TOYOTA AUTOMATED DRIVING - Whitepaper | August 2020
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TOYOTA
AUTOMATED
DRIVING
Whitepaper | August 2020
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS Message from Toyota Research Institute CEO Gill Pratt 1 Introduction 2 The Promise of Automated Driving Technology 3 Core Principles 5 The Future of the Driver - Vehicle Relationship 7 The Automated Driving Landscape 9 Toyota’s Approach to Vehicle Automation 11 Automated Driving Deployment: Personally-Owned Vehicles 14 Automated Driving Deployment: Mobility as a Service 15 Elements of Automated Driving 17 Challenges Facing Automated Driving Development 20 Toyota’s Automated Driving Programs, Partnerships, and Investments 22 Technology on Toyota Vehicles 30
MESSAGE FROM TOYOTA RESEARCH
INSTITUTE CEO GILL PRATT
As Toyota President Akio Toyoda has said, “the threatening illness. Traffic crashes are sufficiently
automotive industry is facing sweeping, once-in- rare to conceal the potential safety benefits of
a-century changes.” They are driven by innovations automated driving, and news of technology-
in four technology categories – Connected, caused crashes tend to be greatly amplified in
Automated, Shared and Electrified – each with its human perception. Societal acceptance will likely
own challenges and opportunities. take time and will not be easy.
For automated driving, the challenges include As a result, some may ask why any company
complex technical problems in perception, would take on the challenge of developing
prediction and planning, and a range of social, a system for automated driving. For Toyota,
ethical and policy issues for citizens, regulators two of the most compelling reasons are: 1)
and lawmakers to consider. automated driving technology offers the
chance to dramatically reduce the more than a
While simpler to focus on technical issues, the
million human-driven traffic fatalities that occur
social, ethical, and policy challenges facing
around the world every year, and: 2) automated
automated driving are the most difficult. Since
driving technology could provide mobility for
no technology can perfectly predict human
a rapidly growing segment of society – the
behavior, some crashes will still occur wherever
elderly – for whom loss of mobility leads to loss
vehicles with automated technology travel
of independence and lower quality of life. As we
the same roads with human-driven vehicles
have seen since Toyota first began researching
and pedestrians. Even if automated driving
automated driving in the 1990s, we continue to
technology can be made, on average, much
see the technology’s potential to help everyone
safer than human driving, it may be difficult for
get where they want and need to be... safely.
society to accept the remaining inevitable injuries
and fatalities when a vehicle with automated We hope the public shares our belief mobility can
technology is involved in a crash. be a source of inspiration, and automated driving
offers the chance to share joy in the experience
Of course, society has faced similar questions
of driving and a way to improve quality of life
before. In medicine, for example, patients
for everyone. Most importantly, because risk
must sometimes risk adverse outcomes in
can never be completely eliminated, we hope
the hope of being cured. In general, we have
the public will work with us as partners in the
come to accept such risks, so there is reason to
development of automated driving technology to
hope a similar understanding could evolve for
improve the safety, availability of mobility and, in
vehicles with automated technology. But going
turn, quality of life for as many people as possible.
for a drive is not the same as fighting a life-
Dr. Gill Pratt
Chief Scientist and Executive Fellow for Research, Toyota Motor Corporation
Chief Executive Officer, Toyota Research Institute
1
INTRODUCTION
More than 80 years ago, Kiichiro Toyoda That is why we are working to help consumers
launched a department inside Toyoda Automatic both enjoy the benefits of this research in the
Loom Works to investigate what was then a near term, while we continue to work on the
relatively new technology: automobile engines. most advanced technologies for the future. We
This move, which laid the foundation for the have made advanced driver assistance systems
Toyota Motor Corporation, reflected a critical (ADAS) available across nearly all new Toyota
insight: Automobiles would revolutionize society and Lexus vehicles through Toyota Safety Sense
– not because the automobile was a machine and Lexus Safety System+. These packages,
that could move, but because it was a machine which include underlying automated driving
that could dramatically amplify human mobility. components like Automatic Emergency Braking
Today, technology is once again poised to and Lane Keep Assist, are available as standard
expand what is possible for mobility. Connected or optional equipment on new Toyota and Lexus
vehicles – the power of big data – sharing, vehicles in Japan and Europe, while nearly
and vehicle electrification change the concept every model and trim level sold in the United
of the car. At the same time, steep declines States provides it as standard equipment.
in the cost of sensors, exponential growth in
computing power and the rapid improvement of
Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems have opened The value offered by today’s
the door to advanced systems for automated groundbreaking technology is not
driving. At Toyota, we see the extraordinary
potential for this technology. Just as we did in the machines themselves, but in
so many decades ago, we are remaking our what they offer to society.
company to meet this new challenge.
Importantly, Kiichiro Toyoda’s insight in the Looking ahead, we follow those same priorities
1930s remains true today. The value offered in our research. We are working aggressively
by today’s groundbreaking technology is not
to develop vehicles that will use the “Toyota
in the machines themselves, but in what they
Chauffeur” automated driving approach but
offer to society. As a result, our ultimate goal is
have also prioritized research and development
not to create automation for cars, but rather to
of nearer term “Toyota Guardian™” active
expand autonomy for people. We are working
safety technology. We believe Toyota Guardian
to create the tools that will help people get
– which uses Toyota’s underlying automated
where they want and need to be, and to create
driving technology to support and protect a
a society where mobility is safe, convenient,
driver by amplifying the driver’s capabilities – is
enjoyable, affordable and available to everyone.
an approach that can save more lives sooner,
As we pursue this vision, we are guided by a prior to bringing Chauffeur to market.
commitment to safety – both in how we research,
develop, and validate the performance of vehicle As with any technology revolution, the impact
technology and in how we aim to benefit society. of automated driving will go well beyond
Despite their tremendous positive benefits, cars and trucks to include new business
cars and trucks are involved in crashes that models and product categories, ranging from
annually result in more than a million fatalities mobility service platforms to personal robotics
worldwide. Our research into automated driving solutions. Major challenges remain, but we
is an extension of Toyota’s long-standing are inspired to help lead the way toward the
focus on improving automobile safety, and it future of mobility as we continue to focus on
advances our ultimate goal of helping realize enriching lives around the world with safe
a future without traffic injuries or fatalities. and responsible ways of moving people.
