WOOD SELECTION OF ANCIENT TEMPLES IN THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
444 IAWAIAWA
Journal 35 (4),
Journal 352014: 444 – 462
(4), 2014
WOOD SELECTION OF ANCIENT TEMPLES IN
THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS
Mechtild Mertz1, 4,*, Sangeeta Gupta2, Yutaka Hirako3, Pimpim de Azevedo3
and Junji Sugiyama4
1 Centre de recherche sur les civilisations de l’Asie orientale (CRCAO-CNRS UMR 8155),
College de France, 52 rue du Cardinal Lemoine, 75005 Paris, France
2Forest Research Institute, P.O. New Forest, Dehradun, India
3 Tibet Heritage Fund, German Office, Berliner Strasse 68, 13189 Berlin, Germany
4 Laboratory of Biomass Morphogenesis and Information, Research Institute for Sustainable
Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
*Corresponding author; e-mail: mechtild.mertz@free.fr
ABSTRACT
Microscopic wood identifications were performed on five Buddhist temple
structures and on one secular building located in Sikkim, an Indian state in
the Eastern Himalayas. In all, twenty wood species were identified, two of
which – Michelia (Magnolia) doltsopa and Picea cf. spinulosa – were considered
in more detail. Building type, specific physical and mechanical properties of the
wood species, local availability, and religious considerations were apparently
the leading criteria for timber selection.
Keywords: Wood identification, Michelia doltsopa, Picea spinulosa, Picea
smithiana, Sikkim, Eastern Himalayas, Buddhist temples.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this study was to understand the criteria governing the selection of timber
used in temple buildings and in related structures in the Sikkim Himalayas and to
discuss suitable wood material for their restoration. It is the first study on wood species
used in Sikkim’s religious buildings. Located in the Eastern Himalayas, Sikkim is an
Indian state, bordering Nepal to the west, China’s Tibetan Autonomous Region to the
north, Bhutan to the east, and northern Bengal to the south (Fig. 1). Its climate ranges
from tropical to alpine.
As for references on Himalayan timber tree species, the publications by Suzuki and
Noshiro et al. (1988, 1991, 1999) on the wood structure of Nepalese trees provide in-
formation about the wood anatomy of Himalayan timber trees. The references Agarwal
et al. (2002), Chauhan et al. (1996), Pearson & Brown (1932), and Gamble (1922) also
treat some Himalayan trees together with all main Indian timbers. These works, to-
gether with the InsideWood (2004-onwards) database were indispensable for our study.
The wood identifications were carried out in cooperation with the Tibet Heritage
Fund, a Germany-based NGO committed to the preservation and restoration of historic
buildings in the Tibetan cultural realm. Since 1996, the THF has funded and, in col-
© International Association of Wood Anatomists, 2014 DOI 10.1163/22941932-00000077
Published by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access
Mertz et al. – Woods in Himalayan temples 445
laboration with local communities, organized the restoration of numerous historic sites
in Lhasa and in the Tibetan cultural regions of India, China, and Mongolia. In 2010,
the THF expanded its restoration activities to Sikkim.
In November 2012, samples were collected from six different temple sites, the
locations of which extend from the subtropical zone in the south to the subalpine
zone in the north. It was hoped that, by discerning patterns of wood selection in each
distinctive zone, light would be shed on the past and present relationships between the
local people and their forest environment and that the results would also help raise local
communities’ awareness of their wooden cultural heritage. Finally, it was anticipated
that this would enable them, with the help of the Tibet Heritage Fund, to select the
most suitable timber for use in the restoration of the temple buildings.
The sites that we investigated were 1) Tsuklakhang Monastery (Royal Chapel) in
Gangtok (East Sikkim), 2) the Rinchen Surgye residence in Phensang (North Sikkim),
3) Ngadakh Monastery in Namchi (South Sikkim), 4) Pemayangtse Monastery in
Pemayangtse near Pelling (West Sikkim), 5) Tashiding Monastery in Tashiding (West
Sikkim), and 6) the Mani Lakhang prayer hall in Lachen (North Sikkim) (Fig. 1).
Forest vegetation in Sikkim
Sikkim, a small state in northeastern India, is located in the Eastern Himalayas
and covers an area of 7,096 ha (Forest Survey of India 2011). The Eastern Himalayas
comprise Central Nepal, North Bengal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunachal Pradesh.
The mountain enclosure of the Himalayas in the Darjeeling, Sikkim, Bhutan, and
Arunachal corner traps the moisture-laden clouds blown from the Bay of Bengal, and
this brings heavy rainfall to Sikkim from June to September (Rai & Rai 1994; Sahni
1998/2010).
Annual rainfall varies between 2,700 mm and 3,200 mm, while the temperature
ranges from sub-zero during winter to 28 °C during summer. Forest cover accounts for
approximately 44% of the total land surface (Forest Survey of India 2011). The type
and composition of the forests are strongly influenced by the monsoon and topography
and include, as far as is known, more than 400 tree species belonging to 60 families.
Some of the trees are used in construction and for making implements, but most are
used for fuel wood and for making charcoal (Rai & Rai 1994).
Sikkim supports luxuriant tropical, temperate and alpine vegetation. The vegetation
of Sikkim can be broadly classified as follows (Singh & Chauhan 1999): 1. Tropical
forest; 2. Subtropical forest; 3. Temperate forest; 4. Alpine forest.
Tropical forest
The vegetation occurring up to 900 m consists mainly of tropical moist deciduous
to semi-evergreen species with sal (Shorea robusta) as a dominant species. The char-
acteristic species of these forests are Aglaia lawii, Alstonia neriifolia, A. scholaris,
Artocarpus spp., Bombax ceiba, Chukrasia tabularis, Duabanga grandiflora, Ficus
spp., Mangifera sylvatica, Pterospermum acerifolium, Syzygium kurzii (syn. Eugenia
kurzii), Terminalia spp., Tetrameles nudiflora. At some places in dry valleys of South
Sikkim, Pinus roxburghii forests can also be seen.
