Relating fruit and vegetable consumption in households with residue generation and utilization in the city of Heraklion, Crete, Greece
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International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 12 (2005) 1–9
Relating fruit and vegetable
consumption in households with residue
generation and utilization in the city of
Heraklion, Crete, Greece
Yiannis Manios1, Katerina Harizani2, George Markakis2, Polyxeni Galani2 and Thrassyvoulos
Manios2,3*
1
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University of Athens, Kalithea, Athens,
Greece
2
School of Agricultural Technology, Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Heraklion,
Greece
3
Department of Technical Civil Engineering, Technological Educational Institute of Crete,
Heraklion, Crete, Greece
Key words: Fruit, vegetables, consumption, residues, compost, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
SUMMARY
Questionnaires regarding the amount of nine kinds of fruit and ten kinds of vegetable
(including potatoes) consumed on a weekly basis were distributed to 82 different
households in the city of Heraklion (population approximately 200,000), capital of the
island of Crete, at the southernmost point of Greece. The city is the fourth largest in
the country, in which, according to the answers collected through the questionnaires, the
educational level of parents was 24.4%, 50.0% and 25.6% with primary, secondary and
higher education, respectively. Families with higher parental education consume more
fruit (283 g/person day−1) than families having a secondary and primary parental educa-
tional level (265 and 195 g/person day−1, respectively). As far as vegetables (excluding
potatoes) are concerned, families with secondary and higher parental education con-
−1
sume more (357 and 311 g/person day , respectively) than primary educated parents
and their family members, who, however, consume larger quantities of potatoes
(206 g/person day−1) than the other two groups. While these values are higher than the
minimum amount of fruit and vegetables suggested by the World Health Organization,
they are lower than the amounts suggested as optimum for a healthy diet. The mean resi-
dues produced from these foods per person participating in the survey were estimated at
202 g/day. Based on this value, a city of the size of Heraklion produces a total of more than
40,000 kg/day of waste derived from fruit and vegetables. An integrated educational and
environmental programme aiming to improve people’s dietary habits as well as promote
waste source separation schemes, would result in increasing both the amount of fruit and
vegetables consumed as well as the amount of similar ‘green kitchen residues’ that would
be recycled through composting instead of being lost as land-fill. It is estimated that the
Correspondence: Dr T Manios, School of Agricultural Technology, Technological Educational Institute of Crete,
Heraklion 71500, Greece. Email: tmanios@steg.teiher.gr
1
A5032:First Proof: 5 August 2005 Paper:ManiosResidue generation and utilization in Heraklion, Crete Manios et al.
high-quality compost which could be produced through a complete implementation of
such a programme would allow the production of more than 3500 ton of high-quality
compost annually.
INTRODUCTION
The way in which consumer behaviour has devel- greenhouse gases, the Greek political and environ-
oped and been shaped in the last two decades in mental leadership is looking for measures which
Greece has seriously affected both public health will help accomplish these goals.
and the environment. The abundance of goods has Waste minimization and source separation is
promoted an improvement in living standards, the globally considered as one of the most promising
reduction of pestilential diseases and has increased and sustainable solutions to waste management
life expectancy (NSS 2004). Unfortunately, at the problems, especially if accompanied by recycling
same time, it has increased the incidence of other and reuse practices (Beccali et al. 2001; Tjell 2003).
dangers such as cardiovascular diseases and obesity However, Greek society is barely educated and
(Voukiklaris et al. 1996; Panagiotakos et al. 2002; trained for such policies, which are confronted by
Pitsavos et al. 2003). Greece is probably the only skepticism. Once more, people must be subjected
European country that has recorded increasing to a relevant systematic information and education
rates of morbidity and mortality from chronic dis- campaign, this time concerning issues such as
eases such as cardiovascular diseases (Kesteloot source separation and recycling of household
et al. 2002). Longitudinal data from the Cretan wastes.
