means of subsistence for various Ifotaka communities.
12 Ibid. 14 See: http://www.scribd.com/doc/102824909/Dossier-de-Presse-Air-France-partenaire-du-PHCF-Madagascar.
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3.2 Spotlight on the traditional practice of namely “alternative agricultural techniques, that are
slash-and-burn agriculture both profitable and sustainable, in parallel with effective
natural resource management.” As a representative
I am still allowed to cultivate [my The practice of hatsake, or slash-and-burn agriculture
for WWF Madagascar points out (Antananarivo, May
is one of the most common in the region for growing
land within the protected area] but I corn, manioc and sweet potato. It is the technique of
2013): “The rice yield from Tanety (high and fairly level
am not allowed to expand.” ground) is very poor, less than a tonne per hectare.
cutting or burning forest or woodland to create land
And we know that the population is going to double
for cultivation. Employed on the limestone hills of
in the next twenty years. We need to raise production
Madagascar, it makes the cultivation of corn possible
by building dams to increase the available land, as
for one or two agricultural seasons. At the end of this
well as improving the crop yield through ecological
Ifotoka’s inhabitants very short period of exploitation, the fertile land has
intensification.”
disappeared and it becomes difficult if not impossible
to cultivate the land thereafter. It is sometimes referred Amongst the alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture,
We would like to protect the to as “mining agriculture” in the sense that the soil is the HPCF developers have recommended:
forest but we can’t because treated like a mine, to be exploited until it is no longer >> dditional income-generating activities (beekeeping,
a
fit for cultivation.
we do not have enough land fish farming, or growing cash crops such as clove
One of the aims of the HCPF is to eradicate hatsake. plants, coffee plants, lychees, pepper or vanilla);
“Sacrificing a forest in order to cultivate the land for one >> c rop diversification (market gardening, growing fruit
agricultural season is like dismantling a bridge to build trees, improving fishing);
a house. You might improve your quality of life slightly
but you cause great harm both to your fellow man and >> ethods for increasing crop yield and reducing the
m
to yourself”15, explains the project manager for WWF area of land needed (systems of rice intensification);
Madagascar’s aerial surveillance scheme of protected >> ctivities which make best use of available resources
a
areas, which aims to reduce slash-and-burn agriculture. (for example, installing foyers ameliorées, energy-
“The strict enforcement of forestry laws is crucial to efficient ovens designed to reduce harmful smoke
putting a stop to these practices. Such enforcement fumes and deforestation);
demands that those concerned, at every level, assume
their responsibilities”16. As this study shows, financial
>> installing hydro-agricultural infrastructures (small-
scale dams and irrigation systems) to develop land
and even criminal sanctions have been put in place
currently unsuitable for agriculture.
(see Part 4.3).
These are all suitable options yet none of them has
The developers of the HCPF also claim they want to
been set up in the area of south west Ifotaka visited
combat hatsake by developing conservation agriculture,
by the author. According to the Chef de Cantonnement
(local area leader): “If the land is situated in the centre
of the protected area, we are not allowed to cultivate
it. If the land is situated in an area that is going to be
transferred, then we can cultivate it. Those who are
having problems are those whose land is in the centre.
But we are looking for a solution or alternative plots of
land for them to cultivate.”
When questioned about these restrictions, GoodPlanet
and Etc Terra explained: “The HCPF has only been
up and running for a couple of years and in one of
Madagascar’s most unforgiving terrains (the spiny
forests and the ‘Grand Sud’ de Madagascar), we hope
As part of the COGESFOR project implemented by CIRAD, local inhabitants that no one expected us to have managed to either 1)
have been taught methods of direct seeding on plant cover, and are
therefore slowly abandoning slash-and-burn agriculture in favour of more bring a complete halt to deforestation in the project’s
productive and sustainable farming practices. In the photo, an area of land area of operation or 2) introduce alternative agricultural
under trial in the Didy region, in north east Madagascar.
techniques to the entire of the region’s households.
96% of the Malagasy population work in agriculture. The inhabitants encountered in the spiny forests cultivate a diverse range of crops including sweet
potatoes and beans. Léfa (pictured above) cultivates a field of manioc intended for feeding his family.
15 See: http://wwf.panda.org/fr/?206007/le-hatsake-menace-la-population-de-latsimo-andrefana.
16 Ibid
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It is quite simply impossible given the large number it is known as the droit de hache, right of the axe. “We
of households that have to be assisted in adopting keep the land that we have already cleared.”
sustainable practices.”