2
THE PROMISE OF AUTOMATED
DRIVING TECHNOLOGY
Toyota is guided by its Global vision, IMPROVING SAFETY
which calls on the company to “lead the
way to the future of mobility, enriching First and foremost, Toyota is committed to
lives around the world with the safest and automated driving because the technology
most responsible ways of moving people.” offers the promise of a world with far fewer
This mission influences everything we casualties from crashes. According to the
do, including making high-quality cars World Bank, there are about 1.25 million
and trucks, constantly innovating and worldwide traffic fatalities annually and
working to safeguard the environment. far more traffic injuries. Automated driving
technology could drastically reduce this
Automated driving is a natural next
number by helping to prevent crashes
step in Toyota’s growth as a mobility
caused by human error. Our work on this
company. It expands upon traditional
technology follows from our commitment
automotive capabilities to help people
to safe driving with a goal of developing
get to where they want and need to be,
while offering the potential to benefit a car that would never be responsible
all of society by helping to eliminate for causing a crash and that can avoid or
traffic fatalities and injuries, reshape mitigate many crashes caused by other
cities, reduce emissions, and achieve vehicles or external factors on the road.
our ultimate goal: mobility for all.
This focus on safety carries through to
all of Toyota’s research and development
of systems for automated driving. This
means testing and validation to help
ensure the proper performance of
new technologies before their market
introduction and a focus on expanding
the adoption of potentially life-saving
features to non-self-driving vehicles.
3
MORE EFFICIENT TRANSPORTATION A REVOLUTION BEYOND CARS
Beyond their core safety benefits, systems Toyota believes the technology behind
for automated driving may help make traffic automation will bring sweeping benefits and
smoother and more efficient. This could provide mobility solutions that extend far beyond cars
meaningful improvements to air quality through and trucks. AI offers the potential to revolutionize
reduced emissions and to the quality of life of and improve the daily lives of millions by creating
drivers through shortened and more predictable new categories of technologies and services.
travel times. The technology would also expand
Toyota is leveraging its research in automated
the number of people able to experience
driving to create new mobility solutions, such as
the joy of driving, while also significantly
robots with enhanced perception, reasoning and
improving the quality of time spent in a vehicle
manipulation that can offer expanded freedom of
during routine commuting or long drives.
movement for all, including people with limited
Vehicle automation also holds the promise of mobility associated with age, illness or disability.
increasing access to vehicle travel to a larger
For example, assistive robots could someday
portion of the world’s population through
empower and enable people who might
affordable, on-demand mobility models.
otherwise be restricted in their ability to move
Combining automated technology with
around their homes or in their communities.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) will help increase
These systems show promise in helping
personal mobility, especially for people with
seniors “age in place” with dignity rather
physical limitations. This type of on-demand
than moving into assisted living facilities –
transportation could potentially transform cities
an important potential benefit given current
and support more economically vibrant and
demographic trends in many countries.
efficient communities. For example, parking
areas in urban centers could be repurposed
for people rather than vehicles, with MaaS
vehicles using automation helping cities evolve
into more environmentally-friendly spaces with
greatly reduced emissions, traffic and noise.
4
CORE PRINCIPLES
SAFETY APPROACH We accomplish this by working in each
category to improve safety along three
Since the 1990s, Toyota has worked to distinct pillars: people, vehicles and
develop automated driving technologies the traffic environment. This approach
through the framework of our Integrated allows us to expand our focus, looking
Safety Management Concept. This beyond the potential of new vehicle safety
approach focuses on technologies technologies to include expanded safety
that could mitigate the risk of collision education programs and new partnerships
at each stage of driving, including with governments and other stakeholders
Parking, Active Safety, Pre-Collision that can improve the construction of
Safety, Passive Safety and Rescue. roads and other traffic infrastructure.
Collision
Pre-Collision
Emergency
Parking Active Safety Passive Safety
Response
Panoramic View Dynamic Radar Cruise Blind Spot Monitor Pre-Collision
Monitor Control (DRCC) (BSM) System (PCS) GOA
Automatic Collision
Vehicle Dynamic Notification (ACN)
Control
Pedestrain
VDIM Injury-reducing Body
Lane Keeping Assist Lane Departure Alert VSC TRC
Back Guide (LKA) (LDA)
Monitor Basic Function
BA ABS Alert
Pre-Collision Seatbelts
Intelligent Adaptive VDIM Brake Assist Airbag
Front-lighting System Adaptive High-Beam
(AFS) System (AHS) Pre-Collision Braking
Intelligent Parking
Assist (IPA) Automatic High VSC
Beam (ABS) Type
Traction Control Regular Type:
(TRC) PCS to help prevent Pop-up Hood
Night View rear-end collisions
Intelligent Clearance
Sonar (ICS) Advanced Type:
Brake Assist (BA) PCS to help prevent
Navigation Cooperative ITS collisions with
Coordination System pedestrians
Antilock Braking
System (ABS)
Drive-Start Control
ITS: Intelligent Transport Systems VDIM: Vehicle Dynamic Integrated Management PCS: Pre-Collision System GOA: Global Outstanding Assessment
VSC: Vehicle Stability Control
BA: Break Assist
ABS: Antilock Braking System
5
In addition to looking forward, we also THE MOBILITY TEAMMATE CONCEPT
strive to learn from the past. This includes
Toyota’s development philosophy for automated
studying actual collisions in order to meet
driving is the Mobility Teammate Concept
and push beyond the industry’s ever-higher
(MTC), an approach built on the belief people
safety standards. Toyota analyzes the causes
and vehicles can work together in the service
of vehicle-related collisions and occupant
of safe, convenient and efficient mobility.