cohort of the Seven Countries Study showed a sub- Summarizing all the above, it is obvious that
stantial increase in serum cholesterol, blood pres- both the necessary changes in the way Greek
sure and body mass index between 1960 and 1991 people eat and handle their wastes can be achieved
(Kafatos et al. 1997). mainly through education and information cam-
It is well recognized that the key tactic for con- paigns. This research team believes that it is poss-
fronting these public health problems is through ible to integrate these two requirements into a
health and nutrition education campaigns aiming common Programme for Health and Environmen-
to improve dietary practices, health beliefs and tal Education, with the intention of changing
attitudes (Manios et al. 2002; Warren et al. 2003; people’s consumer behaviour in an effort both to
Sahyoun et al. 2004). Considerable improvements improve their dietary activities and alter waste pro-
to health standards are possible using a systematic duction and disposal habits, towards a healthier,
information and education campaign concerning environmentally friendly and sustainable society.
diet (Panagiotakos et al. 2002; Manios et al. 2002; The Greek Ministry of Education has funded the
Warren et al. 2003; Sahyoun et al. 2004). Experience design and pilot application of such a programme
has shown that, through this practice, important for a medium-sized city.
results can be achieved using simple solutions, such It is of great importance for the success of such
as for example convincing consumers to increase an effort that as much data as possible be obtained
their consumption of vegetables and fruits (Ou et al. on the existing state of people’s dietary conduct,
2001). as well as the effect of that conduct on waste
At the same time (mid-1980s), solid waste man- production. The aim of this work was to record the
agement and, more specifically, Municipal Solid existing vegetable and fruit consumption in such a
Waste (MSW) management had evolved into one of medium-sized city, as well as the residues generated
the most serious environmental (and social) prob- from such sources. This would allow us to deter-
lems in the country. Even now, 20 years later, it mine the level of improvement that should be
remains one of the most important problems imposed in order to achieve optimum vegetable
(Agapitidis and Frantzis 1998). Under pressure and fruit consumption (Trichopoulou et al. 2003).
from European legislation, such as the 1600/2002/ It will also allow us to estimate: (a) the existing
EU and 99/31/EU directives (concerning sus- amount of residues produced through the con-
tainable development and landfill operations), sumption of fruits and vegetables, (b) the
and the need to achieve promised reductions in effect that such a campaign will have on the
2 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology
A5032:First Proof: 5 August 2005 Paper:ManiosResidue generation and utilization in Heraklion, Crete Manios et al.
composition of municipal wastes, and (c) the recorded data, and used to estimate the consump-
amount of high-quality compost that could be pro- tion period. The consumption period was equal to
duced from utilizing these wastes now and in the the recording period plus the mean number of
future. days between acquisitions. For example a family
recorded its first acquisition on the 12th of April
and its last on the 6th of May. The mean intervening
METHODOLOGY acquisition period was 4 days. In this example, the
Heraklion is the capital of the island of Crete recording period was 25 days, while the consump-
(Region of Crete), at the southernmost point of tion period was 29 days. At the end of the con-
Greece. The city, the fourth largest in the country, sumption period, the amount of each kind of fruit
has a population of over 200,000. Despite its urban or vegetable introduced into the household was
character and its financial profile, which is based added up and divided by person and by day. Great
mainly on tourism, the city strongly interacts with importance was placed on the amount of potatoes
the agricultural communities surrounding it. This consumed in each household.
creates a mixed socio-economic human mosaic, in The level of education (primary, secondary and
which many people work in the city but retain a higher) of the parents was also recorded in the
part-time farming occupation, mainly related to questionnaire. If there was a different level of
olive oil production. education between mother and father, the father’s
Gibson (1990) regarded as household food con- educational level was used. Each family, from this
sumption the total amount of food available for point onwards in the paper, will be characterized
consumption in the household, excluding that by this educational level.
eaten away from home, unless taken from home. As far as the residues produced from the various
Accordingly, in this study, the total amount of vege- fruits and vegetables are concerned, these were
tables and fruit available for consumption was determined by the Solid Waste and Wastewater
regarded as the total amount of vegetables and Management Laboratory of the TEI of Crete. Three
fruits that were either purchased in the market, kilograms of each kind of fruit and vegetables iden-
produced in the household and/or received as tified in the questionnaire were brought to the lab,
gifts, a very popular custom in Crete. The house- where three different individuals prepared them
hold vegetable and fruit consumption estimation (cleaning, peeling, etc.) for consumption in the
used in this study does not provide information on same way as in the households. The three people
the consumption of vegetable and fruits by specific involved were isolated from each other in an effort
individuals within each household. Instead, veget- to minimize any effect on their behaviour. The
able and fruit consumption per person was calcu- wastes produced were weighed and a mean value
lated irrespective of age or sex. produced.