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access
446 IAWA Journal 35 (4), 2014
1
2 3
4 5
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access
Mertz et al. – Woods in Himalayan temples 447
Subtropical forest
These forests are confined at an elevation from 800–1,500 m. These are mainly
mixed forests comprising Alangium chinense, Alnus nepalensis, Bischofia javanica,
Calli-carpa arborea, Castanopsis indica, Engelhardtia spicata, Exbucklandia popul-
nea, Eurya cerasifolia, Ficus spp., Fraxinus floribunda, Haldina cordifolia (syn. Adina
cordifolia), Magnolia hodgsonii, M. lanuginosa (syn. Michelia velutina), Mangifera
sylvatica, Schima wallichii etc.
Temperate forest
These forests are found between 1,500–3,500 m altitudes. They can be further clas-
sified into a) Broad-leaved forest and b) Coniferous forest.
a) Broad-leaved forest
The main components of broad-leaved tree species in Sikkim are Acer campbellii,
Betula utilis, Engelhardtia spicata, Exbucklandia populnea, Ilex dipyrena, Juglans
regia, Lithocarpus pachyphyllus, Quercus lamellosa, Q. lanata, and Q. lineara.
b) Coniferous forest
The predominant trees in the coniferous forest are Abies densa, Juniperus sp., Larix
griffithii, Picea spinulosa, and Tsuga dumosa.
Alpine forest
This zone ranges from 3,500 to 5,000 m. The lower altitudes of this zone support
shrubby species such as Berberis, Rhododendron, Salix and Vaccinium. Higher eleva-
tions comprise tough clumps of stunted bushes of Juniperus, Rhododendron etc.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Five temple buildings and one secular building were selected for sampling. The first and
third authors collected samples from main pillars, important beams, or other structural
parts in order to carry out comparisons of the same structural elements in each building.
Samples, taken on site by means of a box-cutter knife, were obtained from cracked or
similarly flawed parts in order not to further disturb the integrity of the structure. (As
for Pemayangtse Monastery, although the building itself is a concrete reconstruction, a
sample could fortunately be collected from two casting molds.) The samples were then
brought to the Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University,
Japan, for identification. After the samples were soaked in water for several days, thin
←
Figure 1. Map (drawn by Quentin Devers, CRCAO) showing sites investigated in Sikkim. –
Figure 2. Tsuklakhang Monastery (or Royal Chapel) was rebuilt in the 1920s. Gangtok, East
Sikkim. – Figure 3. The Rinchen Surgye residence, a typical, late 19th century secular building.
Main construction timber species: Alnus nepalensis. Phensang, North Sikkim. – Figure 4. Cast-
ing mold made of Toona ciliata, now preserved in Pemayangtse Monastery, Pemayangtse, near
Pelling, West Sikkim. – Figure 5. Tashiding Monastery, Tashiding, West Sikkim.
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access
448 IAWA Journal 35 (4), 2014
transverse, radial, and tangential hand sections (20 to 50 µm thick) were cut with a
double-edged razor blade. In a few instances, sections (20 to 30 µm thick) were obtained
with a sliding microtome (Yamato Kōki model TU-213, Japan). Gum chloral was used
as the mounting medium. The mounted slides were analyzed under a light microscope
(Olympus model BX51, Japan) at magnifications of 40x to 400x; photomicrographs
were obtained with a digital camera (Olympus model DP70, Japan).
Although wood anatomy usually allows identification to genus level, some of the
timber-tree species in the Eastern Himalayas are represented by only one species, a fact
that makes identification to species level a possibility. ‘InsideWood’ (Wheeler 2011)
proved to be of great help in identifying unknown species. It led us to other helpful
resources, including an invaluable online version of Wood Structure of Himalayan
Plants by Suzuki and Noshiro (1988). Its description of the key characteristics of Picea
smithiana was of crucial help in the identification of the spruce species. Especially
useful was a set of slides from Nepal that had been donated by Suzuki and Noshiro. It
and other reference slides are housed in the Xylarium of Kyoto University’s Research
Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere. Sudo (1968) was also helpful in the differen-
tiation between Picea species.
In other instances, Pearson and Brown (1932) provided keys that enabled us to dif-
ferentiate between various species, notably Michelia spp. Although Michelia is current-
ly considered as part of the species-rich genus Magnolia (Figlar & Nooteboom 2004),
we prefer maintaining the older names for easier comparison in the wood anatomical
literature. Of great help in evaluating the Magnoliaceae were Chen et al. (1993), as
well as Metcalfe and Chalk (1950).
RESULTS
The results of the wood identification of the six investigated buildings and their various
parts are presented in a list in Appendix 1, while the key characteristics for each of
the identified wood species are shown in Appendix 2. The latter are based on the IAWA
lists of macroscopic features for hardwood and softwood identifications (IAWA Com-
mittee 1989 and 2004) and mention those characteristics that could be observed. It
should be taken into consideration that in some cases the size and the condition of the
hand-sectioned samples allowed only a limited number of features to be observed.
Below is a short introduction of each building, followed by an enumeration of the
identified species.
1. Tsuklakhang Monastery (a. k.a. Royal Chapel) (Gangtok, East Sikkim)
Tsuklakhang Monastery (Fig. 2) is located in Sikkim’s capital, Gangtok, at an altitude
of 1,437 m. It is affiliated with the royal family and is therefore also called the Royal
Chapel. After having burned down in an earthquake-related fire, it was rebuilt in the
1920s. It is one of Sikkim’s finest buildings, notable for its outstanding wall paintings.