injuries by using a range of investigation
data. Using technologies like Toyota’s The MTC combines all of Toyota’s research into
Total Human Model for Safety (THUMS), automated driving and merges it into a vision in
we simulate crashes to help develop safety which people and vehicle “team up” to monitor
technologies. In addition, we conduct and assist each other whenever necessary. In
experiments on actual vehicles before we the near term, this approach capitalizes on the
launch new technologies. Post-launch, we different skills humans and machines bring to
evaluate the effectiveness of the technologies the challenge of safe driving. Indeed, thanks
by assessing any crashes that might occur. to the power of connected systems and cloud-
based technology, this sharing of responsibilities
Collectively, this strategy has resulted in
means intelligent vehicles might one day improve
meaningful safety improvements, as each
continually, with every car and truck potentially
new advancement in technology or design
benefiting from the experience of many drivers.
expands the range of potential collisions
the vehicle can prevent or mitigate. Importantly, MTC is a philosophy built on
the belief people should have choices,
and technology should amplify rather than
replace human capability. Instead of removing
humans from any engagement with their
own mobility, it allows people to enjoy the
freedom and joy of driving if they choose,
while also benefiting from the capabilities of
automated driving when they need or wish.
6
THE FUTURE OF THE DRIVER -
VEHICLE RELATIONSHIP
The emergence of automated driving lives we lead. Most importantly, the
has raised new questions about car amplifies us – allowing us to travel
the future of the personally-owned further, faster and with less effort in the
vehicle and about the long-term company of and with the goal of joining
relationship between car and driver. loved ones. What’s more, we control the
car. We press the accelerator, and the car
For some, this is an easy question with little moves us the way our legs do, but with
significance. To them, a car is just a means more power. We turn the steering wheel,
of transportation used to move from one and it is as if we ourselves are changing
place to another, not much different than our body’s direction of exploration.
a train or a plane. At Toyota, we see a car
as something more – a feeling we know Each customization we make to our car
many people share around the world that also helps to build a deep and meaningful
is captured by the Japanese word “Aisha,” relationship between it and us. Our
or “My car, I love it.” And we do not think car becomes the only one like it in the
this relationship will cease any time soon. world: a unique reflection of our own
life. We pamper, abuse and use our cars
What is it about the connection extensively, and they carry the marks of
between people and cars that this relationship: a sticker here, a coffee
generates so much love? stain there, and that time where we made
We believe it’s a relationship that is a tear in the back seat and never bothered
fundamentally different from those to get it fixed. At a more social level, cars
we have with many other machines. belong to families and are sometimes
A car is a safe, personal space with a passed on to the next generation, carrying
comfortable and relaxing environment. with them the histories of our lives and
Almost everything about it, inside and relationships. Over time, a car stops
out, can be customized to express our being just a mode of transportation
unique identity. Over time, the car itself and becomes something we love.
changes to reflect who we are and the
7
For Toyota, the relationship between cars Of course, there are also people who want
and people is fundamental to everything a specific driving experience and expect the
we do, including our research into vehicle to perform the way they want, when
automated technology. We use the word they want. That may mean a sporty driving
“teammate” to describe our concept for mode in some situations and a smooth
automated driving because of our belief ride in others. We believe advanced vehicle
car and driver can help each other to make technologies should respect these unique
driving safe, comfortable and fun. and changing needs and respond with the
capability a driver desires while maintaining
What does this relationship mean in practice? the appropriate level of safety support.
When it comes to safety, driving skills don’t just
differ between people. Experience, age, medical In short, Toyota believes cars should learn from
conditions or simple fatigue mean individual and be responsive to their owners. Even in a
driving ability can change from moment to future where driving is automated, we believe
moment. That’s why Toyota designs automated this connection means cars will continue to be
driving technologies with the aim of meeting loved, with the relationship deepening as they
these shifting needs, helping to support safe meet our needs and grow to reflect our unique
driving regardless of the driver’s condition. tastes over the course of our lives together.
8THE AUTOMATED
DRIVING LANDSCAPE
AUTOMATED OR AUTONOMOUS? By contrast, much of what is currently
described in public discourse as an
Over decades, vehicles have become more “autonomous vehicle” is often not truly
sophisticated. Computers can increasingly “autonomous” from human oversight
handle direct involvement with key or driving responsibility. Care in using
functions, such as acceleration and these terms is important, as their
braking. More recently, new technologies application to vehicles in the market
have emerged to perform additional tasks, may impact consumers’ expectations
such as helping to keep a vehicle in its lane and understanding about how those
or intervening if a collision is imminent. vehicles perform. As we implement
With the rise of systems that can perform these technologies in passenger
some or all driving tasks, a host of terms vehicles, we believe it is important
have entered the market to describe to describe accurately, or to use
them. These include “automated,” terminology that suggests, the actual
“highly automated,” “semi-” and function the vehicle can perform. We
“partially autonomous,” “self-driving,” believe helping consumers understand
and “driverless,” to name a few. automated driving technology is another
way of promoting safety in its use.
For general descriptive purposes, Toyota
uses the word “automated” to describe a Regardless of whether one prefers
wide range of technology that augments “automated” or “autonomous,” the
or replaces direct human control during range of capabilities of these emerging
some period of time. We use the term technologies cannot be described in
“autonomous” to describe only those just one word. For that, international
vehicles where an automated system standards organizations have developed
can perform the complete dynamic documents to address technical
driving task, essentially replacing the aspects of automation for vehicles.
job of the driver, during some period
of time (not necessarily indefinitely).
