Cutting Edges: Professional Hierarchy vs. Creative Identity in Nicolas de Launay's Fine Art Prints
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arts
Article
Cutting Edges: Professional Hierarchy vs. Creative Identity in
Nicolas de Launay’s Fine Art Prints
Tamara Abramovitch
Art History Department, Faculty of Humanities, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190501, Israel;
tamara.abramovitch@gmail.com
Abstract: In 1783, Nicolas De Launay copied Les Baignets by Jean-Honoré Fragonard, stating it was
made “by his very humble and very obedient servant”, an evidence of the hierarchical tensions
between painters and printmakers during the eighteenth-century. However, De Launay’s loyalty is
not absolute, since a critical artistic statement is found at the edge: an illusory oval frame heavily
adorned with leaves and fruits of Squash, Hazelnuts, and Oak. This paper wishes to acknowledge this
meticulously engraved frame, and many more added to copies throughout De Launay’s successful
career, as highly relevant in examining his ‘obedience’ and ‘humbleness’. With regard to eighteenth-
century writings on botany and authenticity, and to current studies on the print market, I offer a
new perspective in which engravers are appreciated as active commercial artists establishing an
individual signature style. In their conceptual and physical marginality these decorations allow
creative freedom which challenges concepts of art appropriation and reproduction, highly relevant
then and today.
Keywords: Nicolas de Launay; engraved frames; eighteenth-century printmakers; trade cards;
professional hierarchy; art and botany; art and economic politics; Self-Marketing
Citation: Abramovitch, Tamara.
2021. Cutting Edges: Professional
Hierarchy vs. Creative Identity in
1. Introduction: Très Humble et très Obéissant Serviteur
Nicolas de Launay’s Fine Art Prints.
Arts 10: 66. https://doi.org/ In 1783, the Paris engraver and publisher Nicolas de Launay (1739–1792) published an
10.3390/arts10030066 engraving after Les Baignets1 by the celebrated painter Jean Honoré Fragonard (Figure 1).
The phrase “by his very humble and very obedient servant”, added by de Launay to the
Academic Editor: Daniel M. Unger engraving, suggests the hierarchical tension between painters and printmakers during
the long eighteenth century.2 However, a comparison between the print and the original
Received: 16 July 2021 drawing (Figure 2) reveals that his dutiful pledge is not absolute. The engraver introduces
Accepted: 28 August 2021 a few notable changes to Fragonard’s scene: he redefines the interior space, alters the
Published: 13 September 2021 mother’s dress to reveal her breasts, and adds an illusionistic tree that grows out of the
fireplace. Moreover, he adds his own unique calling card in the form of an oval frame
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
decorated with oak branches, hazelnuts and squash.3 This framing device was one of
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
many unique frames de Launay added to prints he published after works by other artists
published maps and institutional affil-
(Lefrançois 1981, pp. 137–38).
iations.
De Launay, who was one of Fragonard’s formal engravers and his friend (Rosenberg
1987, p. 418), credited the painter as the inventor and delineator of the original work,
making it certain he copied the drawing.4 Fragonard used to draw non-conventionally to
create independent pieces, and made most of his drawings not before but after completing
Copyright: © 2021 by the author.
the painting, mainly for commercial use (Dupuy-Vachey 2016, p. 16). With the alterations,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
de Launay transforms Fragonard’s original drawing into a new work, but one that he
This article is an open access article
cannot formally claim fully as his own. It is important to acknowledge the dichotomy
distributed under the terms and
between de Launay’s deferential declaration in relation to Fragonard, and his own original
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
contributions. This article looks at de Launay’s seemingly peripheral additions, which have
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
been largely ignored in the research, and asks what role the frame plays in relation to the
4.0/). central image and in the overall work. It considers the engraver’s changes and additions vis
Arts 2021, 10, 66. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts10030066 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts
to the central image and in the overall work. It considers the engraver’s changes and ad-
to the central image and in the overall work. It considers the engraver’s changes and ad-
ditions vis à vis the work’s reception and aesthetics. Most importantly, it looks at these
ditions vis à vis the work’s reception and aesthetics. Most importantly, it looks at these
additions as an important source for learning about the developing print market and the
additions as an important source for learning about the developing print market and the
creative freedom and role of the engraver/publisher as a reproductive artist in the eight-
creative freedom and role of the engraver/publisher as a reproductive artist in the eight-
Arts 2021, 10, 66
eenth century. 2 of 25
eenth century.
Using de Launay’s print of Les Baignets as a case study, and in light of eighteenth-
Using de Launay’s print of Les Baignets as a case study, and in light of eighteenth-
century studies on commerce, economics, botany and originality, I argue that it is pre-
century studies on commerce, economics, botany and originality, I argue that it is pre-
cisely the conceptual and physical “marginality” that makes these border decorations im-
cisely
àportant thework’s
vis the conceptual andand physical “marginality” that makes these at
border decorations im-
creativereception aesthetics.
spaces for “marginal” Mostwishing
artists importantly, it looks
to communicate these additions
a style of theiras an
own.
portant
important creative
sourcespaces for “marginal”
for learning artists wishing to communicate a style of their own.
I offer a new approach to the about
study the developing
of the print
role of the market and the creative
engraver/printmaker freedom
as active com-
I offer
and rolea of
new approach
the to the study ofathe
engraver/publisher role of the artist
engraver/printmaker as active com-
mentators, essential mediators and as reproductive
independent creators. in the eighteenth century.
mentators, essential mediators and independent creators.
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Nicolas
Nicolas de
de Launay
Launay (France,
(France, 1739–1792)
1739–1792) After
After Jean
Jean Honoré
Honoré Fragonard,
Fragonard, Les
Les Baignets,
Baignets, 1783,
1783,
Figure 1.and
Etching Nicolas de Launay (France, 1739–1792) After Jean Honoré Fragonard, Les Baignets, 1783,
Etching and engraving,
engraving, 26.7
26.7cm
cm××30.1 cm,
30.1 Metropolitan
cm, MetropolitanMuseum
Museum of Art, New-York,
of Art, Purchase,
New-York, Ro-
Purchase,
Etching
land L. and engraving,
Redmond Gift, 26.7 cm
Louis V. × 30.1
Bell and cm, Metropolitan
Rogers Funds Museum
1972 of Art, New-York, Purchase, Ro-
(1972.539.13).
Roland L. Redmond Gift, Louis V. Bell and Rogers Funds 1972 (1972.539.13).
land L. Redmond Gift, Louis V. Bell and Rogers Funds 1972 (1972.539.13).
Figure 2. Jean-Honoré Fragonard (French, 1732–1806), Making Fritters (Les Beignets), approximately
FigureBrush
Figure
1782, 2. Jean-Honoré
2. Jean-Honoré Fragonard
and brownFragonard (French,24.6
(French,
ink over graphite, 1732–1806),
1732–1806), Making
Making
cm × 37.5 Fritters
cm (9 Fritters
11/16 (Les
× (Les
14 Beignets),
Beignets),
3/4 approximately
approximately
in.), 2012.4, The J. Paul
1782, Brush
GettyBrush
1782, Museum,and brown
and Los ink over graphite, 24.6 cm × 37.5 cm (9 11/16 × 14 3/4 in.), 2012.4,
ink over graphite, 24.6 cm × 37.5 cm (9 11/16 × 14 3/4 in.), 2012.4,
Angeles.
brown The J.The
Paul
J.
Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Using de Launay’s print of Les Baignets as a case study, and in light of eighteenth-
century studies on commerce, economics, botany and originality, I argue that it is precisely
the conceptual and physical “marginality” that makes these border decorations important
creative spaces for “marginal” artists wishing to communicate a style of their own. I offer a
new approach to the study of the role of the engraver/printmaker as active commentators,
essential mediators and independent creators.
Arts 2021, 10, 66 3 of 25
Arts 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 27
2.
2. The
The Double
Double Seduction:
Seduction: Framing
Framing Decoration
Decoration and and the
the Print
Print Business
Business
M. Delaunay, Engraver
M. Delaunay, Engravertotothe theKing,
King, of the
of the RoyalRoyal Academy
Academy of Painting
of Painting and
and Sculpture,
Sculpture, has just published a new print after M. Fragonard,
has just published a new print after M. Fragonard, Painter to the King and of thePainter to the King
and
sameofAcademy;
the same Academy;
its title is Les title is Lesand
its Beignets, Beignets, and of
is worthy is the
worthy of the
talents talents
of the two ofArtists;
the two Artists; it follows on those which appeared some
it follows on those which appeared some time ago […]; and will complete time ago [ . . . ]; andthe six
will complete
Precious Printstheofsix
thisPrecious Prints of
genre, which M.this genre, which
Delaunay intends M.toDelaunay
publish.85intends to
publish.5
De Launay’s detailed advertisement announcing the publication of Les Baignets relays the
De Launay’she
importance detailed advertisement
attributes to this latest announcing the publication
series of prints as well as his of Les
hopeBaignets relays the
of increasing its
importance he attributes to this latest series of prints as well as
sale as a “pendant”, a well-known phenomenon in the print market. Generally, prints his hope of increasing its
sale
made asasa couples
“pendant”,wereaproduced
well-known phenomenon
according to clear in the print the
guidelines: market.
printsGenerally,
must be theprints same
made as couples
size, theme, were produced
composition, according
color and to clear
“effect”. 6 guidelines:
Delaunay adheres the to
prints
thesemust
criteriabe the same
with Les
size, theme,
Baignets andcomposition,
its pair, Ditescolor
donc and
s’il vous plait6(Figure
“effect”. Delaunay adheres
3), which aretoof
these criteria
identical with Les
dimension,
Baignets
and feature pair, Dites
and aitssimilar rusticdonc s’il vous
setting, andplait (Figure 3), which
complementary are of frame.
decorative identicalThe dimension,
frame for
and feature a similar rustic setting, and complementary decorative
Les Baignets includes squash, hazelnut, and oak—plants and fruits associated with winter, frame. The frame for
Les Baignets includes squash, hazelnut, and oak—plants and fruits
while the frame of its pendant is laden with summertime crops and ivy (Sheriff 1990, p. associated with winter,
while
98). the frame of its pendant is laden with summertime crops and ivy (Sheriff 1990, p. 98).
Figure3.
Figure 3. Nicolas
NicolasdedeLaunay
Launayafter
afterJean
Jean Honoré
Honoré Fragonard,
Fragonard, Dites
Dites Donc,
Donc, S’il-vous-plait,
S’il-vous-plait, 1783,
1783, Etching
Etching and
and engraving,
engraving, 27.5×cm
27.5 cm 31.2× cm,
31.2The
cm, British
The British Museum,
Museum, London,
London, © The©Trustees
The Trustees
of the of the British
British Museum.Mu-
seum.
Engravers acted out of economic interest just like any other business owner. The
need Engravers
to cover the acted out
costs ofofmaterials
economicand interest just likeled
publishing any other
them tobusiness
undertake owner. Therange
a wide need
to sales
of coverstrategies
the costs of materials
(Pasa and23–27).
2020, pp. publishing led them
De Launay to undertake
published dozensa wide range of sales
of advertisements
strategies (Pasa
throughout 2020,
his life inpp.
the23–27).
JournalDede Launay published
Paris, Journal dozens
General of advertisements
de Paris, through-
Gazette de France, and
out his life in the Journal de Paris, Journal General de Paris, Gazette de
Mercure de France, with the aim of arousing consumer excitement and increasing sales France, and Mercure de
France, with
(Smentek thepp.
2007, aim222–24).
of arousing consumer
Special excitement
offers on pendants and increasing
promised himsales (Smentek
advance 2007,
payment
pp.future
on 222–24). Special
prints, and offers
in turn,onbuyers
pendants promised
of multiple himwere
prints advance payment
assured on future
of a product thatprints,
could
and
be in turn, buyers
displayed as a setof multiple
(Taylor prints
1987, were
p. 516; assured
Rudy 2013, ofp. a47;
product
Fuhringthat could
2015, pp.be displayed
30–35).
The(Taylor
as a set economic1987,motivation
p. 516; Rudy behind
2013, pendants led Watelet
p. 47; Fuhring 2015, pp. and Levesque to roundly
30–35).
criticize
Thethe phenomenon,
economic and specifically
motivation the buyers,
behind pendants in Dictionnaire
led Watelet Des Arts
and Levesque De Peinture,
to roundly crit-
Sculpture et Gravure:
icize the phenomenon, and specifically the buyers, in Dictionnaire Des Arts De Peinture,
Sculpture et Gravure:
Arts 2021, 10, 66 4 of 25
[T]he true art lovers look for merit in paintings, and do not hesitate to acquire
a precious picture that has no pendant: but those who are only concerned with
decoration are not very interested in the merit of the works, & much on their
correspondence [ . . . ]. Today, prints are hardly bought except as furniture; an
engraver cannot promise himself a sale of a print if he does not accompany it
with a corresponding print. As soon as he has engraved a plate, he must hurry to
engrave the pendant.7
A customer’s desire to decorate the walls of his home with art prints, measured in quantity
rather than quality, was part of a broader trend in Paris in the second half of the century,
when interior design became a widespread and even obsessive pastime (McAllister Johnson
2016, pp. 63–65).
To combat this tendency, the Dictionnaire’s authors separated the “true” art lover
from the buyer looking for decorative items that were “popular”, a dirty word among
academicians (Lajer-Burcharth 2018, pp. 23–26; Joullain 1786, pp. 100–2). The fact that
prints became cheaper and more accessible made them an important tool in the democrati-
zation of art at the same time as they enabled consumers to display status at an attractive
price (Bellhouse 1991, pp. 125–27). This might also explain the change from storing prints
in albums (where they would be seen by a select few art lovers), and the introduction
of the two-dimensional framing device, which created a pleasing visual effect when a
pair or more of prints hung together on a wall (and could be seen by many more people)
(Auslander 1996, pp. 53–54).