Covered with dirt and soot from the butter lamps traditionally used in rituals, these
paintings had begun to show signs of flaking. Consequently, under the auspices of
Her Highness Princess Hope Leezum Namgyal and the Tsuklakhang Trust, the Tibet
Heritage Fund carried out restoration on the paintings. During the restoration, which
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access
Mertz et al. – Woods in Himalayan temples 449
6
7 8
Figure 6. Ground floor plan (drawn by Hirako Yutaka, THF) showing the wood-sampling loca-
tions of the Mani Lakhang prayer hall. – Figure 7. Decorative frieze on exterior wall made of
various wood species, and roof rafters made of Abies densa, of the Mani Lakhang prayer hall.
Lachen, North Sikkim. – Figure 8. Bracket complex, composed of a rectangular bearing block
and a bracket arm set on top of the pillar, made of Populus glauca, while the main construction
timber is Abies densa. Entrance hall of the Mani Lakhang prayer hall, Lachen, North Sikkim.
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access
450 IAWA Journal 35 (4), 2014
was completed in November 2012, nine wood samples were taken from two main
pillars, from such structural parts as door and window frames, and from wall and floor
panels.
Of the nine samples taken, four were identified as Michelia doltsopa, two were
Castanopsis sp., one was Juniperus sp., one was Populus sp., and one was of Shorea
robusta. As for Castanopsis, Rai and Rai (1994) mention that the wood is moderately
hard and extensively used in building work. As for Juniperus, two species are endemic
to Sikkim: Juniperus recurva and J. pseudo-sabina (syn. J. indica). The former grows
from 2,700 to 3,700 m in the subalpine zone, the latter in the interior ranges of Sikkim,
where it attains a height of 20 m. Assuming that the local people use local wood for
construction purposes, Juniperus pseudo-sabina would be the most likely choice. It
is interesting to note that poplar wood was used for the flooring. According to Cowan
and Cowan (1929), there are two species of Populus: P. gamblei, a medium-sized tree
of the Lower and Middle Hill Forests (altitude 300–1,800 m), and P. glauca a medium-
sized tree found at about 3,000 m. Also here Populus gamblei would be the most likely
choice.
Michelia doltsopa (syn. Michelia excelsa) is a synonym of the accepted name
Magnolia doltsopa. However, due to the fact that we emphasise the wood anatomical
difference between Michelia and Magnolia, we decided to preserve Michelia.
2. The Rinchen Surgye residence (Phensang, North Sikkim)
The Rinchen Surgye residence (Fig. 3), situated at an altitude of 1,572 m, is a late-19th
century, eight-cornered secular building located in Phensang, North Sikkim. Sur-gye
means “eight corners”, a reference to eight auspicious Buddhist symbols. It is a typical
secular Sikkim building, with a stone-masonry ground floor and a half-timbered upper
one. Its structural beams feature highly elaborate wood carvings.
Of seventeen samples taken, nine were made of Alnus nepalensis, two samples
of Schima wallichii, two of Castanopsis sp., one of Michelia doltsopa, one of Toona
ciliata, one of Exbucklandia populnea, and one of Vatica sp. There are two species of
Vatica occurring in India, one in South India and the other, V. lanceifolia, occurs in the
North-East. It is a most likely choice. The main construction timber of the building was
Alnus nepalensis, but the flooring, which is exposed to wear, was made from Michelia
doltsopa. The residence was restored in 2013.
3. Ngadakh Monastery (Namchi, South Sikkim)
Ngadak Monastery is located in Namchi (South Sikkim) at an altitude of 1,675 m.
Built in the eighteenth century, it is a rare authentic traditional building boasting an
outstanding wooden interior and beautiful carvings. Having suffered damage from two
earthquakes, it will require skillful restoration.
Of twenty-nine samples taken, nineteen were from Michelia doltsopa, three samples
of Cupressus sp., two of Shorea robusta, two of Toona ciliata, one of Persea clarkeana,
one of Alnus nepalensis, and one of Acer sp. The main construction timber wood was
Michelia doltsopa. Door blades were made of Toona ciliata, while the flooring and the
entrance gate were made from the highly durable Shorea robusta. As for Cupressus,
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access
Mertz et al. – Woods in Himalayan temples 451
it cannot be identified to species level; C. torulosa is one native to the Himalaya, but
another, C. funebris, native in China, is cultivated in the Eastern Himalaya, chiefly near
temples.
4. Pemayangtse Monastery (Pemayangtse, West Sikkim)
Dating from the mid-seventeenth century, Pemayangtse Monastery is located in
Pemayangtse, near Pelling in West Sikkim, at an elevation of 2,085 m. Damaged by
several earthquakes, large parts of the building were unfortunately rebuilt using concrete.
We could only obtain a sample from two wooden casting molds (Fig. 4), which were
made of Toona ciliata.
5. Tashiding Monastery (Tashiding, West Sikkim)
Overlooking the town of Tashiding, Tashiding Monastery (Fig. 5) is located on
the top of a hill at an altitude of 1,465 m. Surrounded by many other monasteries, it
serves as a spiritual center for Sikkim. We obtained a sample from one pillar, which
we identified as Michelia doltsopa.
6. The Mani Lakhang prayer hall (Lachen, North Sikkim)
Originally built in the 1880s, Mani Lakhang (Fig. 6, 7, 8) is a community temple
located in Lachen at an altitude of 2,800 m. It is one of a select number of well-preserved
temples in Sikkim, although its wall paintings have suffered heavily from earthquakes.
The temple’s activities are solely in the hands of the local community, and its prayer
hall is used several times a month by Lachen’s elderly women as a place in which to
meet and pray.