9STANDARDS ORGANIZATION ACTIVITIES FOR DRIVING AUTOMATION
One example of activity is SAE International’s issuance of
recommended practice J3016. That document categorizes
automation based on whether an automation system:
• performs acceleration/deceleration or steering,
• performs acceleration/deceleration and steering,
• monitors and responds to the driving environment,
• performs fallback of the dynamic driving task
(functions required to operate a vehicle),
• is limited by an operational design domain
(conditions under which a vehicle can operate).
SAE has defined levels of automation that range from no automation (labeled as “Level 0”)
to full automation (labeled as “Level 5”) as displayed in the following chart.
SAE J3016TM LEVELS OF DRIVING AUTOMATION
LEVEL 0 LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3 LEVEL 4 LEVEL 5
You are driving whenever these driver support features You are not driving whenever these driver support
are engaged — even if your feet are off the pedals and features are engaged — even if your feet are off the
What does the you are not steering pedals and you are not steering
human in the
driver’s seat
You must constantly supervise these support features, When the feature These automated driving features
have to do? you must steer, brake or accelerate as needed to requests, will not require you to take
maintain safety over driving
you must drive
These are driver support features These are automated driving features
These features These features These features These features can drive the vehicle This feature
are limited to provide provide under limited conditions and will can drive the
providing steering OR steering not operated unless all required vehicle under
What do these warnings and brake/ conditions are met all conditions
AND brake/
features do? momentary acceleration acceleration
assistance support to support to
the driver the driver
automatic lane centering lane centering traffic jam local driverless same as
emergency chauffeur taxi level 4, but
OR AND
braking feature
Example adaptive cruise adaptive cruise pedals/ can drive
blind spot
Features warning
control control at the steering wheel everywhere
same time may or may not in all
lane departure be installed conditions
warning
Copyright © 2014 SAE International. The summary table may be freely copied and distributed provided
SAE International and J3016 are acknowledged as the source and must be reproduced AS-IS.
These levels provide valuable and useful guidance, and they serve an important role in
facilitating clarity in global discussions and potential regulations around automation
10TOYOTA’S APPROACH TO
VEHICLE AUTOMATION
Toyota’s research into automation is driven TOYOTA GUARDIAN™
by two related but distinct objectives:
To more quickly realize the safety benefits
1) improving driving safety and of automated driving technology and to
expand the ability of current drivers to
2) improving access to and the
experience the joy of driving, Toyota is
convenience of mobility.
developing an approach to active safety
We are pursuing two distinct concepts to called Guardian. Guardian aims to safely
achieve those goals with the development blend vehicle control between the driver
and an AI system, sharing roles to take
of each built on similar perception,
best advantage of their individual skills.
prediction and planning technology.
We call this blended envelope control.
As in the flight control systems modern
CHAUFFEUR fighter airplanes use, the human driver
retains control, but the AI translates his or
For those who cannot or choose not
her commands to keep the vehicle within
to drive because of age, infirmity or a defined safety envelope. Guardian will
any other reason, we are working to constantly monitor the environment and
develop automated driving technology step in to amplify the driver’s capabilities
that will allow a vehicle to drive on and may intervene when a collision or
its own without human oversight or other safety-critical incident is imminent.
fallback responsibility. We call this This is not done by braking alone, as
eventual capability Toyota Chauffeur. in current pre-collision systems, but by
employing the full range of driving actions,
We are designing Chauffeur to use an including accelerating, changing lanes and
AI system to completely perform the preventing the driver from over-reacting to
driving function. With Chauffeur, the a situation. Fundamentally, the system is
human will not have a role for the task being designed to help prevent the vehicle
of driving while the system operates from being hit, to avoid hitting anything
(similar to SAE Levels 4 and 5). else and to stop it from going off the road.
11Toyota has made significant progress applying • Navigating the traffic environment can at
blended envelope control between the driver times be exceptionally complicated in ways
and the system to automobiles. Rather than that go beyond developing technology that
switching between the driver and the system can handle varied environmental conditions
in the event of a safety issue, there is a near- and obey the rules law defines. A system fully
seamless blend of both working as teammates capable of staying within appropriate lanes,
to extract the best input from each. stopping and starting at traffic lights, and
Guardian exists on a spectrum of capability navigating a route from one point or another
that defines how much it can assist to protect would also encounter a traffic context defined
vehicle occupants. This includes mistakes or by people and can change at any time.
other errors made by the driver and from external
At present, many deployments of Level
factors on the road, such as other vehicles,
4-equivalent systems address these issues
obstructions or traffic conflicts. The higher the
Guardian capability, the greater the number and by operating in highly restricted Operational
types of crashes it can help protect against. Design Domains, which limit the vehicles to
operate in conditions, such as low speeds, fair
For example, at a modest level of Guardian weather, simple geography, light traffic and few
capability, systems like Lane Departure Alert other variables on the road, like pedestrians
(LDA) and Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) or cyclists. Wider deployment will require a
can help prevent some crashes. At the highest significant technical and sociological leap so
level, Guardian capability is being developed
vehicles can recognize the road environment’s
with the goal to ensure a human-driven vehicle
physical elements and the social context and
would never be responsible for causing a
interactions between the people who use it.
crash and also avoid many crashes that other
vehicles or external factors would cause. We are designing Guardian to avoid many of
these constraints. The underlying automated
technology only intervenes when necessary. This
allows human drivers to leverage their social
awareness to navigate through the complicated
and rapidly shifting traffic environment. In so
doing, Toyota believes the Guardian approach
may help us realize the safety benefits of
automated technology sooner by enabling us
to introduce higher levels of driver assistance
into production vehicles in the near term as
BENEFITS OF THE GUARDIAN MODEL we continue our progress toward Chauffeur.