Notwithstanding, the notion of framing was already playing a role in commerce,
according to Natacha Coquery: “The decoration and mise-en-scene of the shop became
essential components of the marketing strategy” (Coquery 2004, pp. 78–79). While we are
all too familiar with the power of visual advertising, its potential as a tool to entice buyers
was becoming more common in the eighteenth century. All types of business owners
began to arrange their wares more decoratively inside their shops, prepare beautiful shop
windows, and invest in outdoor signage (Coquery 2004, pp. 71–72; Walsh 1995, pp. 157–76).
Being inspired by art display and by the new concept of consumer experience, print-
shop owners habitually accentuated the visual role of the border decoration (Coquery 2004,
p. 78). The illusionary frame, besides uniting unrelated fine art prints into pendants or series
(Taylor 1987, p. 516), was also used by engravers as a commercial sales strategy in the form
of the trade card. First used in the seventeenth century, the trade card gained popularity
from 1700 in London and Paris, where it was used to advertise professional artisans and
traders specializing in various commodities from food to fabrics, wallpapers, and even,
prints (Hubbard 2012, pp. 30–31; A Short History of Trade Cards 1931, pp. 1–6). Although
the card’s design was usually fixed—a text surrounded by a decorative frame—the cards
exhibit charming creativity. For example, Henry Dawkins created an asymmetrical Rococo
frame decorated with teakettles and coffee pots for Benjamin Harbeson’s copperware
business (Figure 4). In another iteration, E. Warner replaced the various kettles and pots
with scissors, saws and knives to publicize Henry Patten’s razor-making establishment
(Figure 5).
In referring to the “double seduction” of the business card, Coquery, alludes not only
to the card’s text and image as a two-pronged marketing ploy, but also to the fact that the
cards themselves quickly became collectibles (Coquery 2004, p. 74). Collected by prominent
collectors of prints, the cards were valued according to strict artistic criteria, which led to
the blurring between fine art print and advertisement (Hubbard 2012, pp. 40–41), in which
both made use of massive decorated frames. Since the frame’s mechanical function (to
securely hang works) is irrelevant in a two-dimensional trade card, its significance lies in
its conceptual function as a demonstration of economic power at a time when carefully
carved gilded frames were conspicuous symbols of status (West 1996, pp. 63–78). It is no
wonder then that the text inside the elaborate frame should extol not only the product or
service for sale but also the seller, maker or professional artisan.
Arts 2021, 10, 66 5 of 25
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Arts 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Henry
HenryDawkins
Dawkins(England
(Englandand
andUSA
USA1753-ca. 1786),
1753-ca. Trade
1786), Card
Trade for Benjamin
Card Harbeson’s
for Benjamin cop-
Harbeson’s
Figure 4. Henry Dawkins (England and USA 1753-ca. 1786), Trade Card for Benjamin Harbeson’s cop-
perware business,
copperware 1776,
business, Engraving,
1776, 9.65
Engraving, cm
9.65 × 7.08 cm,
× 7.08 The Winterbur Library, Delaware.
perware business, 1776, Engraving, 9.65 cmcm
× 7.08 cm,cm,
TheThe Winterbur
Winterbur Library,
Library, Delaware.
Delaware.
Figure 5.
5. Edward Warner
Warner (England, active
active 1750), Trade
Trade Card of
of Henry Patten,
Patten, Razor-Maker and
and Cutler,
Figure 5. Edward
Figure Edward Warner (England, 1750), TradeCard
(England, active 1750), Card of Henry
Henry Patten, Razor-Maker
Razor-Maker and Cutler,
Cutler,
1750 ca., Engraving, ink on paper, 19 cm × 14 cm, Victoria and albert Museum, London.
1750
1750 ca.,
ca., Engraving,
Engraving,ink
inkon
onpaper,
paper,19 cm×× 14
19cm 14 cm,
cm, Victoria
Victoria and
and albert
albert Museum,
Museum, London.
London.
In referring
The to the
conceptual “double
role of the seduction”
frame was of the business
significantly card, Coquery,
important due toalludes not con-
the rising only
In referring to the “double seduction” of the business card, Coquery, alludes not only
to the
sumer card’s
interesttext and
in and image
singular as
items,a two-pronged marketing
especially natural ploy,
materials, but also to the fact that
ledthe
to the card’s text image as a two-pronged marketing ploy,which paradoxically
but also to the fact that to
the
cards
the themselvesand
manufacture quickly became
selling of collectibles
imitations, (Coquery
which in 2004,
turn made p. the
74).terms
Collected by promi-
“quality” and
cards themselves quickly became collectibles (Coquery 2004, p. 74). Collected by promi-
nent collectors
“originality” of prints, charged
particularly the cards(Bergwere2004,
valuedpp.according
125–32). Forto strict
someartistic criteria,
professional which
artisans
nent collectors of prints, the cards were valued according to strict artistic criteria, which
led to
and the blurring
merchants, thebetween
frame onfine artcalling
their print and
cardsadvertisement
surrounding(Hubbard 2012,
a central text pp.described
that 40–41), in
led to the blurring between fine art print and advertisement (Hubbard 2012, pp. 40–41), in
which
the both made
superiority and use of massiveofdecorated
uniqueness frames.(Savedoff
their imitations Since the 1999,
frame’sp. mechanical
354), was anfunction
impor-
which both made use of massive decorated frames. Since the frame’s mechanical function
(to securely
tant hangbrand
part of their works)strategy
is irrelevant
(Bergin2002,
a two-dimensional
pp. 1–30). Thistrade
was card, its significance
particularly relevantliesin
(to securely hang works) is irrelevant in a two-dimensional trade card, its significance lies
the print industry, based on the replication of images (which is the medium’s
in its conceptual function as a demonstration of economic power at a time when carefully particular
in its conceptual function as a demonstration of economic power at a time when carefully
advantage),
carved gilded which
frameseffectively neutralizessymbols
were conspicuous the component
of status of originality
(West 1996, pp.that is a work
63–78). of
It is no
carved gilded frames were conspicuous symbols of status (West 1996, pp. 63–78). It is no
art’s
wonderdefining
then element (Smentek
that the text inside2014, p. 148). Inframe
the elaborate the eyes of the
should Académie’s
extol not only thepainters,
product withor
wonder then that the text inside the elaborate frame should extol not only the product or
whom
serviceengravers
for sale buthad
also a complicated
the seller, makerrelationship in the eighteenth
or professional artisan. century, the loss of a
service for sale but also the seller, maker or professional artisan.
work’s The “original”
conceptualquality,
role or
of “aura”
the frameto borrow Walter Benjamin’s
was significantly important termdue(see
to Benjamin
the rising1969,
con-
The conceptual role of the frame was significantly important due to the rising con-
sumer interest in singular items, especially natural materials, which paradoxically led to
sumer interest in singular items, especially natural materials, which paradoxically led to
Arts 2021, 10, 66 6 of 25
p. 14), through the reproductive process, led to the perception of the print, and by extension
of the engraver/printer, as inferior.8
Louis XIV’s comparison of the engraver’s art to a liberal art that “depends on the
imagination of its authors and cannot be subject to laws other than those of their genius”,9
was intended to enhance the standing of the painter-engraver in the market, while at the
Académie they remained “Pseudo-Artists” (McTighe 1998, p. 5; Levitine 1984, p. 17). In the
eyes of the painter, mass-market prints after a famous painting were a strange hybrid of
high art, a popular craft in the service of an imitative practice (Auslander 1996, pp. 53–54;
Lajer-Burcharth 2018, p. 23). Thus, the “imagination, originality and genius” lauded by the
king in his elevation of the engraver’s art, was a vulnerability for the printer.