A total of 82 families, comprising 286 people,
were randomly selected from all the different parts
of the city. The survey took place in spring 2002, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
April and May. In each family the mother was con- Table 1 presents a comparison of the educational
tacted and given the relevant questionnaire with level of the parents whose families took part in the
detailed instructions on how to fill it in (Dwyer and survey, with the educational level of the citizens of
Hetzel 1980). The amount of nine different kinds Heraklion [1991 population census (NSS 2004)]
of fruit and ten different kinds of vegetable (includ- and the population of Heraklion Prefecture [2001
ing potatoes) and the date on which these were population census (NSS 2004)]. The NSS has not
purchased, harvested or received was recorded for yet published the relevant 2001 population census
a period of 3 to 5 weeks. The amount of fruit and analysis for the city alone, so we are using the two
vegetables stocked in the house was not taken into existing sources of data for comparison. The pre-
consideration. The recording period started on the fecture analysis includes the population (with a
day of first acquisition of fresh fruit or vegetables large percentage of elderly people) living in villages
and ended with the last recorded acquisition. The and mainly small agricultural communities, with
mean number of days between each acquisition a considerably larger number of just primary
was calculated for each household, based on the educated inhabitants than found in the city. This
International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 3
A5032:First Proof: 5 August 2005 Paper:ManiosResidue generation and utilization in Heraklion, Crete Manios et al.
Table 1 Parental educational level in the households used in the survey
Percentage dispersion of Percentage dispersion of
Educational Number of Number of persons Heraklion residents* Heraklion Prefecture† population*
level households in each group educational level in 1991 educational level in 2001
Illiterate – – 1.4 2.3
Primary 20 (24.4%) 76 37.2 32.7
Secondary 41 (50.0%) 134 38.8 41.5
Higher 21 (25.6%) 76 22.6 23.5
Total 82 (100%) 286 100.0 100.0
*: at 25–54 years old
†
includes population living in villages and smaller communities in the whole Prefecture of Heraklion and not just in
the city
−1
Table 2 Mean consumption of vegetables and fruit (kg/person week ) and mean amount of residue generated
(kg/person week−1)
Educational level
Primary Secondary Higher
Mean Mean generated Mean Mean generated Mean Mean generated
Kinds consumption residues consumption residues consumption residues
Vegetables
Onions 0.262 0.038 0.366 0.053 0.333 0.049
Cucumbers 0.333 0.108 0.407 0.132 0.257 0.083
Tomatoes 0.680 0.037 0.796 0.044 0.759 0.042
Courgettes 0.168 0.021 0.202 0.026 0.235 0.030
Lettuce 0.308 0.099 0.449 0.144 0.301 0.097
Cauliflower 0.106 0.022 0.163 0.033 0.185 0.038
Beans 0.157 0.009 0.249 0.014 0.163 0.009
Eggplant 0.136 0.010 0.169 0.013 0.134 0.010
Cabbages 0.118 0.012 0.172 0.018 0.183 0.019
Total 2.268 0.356 2.973 0.476 2.550 0.376
Fruit
Apples 0.399 0.079 0.593 0.118 0.583 0.116
Oranges 0.747 0.213 1.037 0.296 1.175 0.335
Mandarins 0.088 0.024 0.231 0.062 0.314 0.085
Pears 0.291 0.085 0.276 0.081 0.156 0.046
Watermelon 0.004 0.002 0.005 0.003 0.010 0.006
Melons 0.004 0.000 0.011 0.002 0.021 0.003
Grapes 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Peaches 0.011 0.002 0.019 0.004 0.043 0.008
Bananas 0.333 0.108 0.369 0.120 0.410 0.133
Total 1.877 0.514 2.542 0.685 2.713 0.733
Potatoes 1.847 0.403 1.349 0.294 1.492 0.325
assumption allows us to consider that the house- The estimated mean amount of vegetables and
holds selected provided a representative picture fruits allocated to each member of each family with
of the city’s population at the present time. The a specific parental educational level is presented in
number of members of each family group is also Table 2. Table 3 presents the mean amount of
presented in Table 1. wastes derived from preparing each kind of fruit
4 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology
A5032:First Proof: 5 August 2005 Paper:ManiosResidue generation and utilization in Heraklion, Crete Manios et al.