To ensure these benefits are available to as
Guardian offers an important path to vehicle
many drivers as possible, Toyota plans to
automation because it avoids several challenges
offer Guardian to others in the industry.
Chauffeur faces. Chauffeur is an important
technology that will make a meaningful impact In addition, just as Guardian is designed
on the lives of people who cannot or do to amplify the human driver’s ability rather
not wish to drive. But its development faces than replacing it, it might also add an extra
significant technical and social challenges
measure of support to another automated
that will take time to address. In particular, the
driving system, whether provided by Toyota or
Chauffeur automation model faces several key
any other company. For example, Toyota has
challenges when applied to automated driving:
announced its intention to include Guardian
• Humans suffer from a basic psychological as standard equipment on all Toyota e-Palette
challenge known as “vigilance decrement,” platforms we build for the MaaS market,
which makes it hard to keep one’s attention offering intervening support regardless of which
and awareness engaged when monitoring automated system a fleet buyer chooses to use.
for rare events over long time periods.
12What’s more, Toyota also believes Guardian envelope control, the vehicle might one day
will, over time, build much-needed trust and leverage Guardian to help prevent a crash
acceptance for highly automated driving when driving difficulty is higher than the
technology. Automated systems are often driver’s capability to navigate safely. At times
viewed with suspicion or fear because they of low driving difficulty, Guardian technology
remove the human from vehicle control. will maintain vigilance to help make minor
Guardian may foster a different reaction corrections (i.e., lane keep assist) to help
because it is designed to amplify human keep a vehicle in its lane, for example.
performance rather than replace it and
because it may highlight those situations At present, Guardian’s technical abilities
where the automated technology might be higher than the driver’s skill only in
provided a safety benefit. some limited circumstances. Over time, as
technology improves and the system learns,
Guardian capability will grow steadily toward
HUMAN DRIVER CAPABILITY AND an ideal goal of creating a vehicle that would
ENVIRONMENTAL DIFFICULTY never be responsible for a crash, regardless
of human driver errors. At the same time,
Toyota’s research on automated driving Chauffeur capability will advance toward a goal
technology goes beyond seeking to expand of being able to drive safely in all conditions.
vehicle capabilities. It also considers
the capability of human drivers and the Importantly, driving environments can be
difficulty of the driving environment. extremely complex and difficult, and no
automated system – regardless of how
Importantly, driver capability and driving capable it may be – is likely to prevent crashes
difficulty are not static. They rise and fall over entirely. A fundamental question yet to be
time. Driver capability depends on factors, such addressed is “how safe is safe enough?” The
as skill, fatigue and distraction level. Driving
answer will depend on government regulation,
difficulty shifts based on issues ranging from
liability risks, societal acceptance and what
weather to traffic or construction. Most of the
is technically possible. In general, we believe
time, driver capability is sufficient to prevent a
systems providing Chauffeur capability might
crash. It is the times when driving difficulty rises
need to be significantly safer than average
above the driver’s skill that a crash is likely.
human drivers to be accepted by society.
Automated technology offers the potential By contrast, Guardian capability might be
to contribute at periods of both high and low judged against the standard of, on average
driving difficulty. With the power of blended and as often as possible, “do no harm.”
Far Future
Driver
Capability
Near Autonomy
Future Capability
Possbile Crash #2
Present
Possbile Crash #1
Time 13AUTOMATED DRIVING DEPLOYMENT:
PERSONALLY-OWNED VEHICLES
In 2003, Toyota introduced its first millimeter sign recognition system covering more
wave radar-based Pre-Collision System regions and countries than before.
(PCS). Soon after, Toyota rolled out the
This approach of beginning with
system to more-affordable vehicles,
personally-owned vehicles is a proven
such as Prius. Developing advanced
and valuable method for technology
technologies first, then finding reasonable
development, as it speeds the introduction
ways to bring them to a more popular and
of advanced systems that can help
affordable range of vehicles, continues
improve safety, reduce accidents and
to be Toyota’s strategy. This two-axis
ease traffic. Today, thanks to rapid
approach allows us to rapidly spread the
component and information technology
availability of safety technology, and it also
developments, we can often reach
applies to automated driving technologies.
mass-vehicle deployment of new safety
The results can be seen most clearly in systems much faster than before.
Toyota Safety Sense and Lexus Safety
Toyota is committed in the near term
System+. As research and development
to bringing vehicles with automated
progresses, future generations of both
driving capabilities to market. Teammate,
systems will continue to expand to widen
targeted for commercial availability
the range of safety systems and automated
in 2021, is expected to initially enable
technologies available to the general
driver-supervised automated driving
public. For example, in 2018, Toyota began
(SAE Level 2) on highways. The system
to roll out the second generation of Toyota
will evaluate traffic conditions, make
Safety Sense and Lexus Safety System+ on
decisions and take action during highway
vehicles benefiting from a major model
driving. Potential capabilities include
change. In this second generation, we
changing lanes (with driver approval),
added new capabilities to enhance safety,
maintaining a safe distance from
including the ability to detect pedestrians
preceding vehicles and exiting highways.
in low-light conditions, the ability to
detect bicycles, and an expanded road
14AUTOMATED DRIVING DEPLOYMENT:
MOBILITY AS A SERVICE
USING MAAS TO ACCELERATE In addition, MaaS provides a unique
AUTOMATED DRIVING DEVELOPMENT opportunity to deploy vehicles equipped
with SAE Level 4 automated systems
Through its own programs and in sooner. Fleets do not need the same
partnership with various companies flexibility as personally-owned vehicles
in the mobility services space, Toyota and can be limited to simplified operating
plans to leverage a range of MaaS domains, such daylight hours, good
platforms to support and accelerate weather and/or known fixed routes.
the development and deployment
of automated driving technology. Toyota believes the deployment of a high
level of automation to support MaaS can
MaaS addresses one of the key help lower costs per passenger mile to
challenges in developing automated create new waves of consumer demand
driving systems – the need for significant and a virtuous cycle of affordable mobility,
driving data to improve core technologies. safety and convenience. It can also help
Initial component costs mean personally- improve automated driving technology
owned vehicles with systems for automated and support greater societal acceptance
driving are likely to be expensive and and consumer adoption. Taken together,
sell in small numbers. This, combined the system will bring forward key benefits
with the low usage rates of private of automated driving much faster than
vehicles, limits how much data they through private ownership alone.
will collectively generate in order to
help improve the system. In a MaaS
application, costs can be amortized
across a fleet and higher utilization
rates will increase data gathered. As a
result, the system’s capabilities can be
extended more quickly, benefiting both
MaaS and personal vehicle applications.
