Effects of Picture Prompts Delivered by a Video iPod on Pedestrian Navigation
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Exceptional Children
Vol. 79, No. 4, pp. 459-474.
©2013 Council for Exceptional Children.
Effects of Picture Prompts
Delivered by a Video iPod
on Pedestrian Navigation
KELLY R. KELLEY
Western Carolina University
DAVID W. TEST
NANCY L. COOKE
University of North Carolina at Charlotte
r:
ABSTRACT: Transportation access is a major contributor to independence, productivity, and societal
inclusion for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). This study exam-
ined tbe effects of pedestrian navigation training using picture prompts displayed througb a video .
iPod on travel route completion witb 4 adults witb IDD. Results indicated a functional relation
between picture prompts on tbe video iPod and pedestrian navigation skills to and from various lo-
cations. Maintenance data indicated all participants continued navigating trained routes for up to
232 days using the video iPod. Generalization measures to untrained routes were positive. Social
validity data suggested iPod training was useful and practical for teaching independent pedestrian
navigation skills. Last, limitations, suggestions for future research, and implications for practice
were provided.
I
ndividuals with intellectual and devel- portation accessibility, independent travel re-
opmental disabilities (IDD) face many mains one of the most important unmet needs
challenges related to community inte- for individuals with disabilities (Goodldn, 1977).
gration, such as obstacles to indepen- In addition, there continues to be a lack of com-
dent navigation in the community prehensive programtning and curriculum avail-
(Sohlberg, Fickas, Lemoncello, & Hung, 2009). able for teaching travel and pedestrian navigation
Many rely on care providers for transportation, skills (LaGrow, Weiner, & LaDuke, 1990).
thus reducing self-determination levels and the Because traveling independently is not usu-
desire to learn how to access public transporta- ally taught, but learned incidentally, it needs to
tion systems (Sohlberg et al., 2009). Although be explicitly taught to individuals with IDD (La-
previous legislative mandates (e.g., Americans Grow et al., 1990). Sohlberg and colleagues
With Disabilities Act, 1990; President's Commit- (2009) found one study that used a general strat-
tee on Mental Retardation, 1972; Rehabilitation egy approach (i.e., series of picture prompts) to
Act of 1973) have helped govern public trans- teach travel to novel destinations (LaDuke &
Exceptional Children 459LaGrow, 1984). Individuals who learned co travel contributions to society. Knowing how to navi-
more independently were better prepared for the gate successfully in the community is crucial for
world of work, able to experience more economic increased quaJity of life, independence, and pro-
benefits related to travel, and relied less on others ductivity. More importantly, developing adoles-
to get them from place to place (LaGrovv et al., cents do not wish to rely on parents or guardians
1990). Society can also benefit when individuals for transportation and tend to appreciate greater
with IDD independently navigate to vocational independence as they grow older (Myers, 1996).
sites without reliance on others and can actively Many studies have taught travel training re-
contribute in society {Groce, 1996b). With ex- lated to bus riding (Coon, Vogelsberg, &
panded inclusive opportunities for individuals Williams, 1981; Kubat, 1973; Marchetti, Gecil.