Recognition of land rights operates therefore at a
Former Environment and Sustainable Development local level and provides no protection from attempted
Director for Air France, Pierre Caussade, confirms dispossession from outside the local community.
that: “The training and assistance offered in helping
Some of those still resorting to slash-and-burn
to establish alternative practices to slash-and-burn
agriculture to clear land were willing to testify:
agriculture have borne fruit. Nevertheless, I would
by no means claim that it has been easy. A project >> “ I do it because that is how I feed my family. I clear
of this scope is not going to have the same success land because of poverty.”
everywhere.” >> “I am not allowed to clear land but I do it anyway.
If forest conservation measures have been put in Otherwise I would not have enough to feed my
place, they have not been matched by compensation family.”
measures. The best-case scenario is that training in Many villagers farm along the river. But flooding also
more sustainable agricultural practices will come later. encourages people to turn to land clearing. The creation of new protected areas has forced many villagers into growing their crops along the river. But regular flooding has driven families to break the
But for the moment, families stripped of their land have forestry laws by clearing land inside the conservation zones in order to ensure food security.
not been given any alternative means of livelihood.
>> “ When the river rises, we lose all our crops. So we
go up into the forest to find a bit of land and clear
Those who find themselves in this situation have no taken into consideration when the protected area was livestock and tribal land are also key issues relating
it for cultivation. It’s not enough to farm along the
choice than to break the law and continue to use set up. How can communities be expected to commit to land rights that have not been addressed by the
river: we also have to farm in the forests.”
hatsake to ensure their food supply. to the REDD+ process when they do not even have conservation measures.
Some villagers request permission to clear land from any right to the land? It is obvious that conservation
3.3 Poorly defined and disputed land rights
the COBA (Communauté de Base), the local community initiatives can only be sustainable if we can secure
Legally, nearly all of Madagascar’s natural forest association in charge of forest management. But their local land rights.
belongs to the State. In fact, land reform is in the process request can be denied:
of being drawn up. Currently, half of the population Regarding this issue, GoodPlanet/Etc Terra are
The Chef de Cantonnement confirms: confident they have the answer: “Local communities
living inside the project area do not hold rights to their
agricultural land. At a national level, only 15% of the In areas under management, the land available for can obtain community land certificates for areas of land
land is registered. Although forbidden, slash-and-burn cultivation is insufficient and people tend to resort included in the transfer of management contracts. These
agriculture remains a means of acquiring land rights to land clearing. Villagers are asking for alternative certificates (issued by local land management offices,
within the customary land tenure system. By clearing options to avoid having to go into the forest.” whose installation we will be supporting in phase II of
land, villagers make their occupation of the land official the project, in close partnership with the National Land
Customary land rights were neither recognised nor Programme) do not have the same value as land rights
but still provide protection against outsiders taking up
land. The procedures are also much quicker and less
expensive, which is what is making the implementation
of this reform across the country such a success.”
As things stand currently, it is hard to find out any more,
the National Land Programme’s website is still under
construction…
Other researchers have offered a more qualified
response to the question of land rights: “Non-titled
Crédit photo ©Valiantsoa Risama
private property rights (PPNT: propriété privée non titré,
2005) were conceived as a quick and inexpensive way
to provide certificates for those already permanently
occupying land. However the system has barely got
underway in forest areas and requires an ongoing
presence on the ground. For this reason fallow systems
of farming are excluded.” (Ferguson, 2013) Yet the
Although forbidden within the protected area, hatsake (slash-and-burn agriculture) continues to be practised by villagers. In the absence of land rights legally people met by the author of this report rely largely on
recognised by the State, this is the only means available to them for making their ownership official.
just such fallow systems. Pasture land for transhumant
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04
REDD+ Projects: a solution or
a new source of problems for
local communities ?
4.1 Projects that aggravate tensions over just being set up in the areas visited by the author,
land – who wins, who loses according to the accounts of a number of local people.