In an effort to safeguard their interests, the Académie’s painters, dependent on
the graphic medium for the dissemination of their art, and in an effort to uphold the
professional hierarchy among the institutions’ members, led them to demand that the
roles of all involved in the making of a print be acknowledged on the final product
(Mellby 2009); McAllister Johnson 2016, p. 24). Apart from the important matter of copy-
right (McAllister Johnson 2016, pp. 24–25, 80), these acknowledgements emphasized the
marginal and liminal status of the print, and its literal borders became the very place where
printmaker/publishers made extraordinary attempts to challenge the existing hierarchy, or
at least wrest from the painters some measure of artistic and interpretive freedom.
Recent research on book publishing has drawn attention to the importance of the
various stages of a book’s production, particularly the technical decisions on artistic matters
that influenced and altered the essence of the final product. The cases discussed by (Ann
Blair 2016), Peter Stallybrass (2011) and William Slights (1989) among others, testify to an
active, even creative process in the addition of para-texts, as Gerard Genette describes
in his canonical study of the subject (Genette 1997, pp. 1–2). Because of the historically
ambivalent status of the engraver, and despite the similarity between book and print
publishing, researchers have continued to view the printmaker as a businessman in the
art market,10 rather than as a resourceful artist and entrepreneur. De Launay was not
only a shop owner or a technician. He was a skillful artist, a member of the Denmark Art
Academy and he owned a private collection of original paintings and drawings (Taylor
1987, p. 526); all of which enrich our perception of his identity and invite a new perspective
of his persona, his career and his art.
Just as the water pump and pipe publicized the plumber’s art, the decorative frames
on engraver’s trade cards promoted their unique brand. For example, William Hogarth’s
trade card features a frame with an artist sketching on the right and the figure of a classical
muse on the left, and a pair of putti above, one of which holds a print. The framing
device announces the engraver as a divinely inspired artist in his own right, and challenges
the view of the engraver as technician (Figure 6) (Prévost 2013, p. 147). A similar idea
is expressed in the frame of Chrêtien de Mechel’s card, which includes garlands, putto
sketching, a library filled with books and a printing press, which shows the engraver as
divinely inspired, learned and possessing technical know-how (Figure 7), defying the
division of the “hands” and “mind” common at the time (Diderot 1751, vol. 1, pp. 713–17).
Analogous sentiments can be found also in the fine art printed border decorations of
the engravers Sébastien Leclerc (1637–1714), Pierre-Philippe Choffard (1730–1809), Gilles-
Marie Oppenordt (1672–1742), Nicolas de Larmessin III (1684–1755) and de Launay. Rather
than overt allegories of intellectual prowess or divine inspiration, de Launay’s frames
demonstrate his astute botanical knowledge, which he cleverly exploits to display his
creative talent and unique style, as well as his knowledge of contemporary social issues
relevant to his clientele.
Arts 2021, 10, 66 7 of 25
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Figure6.
Figure 6. William
WilliamHogarth
Hogarth(England
(England1697–1764),
1697–1764),Trade
TradeCard,
Card,1720,
1720,Engraving,
Engraving,7.7
7.7cm
cm××10.2
10.2cm,
cm,Royal
Royal
Figure 6. William
Collection London.Hogarth (England 1697–1764), Trade Card, 1720, Engraving, 7.7 cm × 10.2 cm, Royal
Collection London.
Collection London.
Figure 7. Balthasar Anton Dunker (Germany 1746–1807), Trade card of Chrêtien de Mechel, 1789, Etch-
Figure
Figure 7.engraving,
ing and7. BalthasarAnton
Balthasar Anton ×Dunker
73 cmDunker (Germany
89 cm,(Germany 1746–1807), Trade
Museum,Trade
1746–1807),
The British card
card
London. of Chrêtien
of Chrêtien de de Mechel,
Mechel, 1789,
1789, Etch-
Etching
ing and engraving, 73 cm × 89 cm, The British Museum, London.
and engraving, 73 cm × 89 cm, The British Museum, London.
Analogous sentiments can be found also in the fine art printed border decorations of
3. “Every Man under
Analogous His Vine
sentiments can and Fig Tree”:
be found The
also in theClientele, the Real
fine art printed and decorations
border the Ideal of
the engravers Sébastien Leclerc (1637–1714), Pierre-Philippe Choffard (1730–1809), Gilles-
the engravers
The Sébastien
happy family Leclerc (1637–1714),
frying doughnuts Pierre-Philippe Choffard (1730–1809),
print Les Baignets Gilles-
Marie Oppenordt (1672–1742), Nicolas dein De Launey’s
Larmessin III (1684–1755) and de isLaunay.
clearly as-
Ra-
Marie Oppenordt
sociated with the (1672–1742),
winter season Nicolas
(de de Larmessin
Goncourt 1865, III (1684–1755)
p. 31), as and deby
evidenced Launay.
Abraham Ra-
ther than overt allegories of intellectual prowess or divine inspiration, de Launay’s frames
ther than
Bosse’s overt
print allegories
L’Hyver, of intellectual
familyprowess or divine inspiration, 8).de Launay’s frames
demonstrate his astutefeaturing
botanicalaknowledge, similarly
whichengaged
he cleverly(Figure
exploits While bothhis
to display prints
cre-
demonstrate
show familieshis astute botanical
gathering round a knowledge,
hearth, theirwhich he cleverly
surroundings exploits
could not to more
be display his cre-
different.
ative talent and unique style, as well as his knowledge of contemporary social issues rel-
ative
In talentprint,
Bosse’s and unique style, as
an elegantly well asfamily
dressed his knowledge
fries theirofMardi
contemporary socialatissues
Gras pasties rel-
a hearth
evant to his clientele.
evant to his
decorated clientele.
with a painting above the mantel, and they will soon sit down to their festive
meal at a table
3. “Every Man covered
under His with a neatly-pressed
Vine and Fig Tree”:tablecloth. De Launey’s
The Clientele, the Realprint,
and the on the
Idealother
3. “Every
hand, Manaunder
depicts Hisfamily
peasant Vine and Fig Tree”:
gathered roundThe Clientele,
a stone hearththeinReal
what and the Ideal
appears a very
humbleTheroom.
happyThe family
bare,frying doughnuts
unadorned walls in Defloors,
and Launey’sand print
exposedLes Baignets
wood-beamedis clearly asso-
ceiling
The happy family frying doughnuts in De Launey’s print Les Baignets is clearly asso-
ciated
suggest with the
a sparse winter season
country (de
cottage. Goncourt 1865,
Yet, these1865, p.