with IDD, travel training is one way to provide Graves, & Marchetti, 1984; Neef, Iwata, & Page,
sequential and explicit ways for accessing trans- 1978; Sowers, Rusch, & Hudson, 1979; Welch,
portation. Nietupski, & Hambre-Nietupski, 1985) and
Travel training has been defined by Groce pedestrian skills (Batu, Ergenekon, Erbas, &C Ak-
(1996b) as "a short-term, comprehensive, inten- manoglu, 2004; Marchetti, McGartney, Drain,
sive instruction designed to teach students with Hooper, & Dix, 1983; Matson, 1980; Page,
disabilities how to travel safely and independently Iwata, & Neef, 1976) using combinations of sim-
on public transportation" (p. 2). Travel training ulation, role playing, and prompting systems. Un-
has commonly included teaching public trans- fortunately, a large majority of travel training
portation and pedestrian skills such as riding the studies were conducted in the 1970s and 1980s
bus and crossing the street; however, it has not when individuals wich disabilities were being inte-
traditionally included comprehensive instruction grated into communities from institutional set-
for teaching pedestrian navigation skills such as tings, and the interventions used were not
walking specific routes (LaGrow ec al., 1990). age-appropriate (e.g., using cardboard simulations
Teaching pedestrian navigation skills involves of streets and dolls for young adults; Neef et al.,
using a step-by-scep method for navigacing from 1978; Page et al., 1976). Based on increasing
point A (starting location) to a specified destina- numbers of adolescents with IDD attending post-
tion (point B) and also navigating back to the secondary programs and being included within
starting location (point A). It is important to their communities, methods for teaching pedes-
teach both ways to and from locations. Pedestrian trian navigation skills need to be researched and
navigation skills are similar to orientation and addressed using the latest age-appropriate tech-
mobility skills because they involve simultaneous nologies available to see if they help increase inde-
instruction, are based on a success-based se- pendence or improve quality of life.
quence, and are aimed at meeting individualized To date, only two studies have paired cravel
travel needs (LaGrow et al., 1990). craining with the latest, age-appropriate technolo-
According to Groce (1996a) and LaGrow et gies to teach students how to navigate by bus
al. (1990), there are many benefits to travel train- (Mechling & O'Brien, 2010) or walk to destina-
ing for individuals with disabilities. First, travel tions independendy (Mechling & Seid, 2011).
training can improve self-esteem as individuals First, Mechling and O'Brien investigated the
gain independence and assume responsibility for effects of computer-based video instruction paired
accessing transportation. Second, if individuals wich constant time delay on bus transportation
can travel more independently, it can help expand skills (i.e., requesting stop signal at specific land-
opportunities for employment, education, and in- marks). Participants included three students, ages
dependent living. Third, although travel training 19 to 20, with mild to moderate intellectual dis-
can be costly at first due to the extensive supports abilities (ID). Using a multiple probe design
needed, in the long term it can be a worthwhile across participants and one bus route, resulcs indi-
investment for individuals to pay for their own cated computer-based video instruction was effec-
travel and navigate independently. Last, as stu- tive and efficient for teaching two of three
dents become less dependent on others they are students to locate landmarks, request stops, and
able to lead productive lives and make significant generalize these skills with 100% accuracy on all
Summer 2013in-vivo (natural environments) sessions, as well as This program required participants to live on
maintaining the request for stop behaviors for at campus, attend college activities, audit courses,
least 52 days. complete internships, and navigate successfially to
Second, Mechling and Seid (2011) examined and from campus locations. Participants met the
the effects of using a personal digital assistant following inclusion criteria: (a) were between the
(PDA) paired with a self-prompting system on ages of 18 and 26, (b) were an admitted program
pedestrian navigation skills to destinations located participant, (c) provided student consent if age 18
on a college campus. Destinations included cam- or older and declared their own guardian or
pus cafeteria and food courts, a game and enter- parental consent and student assent if they were
tainment center, and a copy/print center. not their own guardian, (d) had a documented
Participants included three females with moderate IDD based on most current psychological or
disabilities ages 20 to 21. Using a multiple probe medical assessments (e.g., cerebral palsy, Down
design across destinations replicated across partic- syndrome), (e) had visual acuity to see pictures of
ipants, results demonstrated a functional relation- campus landmarks displayed on a video iPod
ship between the use of the PDA with prompting screen and actual landmarks from a distance, (f)
and percentage of landmarks and destinations lo- were anibulatory and able to walk steps, and (g)
cated by the students. In addition, students were could independently cross streets using designated
able to successfully navigate to these destinations crosswalks with minimal supervision.
after the PDA was removed. With only two recent Eden. Eden was a 22-year-old, Caucasian fe-
studies, more research is needed to explicitly teach male, with mild intellectual disability (IQ= 62).
individuals with IDD pedestrian navigation skills Eden had previously attended a compensatory ed-
to and from destinations in order to increase ucation program at a community college prior to
functionality and independence. Therefore, the being accepted into the postsecondary program.