15AUTONOMOUS MOBILITY AS A • Toyota also plans to deploy automated
SERVICE (“AUTONO-MAAS”) driving technology on the mobility networks
operated by third parties. In August 2018,
To fully realize the potential synergies we announced a new collaboration with
of automated technology and MaaS Uber Technologies designed to advance and
networks, Toyota is pursuing a range of bring to market autonomous ride-sharing
technology and vehicle platforms. as a mobility service at scale. As part of the
• e-Palette, first announced at the 2018 agreement, Toyota is developing an Autono-
Consumer Electronics Show, is a purpose- MaaS fleet based on the Sienna Minivan
built mobility commerce platform designed to platform, which will be equipped with Uber’s
support Autono-MaaS business applications. Autonomous Driving System and use Toyota’s
The open, flexible platform will be easily Guardian as a safety support system. Pilot-
adapted to support a range of uses, including scale deployments are intended to begin
ride-sharing, delivery and retail. Currently on the Uber ride-sharing network in 2021.
under development in coordination with
partners, including Amazon, DiDi, Mazda,
Pizza Hut and Uber, e-Palette will be controlled
by SAE Level 4 Automated technology or, if
desired, by a user’s proprietary system for
automated driving. In either case, e-Palette
will include Toyota’s Guardian technology,
which will act as a safety net. Toyota plans to
deploy mobility solutions like the e-Palette
at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic
Games, which now take place in 2021.
16ELEMENTS OF AUTOMATED DRIVING
FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATED (INU), among other inputs – to collect
TECHNOLOGY and interpret information about the
vehicle’s current situation and its
In general, driving automation operates relationship to its environment. This
via interactions between fundamental includes the location and movement of
systems. Various combinations of these the full range of obstacles, both static
systems enable vehicles to understand and dynamic, including infrastructure,
the driving environment, make intelligent vehicles, pedestrians, bicycles and more.
decisions and, in the case of higher The amount and complexity of data
automation levels, navigate safely for analysis makes this one of the most
to a destination. These fundamental challenging steps in automated driving.
systems are described as follows:
• Prediction helps the vehicle estimate
• Localization and Mapping determines where other vehicles, pedestrians,
where the vehicle is within its bicycles, etc. are likely to be in the
environment. This requires building future. Often there are multiple possible
a specialized map of the surrounding predictions (known as hypotheses).
environment, either from scratch or Currently, humans do a much better
by drawing from a baseline of prior job of prediction than any machine.
knowledge that is well-understood and This area will continue to challenge the
trusted to be mostly correct, and then development of automated driving.
localizing the vehicle within that map.
This system helps a vehicle correctly • Planning determines one or more
interpret the data its sensors gather. safe courses of travel for the vehicle,
including decisions such as which lane
• Perception combines information to travel, where to position the vehicle
from the Localization and Mapping relative to other dynamic objects and
system with data from vehicle sensors how much space to afford obstacles.
– including cameras, LiDAR, RADAR, Importantly, the Planning system makes
Global Navigation Satellite Systems decisions about how to safely guide
(GNSS) and inertial navigation units the vehicle under uncertain conditions,
17such as when other vehicles on the road •A
rtificial Intelligence (AI) is a broad term for
may be blocked from view or if they behave technology that processes information and
in unexpected ways. Multiple hypotheses makes decisions to achieve a certain goal.
may lead to multiple possible plans, with the This may be accomplished via a rule-based
ultimate choice depending on the actions system, such as if a vehicle perceives a stop
of other vehicles, pedestrians and more. sign and follows a programmed command to
stop, or via machine learning, in which a system
• Control executes the planned driving might process large volumes of information
trajectories set by the planning system,
which are updated constantly based on • Computer Vision is the process of gathering
new information. This is accomplished using information from sensors and using it to
actuators that direct vehicle driving functions. perceive the surrounding environment.
This process leverages AI to draw
•Coordination communicates with other vehicles, knowledge from the data, identifying and
the road infrastructure and cloud databases. differentiating individual elements, such
•External Human Machine Interaction as cars, pedestrians, trees and roads.
(e-HMI) manages the communication of • Predictive Algorithms are used to anticipate
information between the vehicle and humans the likely behavior of other objects in the
in the traffic environment. Importantly, while road environment, such as the expected
communication between driver and vehicle is future position of another vehicle on
obviously important, particularly in managing the road based on its current trajectory
the transfer of vehicle operation, so too is and proximity to other vehicles.
communication between the vehicle and
humans outside the vehicle, such as drivers of • Decision Algorithms choose the vehicle’s
other vehicles, first responders and pedestrians. proper path based on the predicted
behavior of others on the road. Importantly,
KEY TOOLS FOR AUTOMATED DRIVING decision algorithms must operate despite
uncertainty, which varies based on conditions,
An overlapping set of core technologies and including visibility and traffic congestion.
tools help make the fundamentals of automated
driving possible. The core technologies • Maps are baseline representations of the
and tools are described as follows: core elements of the physical world the
vehicle occupies. These can be generated
• Classical controls, including proportional- ahead of time, such as high-definition maps,
integral-derivative controllers and non- to be used by a vehicle when it enters an
linear gain scheduling, are used for low- environment, or generated in real time (on-the-
level controller tasks like set-point tracking fly) using algorithms, such as Simultaneous
and regulation within actuators, such as Localization and Mapping (SLAM).
steering actuator or throttle actuator.