Thirty-three samples were taken from pillars, beams, rafters and other important
structural parts of the Mani Lakhang prayer hall. Samples were also taken from interior
fittings such as window and door frames, prayer wheel frames, flooring panels, and
from parts of a decorative frieze on the outside wall (Fig. 7).
The main tree species identified were Abies densa (21 samples), Populus glauca
(8 samples), Picea cf. spinulosa (3 samples), Tsuga dumosa (2 samples), Magnolia
campbellii (2 samples), Larix griffithii (1 sample), and Alnus nepalensis (1 sample).
Abies densa was used for the main construction timber, notably for pillars and rafters.
In some instances, however, Picea cf. spinulosa, and Tsuga dumosa were used. Populus
glauca was used for carvings, such as the two beautifully sculpted bracket complexes,
each of which is composed of bearing block and bracket arm (Fig. 8). For smaller fit-
tings, such as window and door frames or wall decorations, hardwood species such as
Magnolia cambellii and Alnus nepalensis were selected, as well as the conifers Tsuga
dumosa, Picea cf. spinulosa, Abies densa and Larix griffithii.
DISCUSSION
Among the identified wood species we selected two, which are specific for this area,
for further analysis and discussion. One is Michelia doltsopa, one of the most common
timber tree species in the Sikkim Himalayas, and the other is Picea cf. spinulosa.
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access
452 IAWA Journal 35 (4), 2014
9 10
➘
11 12
➘
➘
Figure 9–12. Michelia doltsopa. – 9: TS; growth ring boundaries distinctly marked by axial
parenchyma, wood diffuse-porous, solitary vessel outline angular [sample 040]. – 10: TLS;
helical thickenings throughout the vessel element, oil cell in marginal ray cell (arrow) [sample
038]. – 11: RLS; vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders of various shapes found through-
out the ray, conspicuous helical thickenings throughout vessel element (arrow) [sample 040]. –
12: RLS; vessel perforation plates with fewer than 10 bars, intervessel pits scalariform, con-
spicuous helical thickenings in body of vessel element (arrow) [sample 039].
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access
Mertz et al. – Woods in Himalayan temples 453
Microscopic description of Michelia doltsopa, Magnoliaceae (Fig. 9–12)
Growth ring boundaries distinct, marked by marginal parenchyma. Wood diffuse-
porous. Vessels mostly solitary, but also in radial multiples of 2–4. Solitary vessel out-
line angular (Fig. 9). Perforation plates scalariform, fewer than 10 bars. Intervessel pits
scalariform (Fig. 12). — Vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders, rounded, angular,
horizontal or vertical, throughout the rays. Conspicuous helical thickenings throughout
the body of vessel elements (Fig. 11). Mean vessel diameter 50–100 µm. Vessel fre-
quency 30 –50 per mm2. — Fibers with distinctly bordered pits, thin- to thick-walled;
non-septate. — Axial parenchyma in marginal or in seemingly marginal bands. — Ray
width 1–3 cells. Rays of relatively uniform size, height up to 30 cells. Body ray cells
procumbent with one row of upright and /or square marginal cells. — Gum-like brown
substances present in rays and vessels (Fig. 11 & 12). Oil cells present but rare in ray
margins (Fig. 10).
At first glance, Michelia sp. is easily confused with Magnolia sp. Three Magnolia
species can be found in Sikkim: Magnolia cambellii, M. pterocarpa (syn. M. sphe-
nocarpa), and M. globosa (Gamble 1922; Cowan & Cowan 1929; Rai & Rai 1994).
Pearson and Brown (1932) do not mention any Magnolia timber tree species. Gamble
specifies that Magnolia pterocarpa grows in the tropical Himalayas, a vegetation zone
outside the boundaries of the sites that we investigated. As for Magnolia globosa, it is
described in Chen et al. (1993) showing exclusively simple vessel perforation plates,
a feature not corresponding to our samples. The third, Magnolia cambellii, grows at
an altitude of 2,400–3,100 m (Gamble 1922). Finally, Chen et al. (1993) mention that
in Michelia the vessel-ray pits occur throughout the rays, whereas in Magnolia they
are usually restricted to the marginal rows (Fig. 11). Another key characteristic they
mention are oil cells which occur in rays of Michelia (Fig. 10). These can be considered
to be the key characteristics distinguishing Michelia from Magnolia.
Of the twelve Michelia species, deciduous and evergreen, which grow in India
(Agarwal et al. 2002), three are timber trees. Pearson and Brown (1932) offer a way
of differentiating between the three timber species. The key characteristics distinguish-
ing Michelia doltsopa from the two other Michelia timber tree species, M. champaca
and M. nilagirica, are radial multiples of 2–4 pores, and a ray height of c. 30 cells. In
contrast, M. nilagirica, a south Indian species, shows pores in single or double radial
rows of 2–10, with rays of two sizes, the larger ones approximately 19 cells high.
Michelia champaca is found at an altitude up to 1,000 m, and shows vessel segments
without the conspicuous spiral thickenings of M. doltsopa.
Michelia doltsopa is a deciduous tree attaining a height of about 24 m and an average
girth of 1.2 m. According to Rai and Rai (1994) it is perhaps the best-known timber tree
in the middle hills (900–1,800 m). It produces fine wood extremely popular for use in
home construction and for making furniture. Cowan and Cowan (1929) describe the
wood as yellow, turning yellow-brown with exposure. It is light, close-grained, and
easily worked. It is used in building construction, chiefly for making planks, window
frames, door frames and panels, and also for making tables and chairs. It is the most
highly-prized timber in the hills. Our identifications confirm the wood’s popularity. It
served as the main construction timber of Ngadakh monastery, where it was used for
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access454 IAWA Journal 35 (4), 2014
13 14
15 16
➘
➘
➘
Figure 13–16. Picea cf. spinulosa. – 13: TS; early- to latewood transition gradual, axial resin
ducts with thick epithelial cells [sample 064]. – 14: TLS; ray height horizontal resin canals
[sample 095]. – 15: RLS; ray tracheids with thickened pit borders, lined with small protrusions
(Picea-1 type) (arrow), cross-field pitting piceoid, helical thickenings in longitudinal tracheids
present (arrow), prismatic crystals present (arrow) [sample 95]. – 16: RLS; tracheid pits in one
row, partially biseriate [sample 095].