purpose of this study was to investigate the effects She was not used to navigating to various college
of using picture prompts displayed through a campus locations because her compensatory edu-
video iPod on pedestrian navigation with young cation setting was housed in one building.
adults with IDD (18-26 yeats old) participating Logan. Logan was a 21-year-old, Caucasian
in an inclusive individualized postsecondary pro- male, with cerebral palsy and moderate intellectual
gram at a 4-year university. disability (IQ = 53) and Vineland Adaptive Behav-
ior score of 74. Logan had previously attended a
basic education program at a community college
METHOD prior to being accepted into the postsecondary
program. He was not used to navigating to various
Prior to data collection, approval was obtained campus locations because his basic education pro-
from the Institutional Review Board for research gram was housed in one building.
at the university where the study was conducted.
Adam. Adam was a 26-year-old, Caucasian
Before beginning the study, the researcher ex-
male, with cerebral palsy and mild intellectual
plained and obtained necessary student consents
disability (IQ= 67). Adam had not previously at-
or parent consents and student assents. Only par-
tended a college-based program, but worked at a
ticipants with signed assents and consents were
sheltered workshop prior to being accepted into
included in this study.
the postsecondary ptogram. He was not used to
navigating to various locations because his work-
PARTICIPANTS
place was housed in one building.
Participants included four young adults with IDD Grace. Grace was a 20-year-old, Caucasian fe-
between the ages of 18 and 26 attending a post- male, with Down syndrome and moderate intel-
secondary inclusive program designed for individ- lectual disability (IQ = 41) and Vineland
uals who had completed a high school certificate Adaptive Behavior score of 60. Crace had recently
of attendance. Each participant had access to full completed high school and had not attended any
participation in college opportunities and was additional college or workplace programs prior to
completing requirements for a 2-year certificate. being accepted into the postsecondary program.
Exceptional ChildrenShe was not used to navigating to various loca- screen. The screen for image display dimensions
tions because she was in a self-contained class- was approximately 2 in. X 3 in. Before each use,
room at a small rural high school. the chosen device used by each participant was
charged through an electrical outlet or computer
SETTING cord. For direct observations, materials included
All training, probe, and intervention sessions were copies of data sheets, a stopwatch for measuring
conducted at various locations on a public, ac- total times, procedural fidelity checklists, inter-
credited university campus located in a rural com- rater reliability forms, a clipboard, and a pencil.
munity in southeastern United States. The
DATA COLLECTION
campus is housed on approximately 600 acres and
included 13 residence halls, 14 classroom build- Dependent Variables. Data were collected on
ings, seven performing arts buildings, 12 recre- two dependent variables. The first dependent
ational buildings and ñelds, three dining and food variable was correct and independent travel of a
courts, and 10 administrative support buildings. route to and from specified locations. A correct
Additional campus locations included student response was defined as (a) successfully navigating
centers, community convenience and retail stores, to and from a specified location, (b) with no
commercial restaurants, banks, and religious orga- prompting delivered by the researcher, (c) using
nizations. At the time of the study, the college pictures displayed on the video iPod to arrive and
had more than 10,000 students. Out of this en- return to the destination, and (d) within an ap-
rollment, 256 students (2.4%) had reported and propriate time limit. An incorrect response was
requested accommodations through the Office of recorded if the participant (a) indicaced a need for
Disability Services. assistance from the researcher during any part of
the route, or (b) navigated off the designated path
MATERIALS for more than 30 s and had to be redirected by
the researcher. Once an incorrect response oc-
Teaching materials included digital photographs
curred and was recorded on data sheets, the re-
of landmarks for navigating all predetermined
searcher continued to redirect students using the
routes. Photographs from the routes contained in-
iPod and necessary prompting along the route
serted arrows {using AutoShapes in Microsoft Of-
until the destination was reached. Redirection in-
fice) placed within the digital picture to show
cluded modeling and looking at the picture on
directional turns. Pictures were taken using a
the iPod, talking through the picture and walking
Canon PowerShot A490 10.0 Mega Pixel digital
back to a landmark, and finally looking at the
camera ($90 with memory card) and downloaded
next pictured landmark on the iPod. If the partic-
into a MacBook Pro laptop using Canon Power-
ipant made it to the final destination and back to
Shot A490 software. Next, pictures of landmarks
the starting location without matching all pic-
were sequenced based on the predetermined route
tured landmarks, this was also considered a cor-
into Microsoft PowerPoint slides and blue Au-
rect response because the student was able to
toShape arrows were added into each picture with
achieve the overall outcome of navigating to and
relevant turns. Last, once pictured routes were
from a specified location without assistance from
completed, they were exported or synched onto
the iPod or researcher. During baseline and inter-
two video iPods. One iPod was a fifth generation
vention, route order for each participant was ran-
video iPod classic device measuring 4 in. X 2.5
domly selected to avoid the possibility of
in. The screen for image display was 2 in. X 1.5
sequence effects.