peasants31), as
appear evidenced by
neither by Abraham
miserable norBosse’s
poor.
ciated with the winter season (de Goncourt p. 31), as evidenced Abraham Bosse’s
print loving
Their L’Hyver, featuring
cuddles, a family
cheery faces similarly
and fleshy engaged
bodies (Figurethat
suggest 8). they
Whileareboth
happy prints
and show
well
print L’Hyver, featuring a family similarly engaged (Figure 8). While both prints show
families gathering round a hearth, their surroundings could not be more different. In
Bosse’s print, an elegantly dressed family fries their Mardi Gras pasties at a hearth deco-
rated with a painting above the mantel, and they will soon sit down to their festive meal
at a table covered with a neatly-pressed tablecloth. De Launey’s print, on the other hand,
depicts a peasant family gathered round a stone hearth in what appears a very humble
Arts 2021, 10, 66 8 of 25
room. The bare, unadorned walls and floors, and exposed wood-beamed ceiling suggest
a sparse country cottage. Yet, these peasants appear neither miserable nor poor. Their lov-
ing cuddles, cheery faces and fleshy bodies suggest that they are happy and well fed, an
impression reinforced
fed, an impression by the garland
reinforced of ripe winter
by the garland of ripefruits
winterthat adorns
fruits thatthe framethe
adorns through
frame
which
through wewhich
glimpse
we them.
glimpse them.
Figure 8.
Figure Abraham Bosse
8. Abraham Bosse (French, 1604–1676), L’Hyver,
(French, 1604–1676), L’Hyver, 1635–1637,
1635–1637, Etching,
Etching, 26.2 cm×
26.2cm 32.8 cm,
× 32.8 cm, The
The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New-York; Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1926.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New-York; Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1926.
Each of
Each of the
the frame’s
frame’s components,
components, aa festoon
festoon ofof hazelnuts,
hazelnuts, oak
oak leaves
leaves and
and acorns
acorns and
and
ripe squash, relates directly to the peasant way of life. The hazelnut, commonly found
ripe squash, relates directly to the peasant way of life. The hazelnut, commonly found in
in
the French
the French countryside,
countryside, isis used
used to
to prepare
prepare anan edible
edible nut-oil
nut-oil (Duhamel
(Duhamel Du Du Monceau
Monceau 1755,
1755,
vol. 1,
vol 1, pp.
pp. 187–88).
187–88). The
The acorn
acorn that
thatgrows
growson onthe
thecommon
commonoak oak(Quercus
(QuercusRobur), which
Robur), cancan
which be
poisonous for humans, is a popular animal feed, especially for pigs (Duhamel Du Monceau
be poisonous for humans, is a popular animal feed, especially for pigs (Duhamel Du Mon-
1755, vol. 2, p. 209). Butternut squash, also known as “winter squash” (Paris 1989, p. 426),
ceau 1755, vol. 2, p. 209). Butternut squash, also11known as “winter squash” (Paris 1989, p.
is a cheap
426), and simple
is a cheap yet healthy
and simple peasant
yet healthy food. food.
peasant De Launey combines
11 De Launey these three
combines thesewinter
three
fruits of the land identified with the French peasantry, to form a cozy, protective
winter fruits of the land identified with the French peasantry, to form a cozy, protective wreath
around around
wreath the family,
the as if guarding
family, it from the
as if guarding imagined
it from blustery blustery
the imagined winds blowing outside.
winds blowing
While Fragonard’s work on which the print is based, unequivocally relays the idea of the
outside. While Fragonard’s work on which the print is based, unequivocally relays the
satisfaction of the simple life, De Launay amplifies it through his elegant framing device
idea of the satisfaction of the simple life, De Launay amplifies it through his elegant fram-
that alludes to nature’s cyclical and organic abundance. To emphasize the point, De Launay
ing device that alludes to nature’s cyclical and organic abundance. To emphasize the
imagines the smoke rising from the frying pan in the shape of a tree growing miraculously
point, De Launay imagines the smoke rising from the frying pan in the shape of a tree
out of the fire, its branches spreading like a canopy over the mother and her brood as a
growing miraculously out of the fire, its branches spreading like a canopy over the mother
metaphor of the peasant and the land.
and her brood as a metaphor of the peasant and the land.
The pendant print, in which a mother demands her son to “say please” when asking
The pendant print, in which a mother demands her son to “say please” when asking
for a toy, imparts a similar sentiment.12 A bunch of juicy beets on the floor in the lower right
for a toy, imparts a similar sentiment.12 A bunch of juicy beets on the floor in the lower
foreground, and bunches of corn stalks visible in the background, used for insulation or as
right foreground, and bunches of corn stalks visible in the background, used for insulation
a bed for animals, hint at the humble foods that more than once saved France’s peasantry
or as a bed for animals, hint at the humble foods that more than once saved France’s peas-
from famine (Parmentier 1781, pp. 178–80). The stalks of wheat adorning the frame remind
antry from famine (Parmentier 1781, pp. 178–80). The stalks of wheat adorning the frame
of the harvest season and the rewards of agricultural labor (Duhamel Du Monceau 1755,
remind of the harvest season and the rewards of agricultural labor (Duhamel Du Monceau
vol. 2, p. 209). This message of nature’s bounty as compensation for the bliss of a modest
peasant life culminates in the framing device surrounding the print Conjugal Gaiety, after a
design by the Swiss painter Sigmund Freudenberger. Here, De Launey celebrates nature’s
autumn abundance with a frame that includes zucchini, carrot, leek, beetroot, celery, leafy
greens, and branches of plump quince (Figure 9).
1755, vol 2, p. 209). This message of nature’s bounty as compensation for the bliss of a
modest peasant life culminates in the framing device surrounding the print Conjugal Gai-
Arts 2021, 10, 66 ety, after a design by the Swiss painter Sigmund Freudenberger. Here, De Launey9 cele-
of 25
brates nature’s autumn abundance with a frame that includes zucchini, carrot, leek, beet-
root, celery, leafy greens, and branches of plump quince (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Nicolas Delaunay,
Delaunay, after
after Sigmund
Sigmund Freudenberger
Freudenberger(Switzerland
(Switzerland1745–1801),
1745–1801),Conjugal
ConjugalGaiety
Gaiety
La gaieté
La gaieté conjugale, 1783,Etching
conjugale, 1783, Etchingandandengraving,
engraving,28.628.6cm
cm××32.5
32.5cm,
cm,Harvard
HarvardArt
ArtMuseums/Fogg
Museums/Fogg
Museum,Gift
Museum, GiftofofBelinda
BelindaL.L.Randall
Randall from
from thethe collection
collection of John
of John Witt
Witt Randall,
Randall, R4793,
R4793, Photo
Photo © Presi-
© President
dent and Fellows of Harvard College.
and Fellows of Harvard College.