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free accessMertz et al. – Woods in Himalayan temples 455
making pillars, frames, bearing blocks and brackets, and also for small decorative parts.
In Tashiding monastery it was used for one of the central pillars, in Tsukulakhang for
a door blade, and for flooring in the Rinchen Surgye residence.
Microscopic description of Picea cf. spinulosa, Pinaceae (Fig. 13–16)
Growth ring boundaries distinct. Earlywood to latewood transition gradual (Fig.
13). — Tracheid pitting in radial walls uniseriate, occasionally biseriate. — Helical
thickenings in longitudinal tracheids present throughout the growth increment, well-
developed in earlywood and latewood, single and narrowly spaced. — Ray tracheids
present. Pit borders of ray tracheids thickened and lined with small protrusions (Picea-1
type). End-walls of ray parenchyma nodular. — Cross-field pitting cupressoid and
piceoid. — Ray height 2–11(–15) cells. Gums in rays present. — Axial and radial resin
ducts present, with 8–12 thick-walled epithelial cells (Fig. 13). — Prismatic crystals
in rays present (Fig. 15 &16).
This wood shows resin ducts in the cross and radial section, with thick-walled
epithelial cells (Fig. 13 &14). Transition between earlywood and latewood is gradual
(Fig. 13). The presence of conspicuous helical thickenings can lead this wood at first
sight to be easily confused with Pseudotsuga, but the latter does not occur in India.
We identified the wood as Picea.
Two species of Picea, P. smithiana and P. spinulosa, occur in the Himalayas. The
Flora of China (Wu & Raven 1999) cites these two species and allocates P. smithiana a
more western distribution, notably Afghanistan, India (Kashmir), Nepal, Pakistan, and
southern Tibet, while for P. spinulosa it gives Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and southeastern
Tibet as distribution area.
From a wood anatomical point of view, we also have to mention Phillips (1948),
who explains that the Himalayan Picea smithiana can be distinguished from other
spruce timber by means of its well-developed spiral thickenings, which are regularly
present in the earlywood tracheids. In other species, spirals rarely occur and are usually
confined to the latewood tracheids. Indeed, Pearson and Brown confirm tertiary spirals
of earlywood tracheids, describing them as shallowly oblique, and latewood tracheids
showing less conspicuous and steeper tertiary spirals. Suzuki and Noshiro (1988) also
describe Picea smithiana, collected in Nepal, as having distinct spiral thickenings in
early- and latewood. Our wood identification detected narrowly spaced helical thicken-
ings in earlywood and latewood (Fig. 16), a feature also mentioned for P. smithiana in
the IAWA list of microscopic features for softwood identification (IAWA Committee
2004). Picea spinulosa is also reported to have spiral thickenings in earlywood and
latewood (Chauhan et al. 1996). Sudo (1968) also confirms that Picea spinulosa and
P. smithiana have many similarities, especially helical thickenings and the presence
of crystals in marginal ray cells. Noshiro, in a personal communication, concludes
that the identified species is likely P. spinulosa, as P. smithiana would have to have
been brought all the way over the Hills from Uttar Pradesh or Himachal Pradesh. By
careful consideration of all these data it is best to conclude this species to be Picea cf.
spinulosa.
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access456 IAWA Journal 35 (4), 2014
The wood identifications were carried out in cooperation with the Tibet Heritage
Fund, which is involved in the restoration of the investigated buildings. The first
structure to be restored was Tsukulakhang Monastery, and the work was completed in
November 2012. The second restoration, on the Rinchen Surgye residence, was finished
in the summer of 2013.
Sikkim’s forest-protection legislation has made it exceedingly difficult to obtain
certain timbers from the local lumber yard. The choice was limited to two timber spe-
cies: highly-priced Shorea robusta or more reasonably-priced Cryptomeria japonica
(dhupi [Nepali]).
It was decided to use Cryptomeria japonica for the upper-floor construction timber,
and Shorea robusta for ground-floor use because the heartwood of this timber is
extremely durable in exposed positions above ground, and also in the ground (Pearson
& Brown 1932).
The remaining buildings are scheduled to be restored in coming years.
CONCLUSION
Taking all six investigated temple buildings as a whole, twenty different wood species
were identified. The foremost criterion governing timber selection is altitude-related
natural distribution as shown in the following. Because the steep terrain makes timber
transportation impracticable, timber must be extracted from nearby. The dominant
tree species used in the Mani Lakhang, the temple at the highest altitude (2,800 m),
was the Himalayan fir, Abies densa. Michelia doltsopa turned out to be the main tree
species used in temples at lower altitudes, from 1,400 to 2,000 m. This was true of
Ngadakh Monastery (1,675 m), Tsukulakhang Monastery (1,437 m), and probably also
for Tashiding Monastery (1,465 m), where we took only one sample from a pillar. As
for the Rinchen Surgye residence (1,572 m), the dominant species was the Himalayan
alder, Alnus nepalensis. Being a secular building, it might be suggested that in this
case a second criterion, building type, might have played a role. It is possible that
Michelia doltsopa serves as an important timber tree for temple buildings, while Alnus
nepalensis is more commonly used in secular buildings, but in order to confirm this
speculation more study is needed.