in. The video iPod also contained a circular wheel
with buttons including forward, backward, play, A second dependent variable was the per-
pause, and menu options under the video screen. centage of correct pictured landmarks reached for
The iPod was carried in a protective leather case. each route. A correct response was defined as suc-
The second iPod was a newer version called the cessfully navigating to and from each landmark
iPod Touch (fourth generation). This iPod mea- using the pictures displayed on the iPod with no
sured 2.5 in. X 4.5 in. with a 3.5 in. diagonal assistance from the researcher during route com-
Summer 2013pletion. An incottect tesponse was tecorded if Schwartz & Baet, 1991) at the end of the study to
patticipants requested assistance from the re- evaluate social acceptance of procedures (Wolf,
searcher for any landmarks or if they navigated off 1978). Participant perceptions were read and col-
the designated path for more than 30 s before lected by one of the second observers uriknown to
needing to be redirected. Once an incottect re- the participants through a questionnaite to deter-
sponse occurred at a specific landmatk and was mine level of participant satisfaction with using
recorded on datasheets, the tesearcher continued iPods with picture prompts to support navigation
to redirect students using the iPod and necessary skills. The questionnaire included á 4-point Lik-
prompting (only when requested) until toute ert scale (i.e., 1 = strongly disagree; 2.= disagree; 3
completion. The remaining pictured landmarks to = agree; 4 = strongly agree) and was given at the
point A were scored as 0 when the fitst landmatk conclusion of the study. This questionnaire re-
on the route was missed or prompting had to be quired less than 5 min to complete. Also, after the
given to the participant navigating off toute for intervention phase ended, the researcher taught
more than 30 s. Once point A was teached, pic- five undergraduate special education majors and
tuted landmarks from point B back to point A minors (i.e., immediate and extended community
were also collected until a landmatk was missed. members) how to develop travel training routes
Petcentage of landmarks measured for the entité and navigation of the video iPod. At the end of
toute used the following scale: 0 = pictured land- this training session, a 4-point Likert scale ques-
mark not teached independently, 1 = only point tionnaire was disttibuted to evaluate the social ac-
A or point B reached independently, and 2 = pic- ceptance of ptocedures and goals of. using the
tured landmarks reached independently. iPod to teach pedesttian navigation skills.
Prior to beginning the intervention routes,
time limits were collected based on having three DESIGN
college students (i.e., two females, one male)
walking at a comfottable and leisurely pace to all The expetiinental design was a multiple probe
predetermined routes, including the generaliza- actoss participants design to evaluate the effects of
tion route to provide a range of time necessaty for picture prompts displayed through a video iPod
navigating routes and setting socially valid time on pedestrian navigation skills across multiple
limits for navigating both to and from destina- routes.