Table 3 Mean residue production from preparing the various kinds of vegetables and fruits for consumption
Vegetables Residues (kg/kg of vegetable) Fruits Residues (g/kg of fruit)
Potatoes 0.146 Apples 0.199
Dry onions 0.324 Pears 0.292
Tomatoes 0.055 Oranges 0.285
Courgettes 0.127 Mandarins 0.270
Lettuce 0.321 Watermelons 0.617
Cauliflower 0.205 Melons 0.145
Fresh beans 0.056 Grapes 0.016
Eggplant 0.074 Peaches 0.198
Cabbages 0.103
Figure 1 Estimated distribution of ‘green kitchen residues’ production based on parental educational level and
the estimated total amount produced in the city of Heraklion on a daily basis
and vegetable for consumption. Through these Table 4 The amount of vegetables, fruit and potatoes
values, the amount of residue produced by the consumed by each person of each group per day
fruits and vegetables allocated to each person on a (g/person day−1), together with the mean population
weekly basis were calculated (Table 2). By deduct- value
ing these two values it is possible to estimate the net Educational level
amount of fruit and vegetables consumed by
Primary Secondary Higher Mean
each person on a weekly and a daily basis. Table 4
presents this net amount for each person belong- Vegetables 273 357 311 325
ing to a family with a specific parental educational Fruits 195 265 283 253
level. The mean population value in which the Potatoes 206 151 167 168
population percentage dispersion (Table 1) has
been taken into account was 325, 253 and 168 g/
person day−1 of vegetables, fruits and potatoes, education families recording the highest values,
respectively. followed by higher educated families (Table 4).
Families with a higher education consume larger The primary education families record both the
amounts of fruit than those with a primary level of lowest non-potato vegetable consumption values
education. Their consumption also exceeds that and the significantly highest potato consumption
of families with secondary education (Figure 1). values (Table 4).
Results regarding vegetable (not including What these findings indicate is that quality of
potatoes) consumption are similar, with secondary food and good dietary practices, which nowadays
International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 5
A5032:First Proof: 5 August 2005 Paper:ManiosResidue generation and utilization in Heraklion, Crete Manios et al.
are recorded as increased vegetable and fruit con- fruits and vegetables) calculated through this work
sumption, are closely connected to the level of represent about the 35% of the total organic wastes.
education. There is similar work indicating this The remaining organic fraction consists of residues
close connection between socioeconomic status of other food sources before cooking, the remains
levels and dietary practices (Panagiotakos et al. of the cooked food, and green waste. In Greece,
2002; Pelto and Backstrand 2003; Gordon-Larsen food residues (kitchen biowaste) are generally esti-
et al. 2003). Based on the fact that humans can con- mated at about 350 g/person day−1 (Manios and
sume a rather specific amount of food on a daily Siminis 1988; Tchobanoglous et al. 1993; Manios
basis regardless of financial and social status, it can 2003), which should be considered as steady, even
be suggested that well-educated families are con- when other fractions of the wastes increase with
suming more fruits and vegetables than less edu- time (Fishbein et al. 1992). According to this, the
cated families (Costacou et al. 2003). Additionally, organic waste fraction in Heraklion an be synthe-
these results strongly indicate that education is a sised as the following: 155 g fruit and vegetable resi-
means of shaping and improving dietary and there- dues, 47 g potato residues, 148 g other food sources
fore public health standards. and cooked food residues, and 226 g green waste
Trichopoulou et al. (2003) suggest that the per resident and day.
optimum vegetable, fruit, including nuts (nuts were In Belgium the organic fraction of domestic
not monitored in this survey) and potato amounts waste in urban areas similar to the city of Heraklion
which should be consumed on a daily basis are 550, was slightly above 300 g, or 35% of the total waste.
362 and 89 g/person, respectively, in order to mini- This value includes kitchen, fruit and garden waste.
mize the risk of chronic diseases. The mean vegeta- This small quantity of biowaste can be considered as
ble and fruit consumption recorded for the city of a result of the limited consumption of vegetables
Heraklion was below these levels, whereas potato and fruits (mainly), the use of precooked food, or
consumption was considerably higher. However, both (Gellens et al. 1995). In relevant surveys that
the vegetable and fruit total (576 g/person day–1) took place in Malaysia, the mean kitchen residue
exceeds the minimum consumption of 400 (250 + fraction of domestic waste was 38%, whereas in
150) g/person day−1 suggested by the World Turkey the mean value was over 45% (Metin et al.