As for a third criterion – physical and mechanical properties – it is interesting to
note that suitable wood was chosen for specific purposes. For example, in Ngadakh
Monastery the highly-durable sal wood, Shorea robusta, was used for flooring panels,
while Toona ciliata, was used for door boards. In the Mani Lakhang prayer hall Populus
glauca, a wood that is light and easy to work (Rai & Rai 1994), was used to construct
the beautifully carved and painted bracket and bearing block system (Fig. 8).
As for minor structural elements such as the decorative frieze on the outside wall
of the Mani Lakhang prayer hall (Fig. 7), various wood species were used, a fact that
begs the question as to which criteria governed their selection. The Department of
Economic Statistics Monitoring and Evaluation ( DESME) released the results of a
survey (undated) of all Buddhist temples in Sikkim. The publication’s introductory
chapter states that specially trained artisans handle the main building construction,
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free accessMertz et al. – Woods in Himalayan temples 457
while monks do the intricate decorative work. In other words, the overall structure is
the creation of carpenters, whereas the smaller parts are left to monks or parishioners,
who donate their time and energy as a personal expression of devotion.
The opportunity to identify the wood species of the six Sikkim buildings was cer-
tainly an exceptional one and has great significance for future restoration work. The
wood identifications that were carried out not only help us understand what wood was
traditionally used in the past but also provides a way of determining what wood species
are most suitable for restoration purposes.
Now, when ancient temples are at risk of being replaced by concrete copies, it is
more important than ever that India and Sikkim reassess the importance of their histori-
cal cultural heritage. Without such a reassessment, many communities will continue to
replace their earthquake-damaged temples with seemingly more solidly-built concrete
structures, which, ironically, lack the flexibility of wooden buildings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the following people: Professor Mitsuo Suzuki and Dr. Shuichi Noshiro
for their invaluable advice regarding wood identification; Ms. Izumi Kanai of Kyoto University’s
RISH for her excellently-prepared microscopic slides; John Hart Benson for editorial assistance; and
Keshab Pradhan, former head of the Sikkim Forest Department, for pointing out the importance of
Michelia doltsopa to the first author during her stay in Sikkim.
REFERENCES
Agarwal SP, Chauhan L, Raturi RD & Madhwal RC. 2002. Indian woods: their identification,
properties and uses. Vol. 1 (revised). ICFRE publication, Dehradun, India.
Chauhan L, Raturi RD, Agarwal SP & Rao RV. 1996. Wood anatomy of Indian softwoods with
notes on properties and uses. ICFRE publication, Dehradun, India.
Chen BL, Baas P, Wheeler EA & Wu S. 1993. Wood anatomy of trees and shrubs from China.
VI. Magnoliaceae. IAWA J. 4: 391– 412.
Cowan AM & Cowan FM. 1929. The trees of northern Bengal: including shrubs, woody climb-
ers, bamboos, palms and tree ferns. Secretariat Book Depot, Bengal.
Department of Economic Statistics Monitoring and Evaluation (DESME) [No publication date].
In the footsteps of the lotus born. Documentation of Buddhist Institutions [in Sikkim]. Gov-
ernment of Sikkim, Gangtok.
Figlar RB & Nooteboom HP. 2004. Notes on Magnoliaceae IV. Blumea 49: 87–100.
Forest Resources of Sikkim. State of Environment Report Sikkim 2007. Ministry of Environment
and Forests. Government of India.
http://www.sikkimforest.gov.in/soer/index.html (accessed June 8, 2014).
Forest Survey of India (FSI) /Ministry of Environment and Forest, India State Forest Report,
2011. http://www.fsi.nic.in/cover_2011/sikkim.pdf (accessed January 13, 2013).
Forest and Forestry. Forests, Environment, and Wildlife Management Department, Government
of Sikkim. http://www.sikkimforest.gov.in/Forest.htm (accessed June 8, 2014).
Gamble JS. 1922. A Manual of Indian Timbers. Sampson Low & Co., London.
IAWA Committee. 1989. IAWA list of microscopic features for hardwood identification. IAWA
Bull. n.s. 10: 219–332.
IAWA Committee. 2004. IAWA list of microscopic features for softwood identification. IAWA
J. 25: 1–70.
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access458 IAWA Journal 35 (4), 2014
InsideWood. 2004-onwards. Published on the internet.
http://insidewood.lib.ncsu.edu/search (accessed December 2012-onwards).
Metcalfe CR & Chalk L. 1950. Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Pearson RS & Brown HP. 1932. Commercial timbers of India. Government of India-Central
Publication Branch, Calcutta. 2 vols.
Phillips EWJ. 1948. Identifications of softwoods by their microscopic structure. Forest Products
Research Bull. No. 22. HMSO Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.
Rai T & Rai L. 1994. Trees of the Sikkim Himalaya. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi.
Sahni KC. 2010 (1998). The Book of Indian Trees. Bombay Natural History Society/Oxford
University Press, Mumbai.
Singh P & Chauhan AS. 1999. Sikkim, in floristic biodiversity and conservation strategies in
India, III. In: Mudgal V & Hajra PK (eds.), Botanical Survey of India, Ministry of Environ-
ment & Forests, Government of India.
Sudo S. 1968. Anatomical studies on the wood of species of Picea, with some considerations on
their geographical distribution and taxonomy. Bull. Govt. For. Exp. Stat. No. 215: 39–130.
Suzuki M & Noshiro S. 1988. Wood structure of Himalayan plants. In: Ohba H & Malla SB,
The Himalayan Plants Vol. 1. The University Museum, University of Tokyo. Bulletin No.
31: 1– 43. http://www.um.u-tokyo.ac.jp/publish_db/Bulletin/no31/no31024.html
Suzuki M, Noshiro S, Takahashi A, Terada K, Yoda K & Joshi L. 1999. Wood structure of
Himalayan plants III. In: Ohba H, The Himalayan Plants Vol. 3. The University Museum,
University of Tokyo. Bulletin No. 39.