The remarkable
The remarkablevegetation
vegetationdisplays
displays adorning
adorning thethe frames
frames of six
of all all prints
six prints
in theinseries
the se-
13
ries suggests
1313
suggests a well athought
well thought out design
out design program program
by the byengraver.
the engraver. The The interiors,
interiors, as well
as well as
as the decorations, were unified by the engraver in style and
the decorations, were unified by the engraver in style and definition, strengthening theirdefinition, strengthening
their relation
relation to onetoanother
one another and emphasizing
and emphasizing the simple
the simple country country life scenery.
life scenery. Yet, while
Yet, while one
one might construe a framing device that depicts farmers
might construe a framing device that depicts farmers surrounded by the fruits of surrounded by the fruits oftheir
their
labor and
labor and benevolent
benevolent naturenature as
as unremarkable
unremarkable and and predictable,
predictable,itit is is worth
worth considering
consideringthe the
social context
social context thatthat drove
drove dede Launay
Launay to to add
addthese
thesealluring
alluringframing
framingdevices
devicesto tohis
hisprints.
prints.
“The farmers. Those
“The Thosewho whocultivate
cultivate thethelands
lands […][ .produce the wealth
. . ] produce and resources
the wealth and re-
essentialessential
sources for the support of the state.
for the support of theThat
state.isThat
whyisthe why workthe of the of
work farmer is of immense
the farmer is of im-
importance
mense to thetokingdom
importance the kingdomandanddeserves
deserves special
special appreciation
appreciationand and attention”, wrote
attention”, wrote
François Quesnay
François Quesnay at at the
the beginning
beginning of of the
the entry
entry “Farmers”
“Farmers” in in Diderot
Diderot and andd’Alembert’s
d’Alembert’s
Encyclopédie.14
Encyclopédie. 14 This economic approach underlying Quesnay’s physiocratic outlook (de Ri-
This economic approach underlying Quesnay’s physiocratic outlook (de
quetti et et
Riquetti al.al.
1763;
1763; SeeMeek
Meek1960;
1960;Vaggi
Vaggi1987)
1987)perceived
perceivedfarming,
farming,peasants
peasantsand andfarmers
farmersas as
critical to
critical to the
the Empire:
Empire: “The“The greater
greater the
the welfare
welfare of of the
the peasants,
peasants, the the greater
greater their
theirability
abilityto to
produce from their lands and the greater the nation’s power is”.
15
produce from their lands and the greater the nation’s power is”. As France was dependent 15 As France was depend-
entits
on onpeasants’
its peasants’
labor,labor, the images
the images of peasants
of peasants in theseinprints
thesewereprintsnot were not of
mirrors mirrors of real
real peasant
peasant
life, life, but constituted
but constituted a mirror aofmirror of conscience
conscience for the wholefor the whole nation.
nation.
According to
According to physiocracy’s
physiocracy’s proponents,
proponents, France France was was lagging
lagging dangerously
dangerously behindbehind
other European nations
other nations ininagricultural
agriculturaldevelopment,
development,a asituation situation that
thatdid notnot
did bodebodewell for
well
the Old Regime. Realizing the national consequences of agricultural
for the Old Regime. Realizing the national consequences of agricultural neglect, the neglect, the govern-
ment initiated
government a panicked
initiated response
a panicked to encourage
response farming
to encourage (Heller(Heller
farming 2009, p. 30). p.
2009, The
30).palace
The
recruited
palace academics
recruited to implement
academics practical
to implement education
practical educationfor gardening
for gardening and agriculture
and agriculture(Gil-
(Gillispie 2004, pp. 335, 357–70; Sexauer 1976, p. 503), and various researchers, with the
government’s backing (Spary 2014, p. 33), began to write instruction manuals of various
kinds, from planting fruit trees to recipes for rice porridge, corn pastries, and potato bread,
as for example Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau’s books on the care and use of local
trees (Gillispie 2004, pp. 360–66; Duhamel Du Monceau 1755). Naturally, the print shops in
Paris produced, published and disseminated these manuals (Stearn 1962, p. 148).
Arts 2021, 10, 66 10 of 25
An enormous gap separated the idyllic plan of building an autarkic system and
increasing local agricultural production and its actual implementation, which was compli-
cated by long intervals between peak crop-producing seasons, as happened approximately
1740, and periods of drought, like the one that began approximately 1770, which may have
precipitated the French Revolution (Farr 2008, pp. 41–44). The eighteenth century in France
thus became synonymous with persistent famine and disappointing agriculture, and forced
its peasantry to resort to buying food at markets and supplementing their meager incomes
through loans (Emsley 2014, pp. 65–66; Heller 2009, pp. 28–29).
The seemingly newfound awareness of the country’s dependence on the peasant class
manifested itself in a rise in popularity of images of peasant life in the art market (Farr
2008, p. 41; Schnapper 1990, pp. 33–34). Evidence of the aristocracy’s love of scenes of
rustic life can be found in the dedication of the print of Les Baignets to Madame la President
du Plaa, who owned the original work by Fragonard.16 The prevalence of peasant scenes
in the print market suggests a “broad” audience. However, their actual buyers were
mostly wealthy Parisians whose knowledge about real peasant life and experience was
infinitesimal (Smentek 2007, p. 225; McAllister Johnson 2016, p. 41).
“Graceful and elegant peasants led a graceful and elegant life. It is not that the style
contradicts the scene, but the scene described contradicts reality” (Sheriff 1990, p. 102),
writes Mary Sheriff of the dissonance between the image and reality (See Castriota 1995).
In this light, it is no surprise that de Launay accentuates the sense of harmony in his
village-life prints. His decorative floral frames surrounding scenes of farm life symbolize
the well-being, stability, and satiety of his customers more than of the peasants they frame.
There is an irony as well, considering the lands many of these peasants farmed belonged to
the wealthy print owners who hung the prints in the Paris homes (Ruff 2015, p. 48; Seaton
1982, p. 63).
In his research on the pastoral influences in art and literature in the eighteenth century,
Alan Ruff remarks on the political significance of representations of pleasant flowering
vegetation, which he perceives as part of the deliberate attempt to stimulate patriotic
sentiment and convey economic success (Ruff 2015, p. 77). Clearly, the regime supported
the positive connotations associated with the rustic life disseminated in the prints, and
as the revolution progressed, the practice intensified (Simpson 2005, p. 275; Emsley 2014,
pp. 65–66), as can be seen in the increasingly fecund borders in de Launay’s prints from
the 1780s. Furthermore, the increasing abundance on the frames reflects another widely
accepted practice at the time: the display of vegetables, fruits, and cereals from local
produce in the public sphere (Spary 2012, pp. 259, 278; Du Monceau 1768, pp. 203–4). The
foods were not for sale, nor were they distributed to the hungry. The government relied on
the power of visual abundance to relay a positive message, even if, in reality, this was not
the case.