4.1.1 Free, prior and informed consent ? To ensure the smooth transfer of the management
of resources, WWF Madagascar has created
The area of the Holistic Conservation Programme for
local community associations known as COBAs
Forests (HCPF) that we studied is subject to a Forest
(Communautés de Bases), which are run by the local
management contract (GCF, Gestion contractualisée The forest provides pasture land for zebu cattle (pictured), sheep and goats. In the rainy season they eat grass and in the dry season feed on cactuses,
population. The members of the COBA are elected by which are burned to rid the leaves of prickles. Pasture land for transhumant livestock is a key issue relating to land rights that has not been addressed by the
des forêts). This is a method for transferring
villagers. At village level, some members are part of conservation measures.
management of the forests to local communities via
surveillance or patrol committees (Polisin’Ala) (see Part
the COBA (Communauté de Base) with the aim of Villagers who have a local association said they conserve the forests, stop people from destroying the
4.3). Other members of the association are responsible
ensuring secure, sustainable and local management participated in setting the boundaries for the protected forest, stop the sons of the land, those who live in the
for reboisement familial, family reforestation (see Part
of forest resources. The initial transfer contract lasts area but most say that this meant they simply ‘observed’ villages, from collecting firewood or taking wood to
4.2).
three years and is renewable. As of the end of 2012, or were ‘present’ when the boundaries were established. build their houses. Villagers are forbidden to do these
WWF Madagascar had registered 110 management The Chef de Cantonnement is satisfied with the things in sacred forests, even without the WWF. We
Whereas villagers without a communauté de base
transfer contracts across the country, 32 of which had implementation of the new protected areas: are already working towards this.”
were neither informed about nor invited to sign the
been formalized, at a total cost of 340,000 euros. “There are only two of us acting as agents for the management transfer contract. Villagers are demanding that a COBA be created, that
GoodPlanet/Etc Terra specify that the Forest entire district. We can’t regularly check in across the they be kept informed about boundaries and that they
“We have no idea what is going on.”
Management contract “does not signify a transfer whole area. The creation of protected areas helps us be involved in future decisions.
of property (the State retains bare ownership whilst to effectively maintain forest administration, especially ‘For the moment, there is no COBA, so no one has
“We are asking the WWF to show us which areas are
the local communities have beneficial rights) but the when it comes to forest law enforcement. We have shown us the boundaries.”
protected and which are not, that is, where we can
contract once accepted and signed by the Administration transferred management and skills to the members of Certain villagers are not even aware that their village get firewood and wood to build our houses in order
nonetheless allow communities to protect their the COBA and that has eased our work.” is in a protected area. to provide for our families. But above all, these things
resources from the possible threat of migrants. In According to the project developers, the zoning of the “As long as the WWF [Madagascar] has not created a must be discussed with all the villagers. We can’t make
the region of Ifotaka, the contract allowed community protected area “was made in collaboration with the COBA in our village, that means there is no protected decisions on our own.”
representatives to appeal to the forest administration communities affected. The borders of the five areas
and the local police to halt others clearing land in their area.” With regards to the transfer of the management of
concerned by the transfer of management are based
management transfer area […] Indeed, it is essential Others feel they have no choice. resources, free, prior and informed consent does not
on ancestral territorial boundaries.”
that a local community that makes an effort to commit simply mean consulting local communities - when that
According to the Chef de Cantonnement: “As for these “Even if we do not want a protected area, they will force
to the sustainable management of its resources also actually happens! - but ensuring a real involvement for
boundaries, they concern some of the locals, the forest it on us. We have no choice.”
has the means to protect itself from those outside the all those concerned. Women and children should also
community, wherever they may come from.” These administration, the project developers, the president of Some villagers believe they are already carrying out be part of the process, as well as being represented
different means, known as Secured local management the Fokontany. These boundaries are controversial.” conservation work, without external aid. in the local association in charge of the management
(GELOSE, Gestion local sécurisée) and Relative land On the ground, the level of information provided seems transfer.
“Even without the WWF [Madagascar], villagers can
security (SFR, Sécurisation foncière relative) are only to vary widely from village to village.
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4.1.2 Timber harvesting permits: a source of As for firewood, all sorts of dead wood are used gardening systems, for potatoes for example. There “No one has ever helped us do anything. The only place
conflict between communities (except Fatra, which is forbidden), particularly Katrafay have also been beehives, notably at Fenoaivo, but that receives compensation is central Fenoaivo.”
(Cedrelopsis grevei). it doesn’t last long. For six months, a year… And
The local association grants timber harvesting contracts. When an initiative is set up, it is judged not to go far
then things don’t continue, it stops there, there is no
Villagers see their ancestral lands cleared by inhabitants “pasture land: the forest provides pastureland for enough.
production.”
of other villagers. zebu cattle, sheep and goats. In the rainy season
“They contribute a bit, when they rebuild the road, but
they eat grass and in the dry season they feed “There were several projects in our community but we
“I have the impression that the WWF [Madagascar] it doesn’t help feed my family.”