Suzuki M, Noshiro S, Takahashi A, Yoda K & Joshi L. 1991.Wood structure of Himalayan
plants II. In: Ohba H & Malla SB, The Himalayan Plants Vol. 2. The University Museum,
University of Tokyo. Bulletin No. 34.
Tibet Heritage Fund, Germany, India, Mongolia.
http://www.tibetheritagefund.org/ (accessed December 2012–April 2013).
Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org (accessed December 2012–
April 2013).
Wheeler EA. 2011. InsideWood - a web resource for hardwood anatomy. IAWA J. 32: 199–
211.
Wu Z & Raven PH (eds.). 1999. Flora of China, Vol. 4. Science Press, Beijing. Missouri Botani-
cal Garden, St. Louis (Online version: http://www.efloras.org).
Accepted: 25 July 2014
( for Appendix 1 and 2, see pages 459–462)
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free accessMertz et al. – Woods in Himalayan temples 459
APPENDIX 1
The microscopic slides that were used in making identifications are preserved in the Xylarium
of Kyoto University, where they are registered with the numbers appearing in the left column.
Because samples 058, 059, and 061 were taken from lichen and similar material, they were
omitted from this table.
No. Building part Scientific name Family
001 pillar Juniperus pseudo-sabina
(syn. J. indica) Cupressaceae
Tsukulakhang Monastery
(Royal Chapel), Gangtok
002 floor board Populus gamblei Salicaceae
003 pillar Michelia doltsopa Magnoliaceae
004 window board Michelia doltsopa ”
005 wall paint panel Michelia doltsopa ”
006 window frame Castanopsis sp. Fagaceae
007 door frame Castanopsis sp. ”
008 door blade Michelia doltsopa Magnoliaceae
009 railing Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae
010 main pillar Alnus nepalensis Betulaceae
011 pillar Alnus nepalensis ”
012 main beam Alnus nepalensis ”
013 beam Alnus nepalensis
Rinchen Surgye Residence, Phensang
”
014 window panel Toona ciliata Meliaceae
015 rafter Alnus nepalensis Betulaceae
016 carving element Vatica lanceifolia Dipterocarpaceae
017 window frame Alnus nepalensis Betulaceae
018 roof rafter Exbucklandia populnea Hamamelideaceae
019 floor board Michelia doltsopa Magnoliaceae
020 pillar Alnus nepalensis Betulaceae
021 eaves-horizon
(pillar connecting board) Alnus nepalensis ”
022 beam GF (ground floor) Castanopsis sp. Fagaceae
023 supporting pillar GF Schima wallichii Theaceae
024 beam GF Schima walichii ”
025 ground beam Alnus nepalensis Betulaceae
026 rafter under floor board GF Castanopsis sp. Fagaceae
027 NE pillar Michelia doltsopa Magnoliaceae
028 SE pillar Michelia doltsopa ”
029 SW pillar Cupressus sp. Cupressaceae
030 NW pillar Cupressus sp. ”
Ngadakh Monastery, Namchi
031 floor board Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae
032 beam Persea clarkeana Lauraceae
033 window frame Michelia doltsopa Magnoliaceae
034 rafter Alnus nepalensis Betulaceae
035 pillar Michelia doltsopa Magnoliaceae
036 pillar Michelia doltsopa ”
037 partition board Acer sp. Sapindaceae
038 frame Michelia doltsopa Magnoliaceae
039 bearing block Michelia doltsopa ”
040 bracket Michelia doltsopa ”
041 pillar Michelia doltsopa ”
042 bearing block Michelia doltsopa ”
(contd)
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access460 IAWA Journal 35 (4), 2014
043
(contd) bracket Michelia doltsopa ”
044 lintel Michelia doltsopa ”
045 door board Toona ciliata Meliaceae
Ngadakh Monastery, Namchi
046 “Star” karma Michelia doltsopa Magnoliaceae
047 door frame Michelia doltsopa ”
048 decorative block Michelia doltsopa ”
049 decorative frieze-supporting
block Michelia doltsopa ”
050 pillar Michelia doltsopa ”
051 bracket Cupressus sp. Cupressaceae
052 bearing block Michelia doltsopa ”
053 door frame Michelia doltsopa ”
054 door board Toona ciliata Meliaceae
055 entrance-gate frame Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae
056 mold 1 Toona ciliata Meliaceae
Tashiding Pemayangtse
Monastery
057 mold 2 Toona ciliata ”
058 wood block of “toonee” Toona ciliata ”
059 wood block of “katus” Castanopsis sp. Fagaceae
Monast.
060 NW pillar Michelia doltsopa Magnoliaceae
Interior – Main Hall
062 NW pillar Abies densa Pinaceae
063 NE pillar Abies densa ”
064 SE pillar Picea cf. spinulosa ”
065 SW pillar Abies densa ”
066 door lintel Tsuga dumosa ”
067 door frame Abies densa ”
068 window lintel Populus glauca Salicaceae
069 window frame
Mani Lakhan prayer hall
Populus glauca ”
070 main door Abies densa Pinaceae
071 door board Abies densa ”
072 door hinge Abies densa ”
077 window lintel Magnolia campbellii Magnoliaceae
078 window frame Populus glauca Saliceaceae
079 S door lintel Magnolia campbellii Magnoliaceae
080 S door frame Larix griffithii Pinaceae
081 altar Abies densa ”
082 bearing block Populus glauca Salicaceae
083 bracket Populus glauca ”
084 beam Abies densa Pinaceae
085 rafter Abies densa ”
086 decoratively carved frieze Abies densa ”
095 threshold Picea cf. spinulosa ”
Interior – Entrance Hall
073 NE pillar Tsuga dumosa Pinaceae
074 SE pillar Abies densa ”
075 mani wheel frame Abies densa ”
076 floor board Abies densa ”
(contd) 087 bearing block Populus glauca Salicaceae
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free accessMertz et al. – Woods in Himalayan temples 461
(contd) 088 bracket Populus glauca “
089 mani wheel frame Picea sp. spinulosa Pinaceae
090 partition inside Abies densa “
091 partition outside Abies densa “
Exterior
092 block of decorative frieze Populus glauca Salicaceae
093 “Star” (karma) of decorative
frieze Alnus nepalensis Betulaceae
094 roof rafter Abies densa Pinaceae
098 roof support pillar Abies densa “
099 roof support pillar Abies densa “
APPENDIX 2
The following chart lists the key characteristics of each of the twenty identified wood species.