A similar idea is conveyed in the decorations surrounding allegorical royal portraits,
such as the marital alliance between Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (Figure 10). A variety of
ripe fruits surrounds the oval portrait in addition to the traditional olive branches. Generally
a symbol of fertility (and the hope of future heirs through the marital alliance), in this instance,
the accompanying text, which mentions abundance, evokes propaganda motifs related to
economic stability (See Castriota 1995). A double portrait of Louis XVI and his benevolent
ancestor Henri IV features a pair of cornucopia overflowing with grains, grapevines, squash,
and acorn—the very same produce that de Launay replicated in his framing devices of
happy peasant life (Figure 11). This clearly propagandist portrait seeks to attribute to Louis
XVI the very qualities that earned Henry IV the title “Le Grand” (Buisseret 1989, pp. 1–3,
namely, his great skill in handling periods of famine and his concern for the poor peasants)
(Péréfixe de Beaumont 1661, pp. 154–55.)Arts 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 27
Arts 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 27
Arts 2021, 10, 66 seeks to attribute to Louis XVI the very qualities that earned Henry IV the title “Le Grand”
11 of 25
seeks to attribute
(Buisseret to Louis
1989, pp. 1–3), XVI the very
namely, his qualities that
great skill in earned Henry
handling IV the
periods of title “Le Grand”
famine and his
(Buisseret
concern for1989, pp. 1–3),
the poor namely,
peasants his great
(Péréfixe skill in handling
de Beaumont 1661, pp.periods
154–55).of famine and his
concern for the poor peasants (Péréfixe de Beaumont 1661, pp. 154–55).
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Pierre-Laurent
Pierre-Laurent Auvray
Auvray (France,
(France, 1736–1781),
1736–1781), after
after Jacques-Philippe
Jacques-Philippe de
de Beauvais
Beauvais (France,
(France,
Figure 10. Pierre-Laurent
1739–1781), Allégorie sur Auvray de
l’Alliance (France,
Mgr le 1736–1781),
Dauphin after
avec Jacques-Philippe
l’Archiduchesse de BeauvaisCélébrée
Marie-Antoinette, (France,à
1739–1781), Allégorie sur l’Alliance de Mgr le Dauphin avec l’Archiduchesse Marie-Antoinette, Célébrée à
1739–1781), 16Allégorie
Versailles,16 May1770, surEngraving,
1770, l’Alliance de16Mgr
cm×le× Dauphin
19 cm, avec l’Archiduchesse
cm, Bibliothèque
Bibliothèque Marie-Antoinette,
Nationale de France, Célébrée à
France,Département
Département
Versailles, May Engraving, 16 cm 19 Nationale de
Versailles,
Estampes 16 May 1770, Engraving,
et Photographie 16 cm
; Collection De ×Vinck
19 cm, Bibliothèque
(histoire Nationale
de France, de France, Département
1770–1871).
Estampes
Estampes et et Photographie;
Photographie ;Collection
CollectionDe
DeVinck
Vinck(histoire
(histoirede
deFrance,
France,1770–1871).
1770–1871).
Figure 11. La Chaussee (France, unknown dates), Portraits de Louis XVI et de Henri IV dans deux Mé-
Figure
Figure 11.
daillons11. La
La Chaussee
Chaussee
Suspendus (France,
(France,
au-dessus unknown
Cornes dates),
unknown
de Deux dates),Portraits
Portraits
d‘Abondance, dede
1775, Louis XVI
Louis et Bibliothèque
XVI
Engraving, de
et Henri IV dans
de Henri IV deuxdeux
dans
nationaleMé-
de
daillons
France, Suspendus
MédaillonsDépartementau-dessus
Suspendus de Deux
Estampes
au-dessus deet Cornes d‘Abondance,
Photographie;
Deux Cornes 1775,
Collection
d‘Abondance, Engraving,
Michel
1775, Bibliothèque
Hennin,
Engraving, Estampesnationale
BibliothèqueRelativesdeà
nationale
France, Département
l’Histoire
de France, de Estampes
France. Tome
Département etetPhotographie;
Photographie;Collection
109, 9476–9572.
Estampes CollectionMichel
MichelHennin,
Hennin, Estampes Relatives àà
Estampes Relatives
l’Histoire de France. Tome 109, 9476–9572.
l’Histoire de France. Tome 109, 9476–9572.
De Launay further embellishes the theme of the regime’s care and nourishing of its
Deby
people
De Launay
Launay further the
accentuating
further embellishes the
bosom ofthe
embellishes theme
thetheme offrying
mother
of the regime’s
the regime’s care
donutscare
at theand
and nourishing
hearth, a change
nourishing of its
of its
he
people
people
made tobybyFragonard’s
accentuating
accentuating the
the bosom
sketch duringof
bosom ofthe
thethe mother
motherfrying
engraving fryingdonuts
Thisatalteration
donuts
process. the
at hearth,
the a change
hearth,
evokesa change he
the no-
made
he
tion oftobreastfeeding
made Fragonard’s sketch
to Fragonard’s
and theduring
sketch the
during
idea of engraving
the engraving
nurturing process.
land, ThisThis
process.
glorified alteration
in evokes
alteration
the the the
evokes
eighteenth no-
century
tion of breastfeeding and the idea of nurturing land, glorified in the eighteenth
notion of breastfeeding and the idea of nurturing land, glorified in the eighteenth century century
by philosophers, moralists, and physicians alike,17 that was part of a rich world of imageryArts 2021, 10, 66 12 of 25
related to perfecting the changes in the family institution, as Carol Duncan and Ewa
Lajer-Burcharth have shown.18
Images of a mother breastfeeding or with exposed breasts mirrored not only medical
or moral attitudes toward motherhood, marriage and child rearing, but served the ideas
promoted by the government (Bellhouse 1991; Ventura 2018). The entry “Woman” in
Diderot and D’Alembert’s Encyclopédie from 1756 reveals the political-economic context
that may have underpinned the image of the mother:
“occupied with the governing of her family, she rules over her husband through
kindness, over her children through sweetness [ . . . ] her house is the abode of
religious sentiment, filial piety, [ . . . ] order, interior peace, gentle sleep and of
health: thrifty and settled, she thereby avoids passions and needs; the poor man
who comes to her door is never turned away.”19
A mother’s governance over matters of religion, order, peace, and especially welfare
extends to the notion of the role of the nurturing country that was rooted in Western culture
and was commonly illustrated in the form of a bare-breasted woman holding a cornucopia
(Joyce 2014).
While these themes have been addressed in the research dealing with French eighteenth-
century paintings, their treatment by the engravers and publishers has been ignored in
the scholarship. These graphic images contain critical information about the reception of
current ideas, and the roles of the engravers in perfecting and disseminating them. De
Launay’s grouping of images into a unified series and his emphasis on the nurturing and
care of a stable society is an alluring strategy through which he speaks to his aristocratic
clients in their language, at the same time as he lays the ground for propagating his own.
4. The Nature of the “True Artist”
De Launay created his agriculture-themed frames specifically for a clientele who saw
their own comfort reflected in the happy scenes of peasant life surrounded by nature’s
bounty. The interest in visual representations of food can be traced to a preoccupation
with healthy cooking and nutrition in Europe, especially France, in the eighteenth century
(Spary 2012, pp. 243–89). Medical knowledge had begun to recommend healthier, more
nutritious and natural foods such as vegetables, fruits, milk, and eggs, which explains the
appearance of these products in the contemporary visual culture (Spary 2014, pp. 125–28,
158–59; Mennell 1996, pp. 34–35).