tions. For route one, acceptable time tanged from Baseline. Duting baseline, patticipants wete
17 to 23 min with 44 total landmarks. For route given a campus map and asked to walk from
two, acceptable time ranged from 18 to 24 min point A to point B, and back to point A. This
with 58 total landmarks. For route three, accept- type of suppott is typical fot college students on à
able time tanged from 24 to 25 min with 45 total university carripus. The researcher pointed to
landmarks. For the novel route, acceptable time point A on the map and said, "This is where you
ranged from 17 to 24 min with 44 total land- are now." After the student demonstrated eye gaze
marks. Variations of time with routes across three toward that point on the campus map, the re-
college students were due to walking speeds, searcher pointed to destination B and said, "This
crosswalks, and wait times at ttaffic lights. is where you need to go. Use this inap to help you
In addition, setting/situation generalization get there." If the participant indicated they did
data (Cooper, Heron, oí Heward, 2007) were col- not know how to get to the location or wandered
lected on participants' ability to navigate using away from the targeted route for more than 15
the iPod to reach novel destinations without the min, the researcher recorded the toute as incor-
researcher accompanying the participant. Genet- rect. A new ttial began the next day and was then
alization fot each route also occurred when the recorded as correct or incorrect. If the participant
participants used only the iPod device to navigate began walking, the tesearcher recorded the correct
to and from a novel destination and were able to and independent travel of a route including land-
complete routes within acceptable time limits. matks and mid and end points to and ftom speci-
Social Validity. Social validity data were col- fied locations. Each toute was counted as two
lected from participants (i.e., direct consumers; separate routes during data collection (i.e., point
Exceptional Children 463A to point B; point B to point A). The total time tionary landmarks, but starting locations were dif-
was recorded and compared to the range of time ferent. Selected pictures of stationary landmarks
noted from social comparison data collected from near directional turns or longer routes were in-
three college students. During baseline, the re- cluded in each route and measured based on per-
searcher only observed participants and did not centage navigated correct (e.g., trash cans, road or
provide any additional supports or prompts be- building signs, crosswalks, traffic lights).
yond the campus map. The participant with the During intervention, participants were given
lowest stable baseline entered training and inter- the video iPod and the researcher said, "Use the
vention first. Because all participants scored in- pictures on the iPod to help you get to point B
correct on all baseline routes, a participant was and then back to here." All routes began outside a
selected at randoni. relevant campus building (e.g., dorm, student
Video iPod Training. After baseline had center, dining hall, academic building). Once the
ended, participants were provided with an initial first participant demonstrated 100% indepen-
training on how to use the video iPod, including dence to and from a destination within the so-
how to use relevant buttons on the device. Partici- cially accepted time period on thé first route
pants were taught how to look at the displayed trained, the researcher asked an additional ob-
picture while using navigation buttons on the server who had been trained by the researcher to
iPod (i.e., forward, backward buttons) and the collect data as the participant navigated the route
purpose of the forward and backward buttons on without the researcher present. Next, another
the video iPod for self-correcting when they baseline probe was administered to the remaining
needed to use the buttons to travel to pictured participants, and intervention begari with the
landmarks. The researcher used a training script next participant with the greatest amount of time
with the student while viewing the pictured land- needed. This pattern continued until all partici-
marks and hitting the appropriate video iPod but- pants had entered and completed intervention
tons. The practice route included unfamiliar with ail three routes.
pictures of two landmarks to the destination and During intervention, the researcher followed
two landmarks back to the starting point. Train- the participant and provided prompts to points A
ing concluded when participants were able to and B only if a participant requested assistance. If
demonstrate skills in using the device features in- a participant was stuck, the researcher waited 30 s
dependently (i.e., forward, backward, black and then delivered generic questions, such as;
screen) as part of the training phase, which did "Because you cannot find the landmark that
not require participants to physically travel to des- matches the picture, what should you do?" After
tinations. All participants were assessed prior to prompting with a question if the participant did
beginning the training session for skill levels with not respond with a correct answer (e.g., go back
crosswalks because this was an initial inclusion to the previous landmark) the researcher modeled
criterion requirement. Training was brief and how to use the backward button on the iPod and
required only one training session lasting fewer locate the previous landmark where the error oc-
than 10 rhin per participant. When participants curred. If participants could not locate landmarks
were able to recall and point to device buttons in- independently with picture prompts on the iPod,
dependently they entered the intervention phase the researcher verbally prompted participants
and training ended. after 30 s of unsuccessful travel while walking and
Video iPod Intervention. Routes and land- modeling how to use the iPod to go back to
marks were chosen starting at different locations where the error occurred. Once the participant
on campus with minimal overlap to previous and researcher were back to the previous land-
routes navigated. Routes were also selected in re- mark and on track with the pictured sequence,
mote areas on campus to address previously navi- navigation continued until the route was com-
gated routes to other classes or activities attended pleted. When the participant navigated to the ap-
by participants. All intervention and novel routes propriate ending landmark a smiley face appeared
were navigated in different directions to avoid on the iPod picture to indicate they had reached
overlapping landmarks. All routes had similar sta- che midpoint or final destination successfully.