The descriptions are based on the IAWA lists of macroscopic features for hardwood and softwood
identification (IAWA Committee 1989, 2004; Wheeler 2011). It is important to note that the
collected samples, sectioned by hand from historic sites, were sometimes relatively small or in
a state of deterioration. Thus, certain features could not be observed. In addition to the English
names, some local names – in Nepali, Lepcha, or Bhutia – are listed in the form in which they
were communicated to the first author. For other vernacular names, we refer to Cowan and Cowan
(1929), Rai and Rai (1994), and Sahni (2010).
Abies densa (Himalayan silver fir, gobre salla [Nepali], dunshing [Bhutia]).
5p 6p 40p 43p 44p 54p 56p 80p 86p 88p 94p 98p 103p 107p 118p [rare!] 119p 122p
Acer sp. (maple).
1p 5p 13p 22p 23p 26p 30p 36p 37p 41p 61p 78p 98p 104p 168p 169p
Alnus nepalensis (Himalayan alder, utis [Nepali]).
1p 5p 14p 15p 16p 22p 30p 41p 47p 48p 60p 61p 76p 96p 101p 104p 168p 169p
Castanopsis sp. (chinkapin, chestnut [loc.], katus [Nepali]).
2p 5v 7p 9p 13p 22p 31p 32p 42p 47p 56p 60p 61p 68p 76p 77p 86p 93p 96p 104p 168p 169p
Cupressus sp. (cypress).
5p 6p 40p 43p 44p 53p 54p 56p 72p 73p 76p 79p 85p 87p 93p 98p 103p 107p
Exbucklandia populnea (pipli [Nepali]).
1v 2p 5p 9p 12p 14p 15p 16p 20p 21p 32p 36p 37p 41p 97p 107p 108p 137p 168p 169p
Juniperus pseudo-sabina (syn. J. indica; black juniper).
Juniper recurva (weeping blue juniper).
5p 6p 40p 42p 44p 53p 56p 74p 75p 78p 80p 86p 89p 102p 93p 98p 102p 107p
Larix griffithii (Eastern Himalayan larch, Sikkim larch, barge salla or binyi [Nepali], sah or
saar [Lepcha]).
5p 6p 40p 42p 44p 55p 56p 79p 86p 88p 91p 98p 103p 109p 110p 116p
Magnolia campbellii (Campbell’s magnolia, ghoge chanp or lal chanp [Nepali]).
1p 5p 12p 13p 20p 21p 31p 32p 36a 41p 62p 75p 97p 106p 168p 169p
(continued)
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free access462 IAWA Journal 35 (4), 2014
(Appendix 2 continued)
Michelia doltsopa (syn. Michelia excelsa ; chanp or seto chanp [Nepali], sigugrip [Lepcha],
gok [Bhutia]).
1p 5p 9v 10v 12p 14p 15p 20p 36p 37p 41p 49p 62p 66p 69p 89p 97p 106p 115p 124p 168p
169p
Persea clarkeana (name unresolved, might be syn. with Machilus clarkeana [The Plant List
2013]).
1p 9p 13p 22p 23p 30p 31p 32p 36p 37p 41p 42p 56p 78p 79p 97p 124p 168p 169p
Picea cf. spinulosa (Himalayan spruce).
5p 6p 40p 43p 44p 61p 62p 63p 64p 65p 67p 79p 84p 86p 88p 92p 93p 98p 103p 107p 109p
110p 116p 118p 119p 122p
Populus gamblei (pipalpate or pilpile [Nepali]).
1p 4v 5p 13p 22p 23p 26p 31p 35p 41p 61p 66p 68p 75v 89p 96p 104p 168p 169p
Populus glauca (Himalayan poplar, pipalpate or dude malata [Nepali]).
1p 4p 13p 22p 23p 26p 31p 35p 41p 61p 66p 68p 75v 89p 96p 104p 168p 169p
Schima wallichii (needle wood, chilaune [Nepali]).
2p 5p 9p 12p 14p 32p 36p 56p 62p 63p 70p 76p 97p 107p 136p 142p 168p 169p
Shorea robusta (sal wood, sal [Nepali], sal [Hindi]).
13p 26p 29p 31p 42p 56p 60p 61p 70p 76p 79p 80p 83p 86p 92p 98p 106p 107p 136p 142p
168p 169p
Toona ciliata (Indian mahogany, toonee, toni [Nepali]).
1p 4p 13p 22p 30p 42p 43p 58p 61p 68p 69p 76p 77p 78p 79p 89p 98p 106p 124p 168p 169p
Tsuga dumosa (syn. T. brunoniana; Himalayan hemlock, tengre salla [Nepali]).
5p 6p 40p 42p 44p 54p 56p 72a 76p 79p 88p 93p 98p 103p 107p 109a 110a
Vatica lanceifolia
2p 5p 9a 10a 11a 12p 13p 22p 23p 32p 41p 98p 103p 107p 136p 137p 138p 140p 168p 169p
Downloaded from Brill.com02/02/2021 02:53:02PM
via free accessYou can also read