The preference for “natural” over “processed” foods, and attention to qualities such
as “fresh” and “pure” (Spary 2014, p. 95), were attempts to rebrand the “artificial” life of
the city.20 Thus, among the aristocracy, food was linked with social status and capitalist
consumer culture alongside concerns about health.21 In the salons, there were discussions
about food and cooking together with discussions on art, philosophy, and literature. An
interest in both imported and regional foods was considered to be indicative of a person’s
status and taste. One could say that in the eighteenth century, the scientific, aesthetic and
sentimental interest in nature influenced the contemporary food culture and expressed a
longing for the unique and the authentic in general.
Hence, images of maternal breasts garlanded with foods fresh from the field reflected
the flourishing scientific research that sought to connect man and nature. The Swedish
botanist and scientist Carl Linnaeus had a decisive role in this discourse (Schiebinger 1993;
Johnson 2011, pp. 171–92), as evidenced by the burgeoning field of botany that reached
it apex in the second half of the eighteenth century (Williams 2001; Woudstra 2000). De
Launay’s print series thus expresses not only the relationship between man and nature
in terms of the agricultural economy and the Motherland’s nourishment of her people;
it unequivocally embodies the contemporary enthusiasm for botany, which was hugely
popular also in art circles (Hyde 2005, pp. xvii, 59, 77).
In the frontispiece of the Encyclopédie, the figure of “Botany” is seated next to the
sciences of “Optics”, “Chemistry” and “Agriculture” (May 1973, p. 164), with “Music”,Arts 2021,10,
Arts2021, 10,66
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of
13 of 25
27
“Painting”,“Sculpture”
“Painting”, “Sculpture”andand“Architecture”
“Architecture” in in a group
a group slightly
slightly above
above to the
to the left (Figure
left (Figure 12).
12). The
The allegorical
allegorical figures
figures representing
representing Botany
Botany andand Painting
Painting gazegaze in opposite
in opposite directions,
directions, vi-
visualizing
sualizing thethe opposingfields
opposing fieldsofofthe
theArt
Artand
andthetheSciences.
Sciences.However,
However,the thetwo
two groups
groups are
are
linked visually by the gentle touch of Painting’s toe next to the seated seated Botany,
Botany, hinting
hinting at
at
between science
the connection between science and
and art.
art.
12. Benoît Louis Prévost (France, 1735?–1804?), after Charles-Nicolas Cochin fils (France,
Figure 12. (France,
1715–1790), Frontispice
1715–1790), Frontispice de
de l’Encyclopédie
l’Encyclopédie ou
ou Dictionnaire
Dictionnaire Raisonné
Raisonné des Sciences, des
des Sciences, Arts et
des Arts et des
des Métiers,
Métiers,
1772 (originaly
1772 (originaly1765),
1765),Engraving,
Engraving,33.7
33.7cm
cm×× 21.9
21.9 cm,
cm, Bibliothèque
Bibliothèque Nationale de France,
Nationale de France, Paris;
Paris; Recueil
Recueil
Collection Michel Hennin.
Collection Michel Hennin.
In previous
In previous centuries,
centuries,botanical
botanicalresearch
researchfocusedfocusedonon plants’
plants’medicinal
medicinal benefits.
benefits.In the
In
eighteenth
the eighteenthcentury, it investigated
century, it investigated their their
biological
biologicaland visual structure.
and visual Engravers
structure. collab-
Engravers
orated with scholars
collaborated to create
with scholars to botanical prints,222
create botanical with22many
prints, withengravers eventually
many engravers becom-
eventually
ing botanical experts in their own right. 233 Nicolas Francois Regnault, a draughtsman and
23
becoming botanical experts in their own right. Nicolas Francois Regnault, a draughtsman
engraver
and who also
engraver whocreated engravings
also created after paintings
engravings by Fragonard,
after paintings published
by Fragonard, a botanical
published a
book with his wife, Geneviève de Nangis-Regnault, which
botanical book with his wife, Geneviève de Nangis-Regnault, which included some three included some three hundred
illustrated
hundred plates in plates
illustrated addition to copious
in addition to text
copious(Portali
textand Beralndi
(Portalis and 1880–1882, vol. 3, p.vol.
Béraldi 1880–1882, 386).
3,
De
p. 386). Launay’s frames exhibit a similar scientific expertise. His attention to detail, pre-
cise copying
De Launay’s of every
framesleaf,exhibit
fruit, and stalk,scientific
a similar are consistentexpertise.withHiswhat NicolastoGreen
attention detail,calls the
precise
“true artist” of the time, who must, “have an encyclopedic first-hand
copying of every leaf, fruit, and stalk, are consistent with what Nicolas Green calls the knowledge of all the
components
“true artist” of making
the time,up whothe natural world.an[…]
must, “have it was essential
encyclopedic to master
first-hand […] close-ups
knowledge of all theof
rock shapes and
components makingthe texture of foliage
up the natural and bark.
world. [ . . . ][…]
it wasA late product
essential of the obsession
to master in late
[ . . . ] close-ups
eighteenth-century
of rock shapes and the scientific
texturethinking”
of foliage (Green
and bark. 1990,[ . .p.
. ]113).
A late product of the obsession in
late eighteenth-century scientific thinking” (Green 1990, p.de
In addition to his meticulous rendering of the flora, Launay shows his deep un-
113).
derstanding of plants’ specific features and uses.
In addition to his meticulous rendering of the flora, de Launay A good example areshows
two later pendant
his deep un-
prints de Launay’s
derstanding of plants’published
specificon Christmas
features and uses.1790 as part of
A good his ongoing
example are twoseries
later(Gazette
pendant de
France de
prints 1790, p. 516).published
Launay’s The first,on Education
Christmas Fait1790
Toutas (Figure
part of13),
his shows
ongoing a mother watching
series (Gazette de
her older
France 1790, children
p. 516). play with,Education
The first, or educate Fait(as
Tout the title implies),
(Figure 13), shows a pair of cocker
a mother watchingspaniels
her
dressed
older in costume
children (Simons
play with, 2015; Milam
or educate (as the2007, 2015). The
title implies), decorative
a pair of cockerframe surrounding
spaniels dressed
thecostume
in scene is(Simons
adorned withMilam
2015; horse2007,
chestnut2015).branches (Aesculus
The decorative Hippocastanum),
frame surrounding the which
sceneonlyis
appearedwith
adorned in forests and Paris
horse chestnut boulevards
branches fromHippocastanum),
(Aesculus the seventeenthwhich centuryonly (Duhamel
appearedDu in
forests
Monceau and1755),
Parisandboulevards
were notfrom commonthe seventeenth
in art and certainlycentury (Duhamel Du Monceau
not decorative art. 1755),
and were not common in art and certainly not decorative art.You can also read