Summer 2013Other anticipated errors addressed while en route phone and describe the landmarks around them.
included missed landmarks, interruptions by The researcher would then meet them at that lo-
someone, device malfunction, route/landmark cation. Intervention sessions lasted approximately
changes, and getting lost. 15 to' 30 min, four to five times per week.
Maintenance and Generalization. Mainte-
When the participant navigated to nance and generalization data were collected to
determine the extent to which participants con-
the appropriate ending landmark a smiley tinued to perform targeted behaviors after the in-
face appeared on the iPodpicture to tervention had been terminated and to see if the
indicate they had reached the rhidpöint learning strategies taught (i.e., iPod stipport) gen-
eralized to novel untrained routes. First, mainte-
or final destination successfiilly
nance data were collected using one of the three
previously trained routes randomly selected across
Missed Landmarks. The researcher cued the participants up to 232 days after instruction on
participant to hit the backward button and deliv- the toute had been completed. Second, two mea-
ered a verbal prompt to the participant about sures of generalization were collected. The first
missing the landmark. The researcher pointed out were collected after mastery was demonstrated
items within the picture prompt displayed on the during the intervention phase across each of the
video iPod that were similar to the existing land- three trained routes without the help of the re-
mark nearby. Once the patticipant understood searcher. The second generalization measures were
the current location, the researcher stepped back collected using a selected unknown route in a re-
and allowed the participant to use thé iPod to mote location of the campus. Each participant
continue the route. was presented with this unfamiliar route in order
Interruptions. If there was an interruption, to see if they could navigate to a new location
the researcher allowed the participant to talk to using only the pictures displayed on the iPod with
someone while stopping the stopwatch for up to no training provided by the researcher.
30 s and then restarted the stopwatch once the Interrater Reliability. Interrater reliability data
participant ended the conversation and began were collected on 30.1% of all dependent vari-
walking again. The researcher noted interruptions ables by a second observer using the same type of
on the data sheet and allowed the participant to scoring sheet used by the researcher. The second
continue the route to see if he or she could still observer collected data on independent travel
meet the predetermined time limit. routes to and from specified locations (i.e., cor-
Device Malfunction. If there was a device rect or incorrect) and percentage of landmarks
malfunction, the researcher took the device from based on points obtained from the performance
the participant and fixed the device immediately scale (i.e., 0-2 points). An agreement was
(if possible) and gave it back to the participant. If recorded when both observers identically scored
the device was not easily or quickly repaired, the the outcome as correct or incorrect (i.e., 0—2). A
route ended for the day and continued when the disagreement was recorded if outcomes of cumu-
iPod had been fixed or replaced. Device malfunc- lative or intermediate landmarks were not scored
tions were also noted on data collection sheets if the same. The percentage of agreement for correct
the route had to end. independent travel routes and percentage of land-
Route or Landmark Changes. For route or marks were calculated by dividing the number of
landmark changes due to possible construction agreements by the number of agreements plus dis-
detours or weather related issues, it was planned agreements, and multiplied by 100. Overall inter-
that the route would be stopped until pictures rater reliability ranged from 91.3% to 100% with
could be revised to reflect necessary changes. a mean of 98.6%. During intervention, interrater
Getting Lost. If a participant was navigating reliability ranged from 91.3% to 100% with a
independently with a second observer following mean of 96.7%. During maintenance, interrater
atid they got lost during a route, they were in- reliability ranged from 94.2% to 100% with a
structed to call the researcher using their cell mean of 98%. During generalization, interrater
Exceptional Childrenreliability ranged from 96.8% to 100% with a addition, Eden was able to use the video iPod to
mean of 99.2%. navigate to and from a novel location with 100%
Procedural Fidelity. A procedural fidelity correct landmarks.