• Sensors gather data from the driving
• Modern controls include state-space environment or from the vehicle itself. These
representations, robust control, nonlinear include systems that gather data about the
control and adaptive control. These mostly world, such as cameras, sonar, LiDAR and
explicit mathematical equations solve RADAR; those that track location, such as GNSS;
apriori (offline) for the control value. and those that monitor the movement of the
vehicle itself, such as inertial measurement
• Optimizations, such as model predictive control
units or wheel speed and angle monitors.
(MPC) or receding horizon control (RHC), are
used to generate path trajectories, which
lower-level controllers subsequently track.
Optimizations rely on numerical methods to
solve/converge in real-time for the control value.
18• Actuators are used to control the physical • V2X Communication consists of a direct
operation of the vehicle, opening or closing the information exchange between vehicles with
throttle, turning the wheels or engaging the roadside traffic management systems and
brakes. Importantly, while computers rapidly with pedestrians via dedicated short-range
perform much of automated driving, actuators communication (DSRC) and/or via cellular
are limited by physical constraints, including networks. These vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V),
vehicle dynamics and the speed of the vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle-
actuator itself. Thus, automated drive systems to-pedestrian (V2P) communications share
must account for the lag between issuing information about road signals, signs, road
commands and the vehicle’s physical response. conditions and other vehicles or pedestrians
that may be difficult to see. They can also alert
• Simulation is used to test the performance drivers of approaching vehicles, pedestrians,
of automated driving software in a virtual red lights, and slow or stationary vehicles.
environment. Data gathered from real-world Vehicle-to-network (V2N) supports map data
testing is used to recreate a variety of traffic generation and map data updates, as well
scenarios digitally, which are then used as various kinds of information delivery and
to test and measure system response and remote control. Together, V2X communications
to promote proper operation. Automated provide an additional means for automation to
driving software can be tested in both the gain knowledge about surrounding traffic. The
car and simulator at the same time, while obtained information is combined with data
engineers shift back and forth seamlessly from on-board sensors to enable the vehicle
to allow for continuous integration testing. to make better decisions for vehicle control,
Driving systems can also be operated in traffic safety, efficiency and driver interaction.
multiple simulation instances at the same
time, allowing for the relatively-rapid creation
of billions of miles of training and test data.
19CHALLENGES FACING AUTOMATED
DRIVING DEVELOPMENT
The industry faces various challenges For example, in Japan, SIP (Cross
to realize and popularize automated ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion
driving. These include legal/regulatory Program) under the Japan Cabinet Office,
developments, social-system reform identifies areas of collaborative work and
and the time needed for societal promotes research and development
acceptance, with the detailed situation among relevant stakeholders. SIP
varying between countries and regions. collaboration scope includes dynamic
mapping and cybersecurity.
Automated driving technology also
depends on other industries that provide For some technologies, regional or
key technologies that together make up global harmonization and collaboration
the automated driving ecosystem. Key across borders would be required
subjects, listed below, typically reflect to establish a common shared
geographical or cultural differences, foundation. With such a foundation,
globally and regionally. Therefore, we can accelerate our technology
one key and unique success factor development toward improving our
for automated driving is the level of customers’ safety and toward enhancing
collaboration and cooperation with freedom and mobility efficiency.
various stakeholders who are not always
actors in the traditional auto industry.
Realizing and popularizing automated
driving will call for appreciating their
expectations. Industry collaboration
in non-competitive areas that act
as a foundation of systems for
automated driving and vehicles, such
as infrastructure or social systems,
is an effective way forward.
20LEGAL / REGULATORY SOCIAL CHALLENGES
FRAMEWORK CHALLENGES
• Regional Differences (Custom & Behavior, Tacit
• Infrastructure (Traffic Design and Driving Manner and Rules, Ethical Perceptions)
Management, Road Construction)
• Social Acceptance (Safety Concerns)
• Cybersecurity
• Sustainable solutions
• Data Privacy (Smart Cities, Urban Planning)
• Safety Assurance (Design, Construction,
Performance, Validation)
• Social System (Vehicle Registration,
Licensing, Driving Education and
Training, Traffic Rules, Insurance, Law
Enforcement, Crash Investigation, Safety
and Emission Inspections, etc.)
21TOYOTA’S AUTOMATED DRIVING
PROGRAMS, PARTNERSHIPS,
AND INVESTMENTS
TOYOTA COMPANIES WORKING •T
oyota Central Research & Development
ON AUTOMATED TECHNOLOGY Laboratories: TCRDL contributes to the
present and future businesses of the
JAPAN Toyota Group by conducting research in a
• Toyota Motor Corporation: TMC’s variety of fields. At the same time, it surveys
Advanced R&D and Engineering Company global technology trends and explores
leads the company’s efforts to develop new fields of science to propose a vision of
automated driving technologies at the future that will lead to new businesses
the global level, pulling together the and contribute to the advancement of
resources and work of all the other entities science, technology and industry.
listed here, in addition to organizing
the research, development and testing
of these technologies by all relevant
functions at Toyota Motor Corporation.
• Toyota Research Institute – Advanced
Development (TRI-AD): Launched in
March 2018, TRI-AD is a company Toyota,
Aisin and Denso organized that works
in collaboration with the U.S.-based
Toyota Research Institute (TRI). The
company’s mission is to leverage the
cutting-edge research in AI for automated
driving created by TRI into real products
that can have a substantial positive
impact on mobility for the world.