on cactuses, which are burned to rid the leaves only had training for two months, or two days, or even
is selling the land I use daily to others. For example,
of prickles. Each village has its own area of just a single day. It’s not enough.” “It’s not enough because the work lasts a year and the
villagers from Mangily come and cut down the forest
pastureland. following year, it stops.”
belonging to the inhabitants of Morafeno. But they show For many, there is an underlying feeling that they have
me their permits and I can’t do anything about it. Even >> “ medicinal plants: over half the population of this simply been penalised, without receiving any benefit: Apparently, during phase I, 123 plant nurseries were
their zebu graze in our forest. I want the land to be region still goes to the forest to get medicinal plants. set up across the country and 473 nursery workers
“Neither the information nor the money reaches us here,
passed on to my children.” were trained. A plant nursery was duly set up in central
>> “ fruit and vegetable picking: tubers and fruit, such everything stays with the WWF [Madagascar]. There is
Ifotaka, funded by WWF [Madagascar]. But its very
Drought can also cause migration. as cactus and tamarind, as well as honey. no compensation, only penalties to pay.”
small size is indicative of the insufficient nature of
“One year there was a very severe drought in Ifotaka. >> “ hunting: tenrec, guinea fowl, birds (buttonquails), “We protect our environment but we don’t get anything compensation.
People had nothing so they migrated to the other bank wild boar, etc. back. We have had nothing in exchange.”
GoodPlanet/Etc Terra state that in the future they
of the (river) Mandrare where there was forest, in order
Generally, REDD+ projects have been based mainly in “The WWF [Madagascar] has taken our forest without hope to rely on a network of local farming extension
to find food.”
areas where the population lives in and on the forests, providing us with compensation or remuneration. They workers, capable of transmitting new practices within
Greater transparency and more information on the and not necessarily in central areas of deforestation. say they are taking it to protect it.” their immediate circles.
issue of timber harvesting permits are needed to avoid The new protected areas have also brought with them
“They promised to supply us with agricultural materials On a broader level, initiating new systems with poor
causing tensions between local communities. new restrictions on land available for agriculture and
but we still haven’t received anything.” peasant farmers requires:
wood collection. Conservation NGOs have proposed
4.2 Projects which place new constraints Certain local inhabitants also feel that it is always the >> “investment, a seed grant;
practices to local communities that aim to introduce
on local communities without providing other villagers who are reaping the benefits.
any benefits
‘income-generating activities’. But as the HCFP reached >> “the raising of public awareness;
the end of its first phase, a member of WWF Madagascar
4.2.1 Restricted access to land and natural acknowledged that the ‘alternatives aspect’ of the project
resources has been underdeveloped and would receive more
Since the establishment of the protected area, numerous attention during phase II. “Greater time and attention
villagers say their quality of life has deteriorated. will be given to developing the agricultural side of the
project in phase II,” confirmed Pierre Caussade, Air
“I have to buy food elsewhere because there is not France. But what about the Ifotaka region?
enough here to feed my family.”
4.2.2 Poor compensation and an absence of
“Before we had enough land, what we grow alongside alternative practices
the river is not enough. We have to buy corn and manioc
from the market.” Conservationists prefer to talk of ‘alternatives’ rather
than ‘compensation’. In this case, WWF Madagascar
At the same time, the villagers rely very heavily on acknowledges the lack of indicators from phase I (2008-
natural resources for: 2012) to evaluate the establishment of alternative
>> “ housing and heating: houses in the Ifotaka region, practices to slash-and-burn agriculture. A member
whose surface area ranges from 6.25 to 9m2, are of WWF Madagascar stated, “a new agency, more
made of wood. It takes 15 ocotillo (Alluaudia procera) specialised in agricultural development will be recruited
trunks, a tree native to Madagascar, to construct one to participate in phase II” (from 2013 onwards, ed.).
house. A house will last on average for 5 years. According to the Chef de Cantonnement “there have not
A timber harvesting permit, costing 3,000 ariary, yet been any income-generating activities established”
must be requested from the COBA (the average in his area.
monthly income is estimated to be 100,000 ariary,
the equivalent of 35 euros). However, it seems that In fact, villagers say that training and income-generating
many villagers do not bother going through the activities have been set up but without any long-term
WWF Madagascar have set up a nursery in central Ifotaka (pictured). But its very small size is indicative of the insufficient nature of compensation. The lack
forestry service in order to get the wood they need. support. of regular monitoring and assistance given to local inhabitants in order to establish alternative practices to hatsake (slash-and-burn agriculture) makes it
impossible to halt deforestation in the spiny forests.
“Yes, the WWF [Madagascar] has created market
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