Health Organization (WHO 2003). Trichopoulou 2003; Kathirvale et al. 2004). These results support
et al. (2001), in a relative survey conducted in the findings of the present survey.
European countries, mention that Greece was the If a health, nutrition and environmental inter-
top country in vegetable and fruit consumption, vention programme was to apply to the city of
estimated at 617 (350 + 267) g/person day−1. Heraklion, it would mainly focus on how to increase
Through the information presented in Tables 2 fruit and vegetable consumption, and more likely
and 3, regarding residue generation from fruits, reduce potato consumption. It would simulta-
vegetables and potatoes, the amount of waste per neously promote a source separation scheme, at the
person per day for the three educational levels can core of which would be ‘green kitchen residues’.
be calculated using the same methodology applied Figure 1 presents the estimated total amount of
in estimating the amount of vegetables consumed waste produced by the three parental educational
per person and day. The mean amount of fruit and level groups for the whole of the city (estimated
vegetables residues generated per person per day population of 200,000), as well as the total amount
in the city of Heraklion according to this survey produced. According to these estimations, more
was 155 g (61 and 94, respectively), while the than 40 tons of such wastes are produced in the city
residues generated by potato consumption were on a daily basis, the great majority of which are
47 g. If these two numbers are added together, a ending up in local landfills, resulting in important
total of 202 g/person/day is reached, representing environmental problems as well as increased
the ‘green kitchen residues.’ handling cost.
The total amount of household waste produced Figure 2 presents an estimate of the amount of
in Heraklion per person and day is estimated at ‘green kitchen waste’ produced if the educational
1.2 kg, of which approximately 48% or 576 g is programme were to reach, shape and improve the
kitchen and garden waste (Manios and Siminis dietary habits of the 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of
1988; Manios 2003). The 202 g of waste (potatoes, the city’s population to the optimum standards
6 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology
A5032:First Proof: 5 August 2005 Paper:ManiosResidue generation and utilization in Heraklion, Crete Manios et al.
Figure 2 Estimated amount of ‘green kitchen residues’ produced on a daily basis at various implementation levels
of an integrated dietary and environmental education programme
recommended by Trichopoulou et al. (2003). The (up to 3500 t/year). The education and informa-
difference between total population implementa- tion campaign required for achieving such goals
tion of the programme and the existing situation is will be more successful if it combines efforts to
under 15%. A source separation scheme would change waste management habits as well as dietary
allow the utilization of these amounts for the pro- practices, which are also below optimum levels.
duction of compost. It is estimated that the compost The survey showed that vegetable and fruit con-
produced from such source-separated wastes would sumption should be increased substantially in
be equal to approximately half the amount of order to reach the estimated optimum levels
incoming waste. The ratio for high-quality compost, recommended for decreasing the risk of chronic
which is produced through a 10 mm screening, diseases. This would result in significant changes
would be smaller and equal to one quarter of the to public health as well as composition of the
raw materials. If the source separation scheme were waste, and especially the kitchen waste fraction.
to be fully implemented for the whole city of Since such an improvement is considered neces-
Heraklion, it is estimated that over 3500 tons of sary, national and local authorities should take
high-quality compost could be produced, equalling appropriate measures to support both the imple-
one third of the commercial compost imported to mentation of the required educational pro-
the island annually. grammes and the technical and infrastructure
changes in the waste management mechanisms
enabling source separation and composting of
CONCLUSIONS the organic fraction.
A source separation scheme applied in the city of
Heraklion and mainly focusing on kitchen waste
would allow a substantial decrease in the total
amount of waste disposed of in landfills (by at least ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
40%), allow the municipality to attain European This work was partially funded by the Greek
waste management standards, reduce landfill gases Ministry of Education, through the Archimedes
and lead to the production of high quality compost Programme.
International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 7
A5032:First Proof: 5 August 2005 Paper:ManiosResidue generation and utilization in Heraklion, Crete Manios et al.
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