22NORTH AMERICA It pioneers the development of Toyota’s Mobility
Services Platform (MSPF), a global, cloud-
• Toyota Research Institute (TRI): Toyota Research based digital ecosystem that provides the tools
Institute is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Toyota necessary to bring to market mobility services.
Motor North America under the direction of
Dr. Gill Pratt. The company, established in • Toyota AI Ventures: Toyota AI Ventures
2015, aims to strengthen Toyota’s research is a Silicon Valley-based venture capital
structure and has four initial mandates: subsidiary of Toyota Research Institute that
1) enhance the safety of automobiles, 2) invests in promising startups from around
increase access to cars to those who cannot the world. The fund focuses on companies
otherwise drive, 3) translate Toyota’s expertise developing solutions in AI, robotics,
in creating products for outdoor mobility autonomous mobility, data and cloud
into products for indoor mobility and 4) technology that share its mission of improving
accelerate scientific discovery by applying the quality of human life through AI.
techniques from AI and machine learning.
• Toyota Motor North America Research and
Development (TMNA R&D): Founded in 1977 in
Ann Arbor, Michigan, and formerly a division
of Toyota Motor Engineering & Manufacturing
North America, Inc. (TEMA), TMNA R&D provides
everything from engineering design and
prototype building to testing and evaluation
of vehicles, parts and materials for Toyota’s
North American vehicles. It includes research
divisions studying Next Generation Mobility
and Society Research, Cloud Infrastructure
Architecture, Intelligent Computing, Network,
EUROPE
and System & Software. It is also the home of
Toyota’s newly established North American • Toyota Research on Automated Cars in Europe
purchasing and supplier center. With facilities (TRACE): Toyota Motor Europe’s Advanced
in Michigan, California and Arizona, TMNA Research team in Brussels collaborates with
R&D also handles emissions certification, experts across Europe in the field of computer
technical research, regulatory affairs and more. vision for automation. It is organized loosely
around a lab structure named TRACE (Toyota
• Toyota Collaborative Safety Research
Research on Automated Cars in Europe).
Center (CSRC): CSRC partners with leading
universities, hospitals, research institutions Current partners include KU Leuven, University
and federal agencies, with a focus on safety of Cambridge, CTU Prague, Max Planck Institute
research projects aimed at developing and Saarbrücken and ETH in Zürich. Each partner
bringing to market new and advanced safety contributes with unique research algorithms, and
technologies. Research areas include active/ all elements are integrated into the experimental
passive integration, human experience, vehicles under the responsibility of KU Leuven.
driver state detection and big data/safety
analytics, with results shared publicly Current activities include state-of-the-art
with other companies and academia. deep learning algorithms for object detection,
robust and precise tracking, and full scene
• Toyota Connected: TOYOTA Connected leads segmentation and classification. Monocular
Toyota’s global development of mobility and stereo-camera algorithms provide
services for consumers, businesses and long-range depth measurements. The
government, powered by vehicle data science, objective is real time-free space estimation
machine learning and contextual data services. for path planning and vehicle control.
23• University of Michigan Transportation
Research Institute: An investigation into
kinematics of minimally aware adult occupants
exposed to Automatic Emergency Braking
(AEB) and evasive maneuvers on a test track.
• University of Iowa: Research attempting
to measure the response characteristics
and estimated benefit with respect to
reduction in injury/fatalities of adaptive
headlamp system that highlights detected
pedestrians and bicyclists using both driver
and pedestrian/bicycle simulator study.
TOYOTA COLLABORATIONS FOR AUTOMATED
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT • TASI – Indiana University, Purdue University
at Indianapolis: A project attempting to
TOYOTA RESEARCH INSTITUTE develop test scenarios and methods for the
evaluation of vehicle road departure warning
• Massachusetts Institute of Technology: and assist and control systems on a test track.
The CSAIL-Toyota Joint Research Center
projects range from autonomy to self-awareness. • Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Research is aimed at furthering the development Age Lab: A project attempting to develop a
of automated driving technologies. deep-learning-based, full-scene recognition
of vehicle environment from a vision sensor.
• Stanford University: Stanford’s SAIL laboratory Examples are vehicles, pedestrians, bicyclists,
is engaged in research projects that include traffic signs, buildings, curbs, etc.
human-computer and human-robot interactions.
• University of Wisconsin: A project attempting
The focus is on developing innovative and
to provide a theoretical and mathematical
impactful approaches, algorithms, and data. framework of how drivers communicate
The approach includes research in perception, with each other in an intersection.
learning, reasoning and interaction.
• University of California at San Diego: A project
• University of Michigan: TRI’s Ann Arbor research attempting to provide a computational
facility with University of Michigan focuses on prediction model for a transfer of control
research into enhanced driving safety, partner between the automation and the human
robotics and indoor mobility, automated driver. The model has factors originated
driving, and student learning and diversity. from human motor and perceptual
behaviors, scenarios and environments.
COLLABORATIVE SAFETY RESEARCH CENTER (CSRC)
• University of Iowa – National Advanced
• Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, University Driving Simulator: A project attempting to
of Virginia, Ohio State University: A project provide a meaningful and useful dataset
attempting to quantify key occupant responses of driver behaviors when encountering
(kinematics, kinetics and muscle activity) to situations where transfer of control between
evasive swerving and emergency braking using automation and the human is required.
both adult and child subjects on a test track.
• Virginia Tech: A research study attempting to
estimate the Residual Safety Problem after
Integrated Safety Systems (ISS) is deployed in
2025. ISS consists of all active (auto braking
for vehicle, pedestrian, bicyclist, lane keeping,
etc.) and passive safety systems (advanced
airbag, curtain shield airbag, roof strength,
pedestrian protection active hood, etc.).
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