checklist was used for video iPod training along • Logan. During baseline, Logan's performance
with the training script during intervention mea- was 0 for correct routes traveled. For percentage
sures across all campus destinations and with the of landmarks during baseline, Logan's scores re-
second and additional observers. Procedural fi- mained stable and ranged from 0% to 6% with a
delity data were collected for 55% of the sessions mean of AA% correct. During intervention, for
distributed across participants by the researcher, correct routes his scores ranged from 1 to 2 with a
second observer, and additional observers (i.e., mean of 1.8 correct. The percentage of landmarks
training, intervention, generalization). Fidelity indicated an immediate change in level and an in-
was calculated as the number of steps followed creasing trend with a range of 59% to 100% cor-
correctly divided by the total number of required rect and a mean of 92.1% correct. By his third
steps, and multiplied by 100. Procedural fidelity route Logan was able to navigate using the iPod
was 100% across all sessions and phases. without the help of the researcher on the first at-
tempt. During maintenance, Logan's performahce
on the trained routes traveled remained stable at 2
RESU LTS
for 230 days after instruction on the route ended.
Figure 1 presents the percentage of correct land- The percentage of landmarks reached indepen-
marks to and from destinations across four partic- dently on traiiied routes was 100% correct. Dur-
ipants as well as navigation from point A to point ing generalization, Logan was able to navigate
B and back to point A. All four participants were independently for all trained routes with 100%
trained on, and learned, three routes during inter- correct pictured landmarks. In addition, Logan
vention. Results indicated a functional relation was able to use the video iPod correcdy to navi-
between the picture prompts displayed on the gate to and from a novel location with 100% cor-
video iPod and pedestrian navigation skills for all rect landmarks.
four participants. Adam. During baseline, Adam's performance
Eden. During baseline, Eden's performance was 0 for correct routes traveled. For percentage
was 0 for correct routes traveled. For percentage of landmarks during baseline, Adam's scores re-
of landmarks during baseline, Eden's scores re- mained stable and ranged from 0% to 9% with a
mained stable and ranged from 0% to 7% with a mean of 3.1% correct. During intervention, for
mean of 4.3% correct. During intervention, for correct routes his scores ranged from 1 to 2 with a
correct routes her scores ranged from 1 to 2 with mean of 1.9 correct. The percentage of landmarks
a mean of 1.7 correct. The percentage of land- indicated an immediate change in level and an in-
marks indicated an immediate change in level and creasing trend with a range of 67% to 100% cor-
an increasing trend with a range of 47% to 100% rect and a mean of 88.4% correct. By his second
correct and a mean of 88.2% correct. By her third route trained Adam was able to navigate using the
route trained, Eden was able to navigate using the iPod without the help of the researcher on the
iPod without the help of the researcher, but did first attempt. During maintenance, Adam's per-
not do it within the specified time period due to formance on the trained routes traveled remained
the sun shining on the pictures displayed on the stable at 2 for 224 days after instruction on the
video iPod. During maintenance, Eden's perfor- route ended. The percentage of landmarks
mance on the trained routes traveled remained reached independently on trained routes was
stable at 2 for 232 days after instruction on the 100% correct. During generalization, Adam was
route ended. The percentage of landmarks able to navigate independently for all trained
reached independently on trained routes was
routes with 96% to 100% correct piciiured land-
100% correct. During geheralization, Eden was
marks. In addition, Adam was able to use the
able to navigate independently for all trained
video iPod correctly to navigate to and from a
routes with 100% correct pictured landmarks. In
novel location with 100% correct landmarks.
Summer 20 J 3FIGURE 1
Percentage of Correct Landmarks to and From Destinations Across Four Participants
Baseline iPod-R1 iPod-R2 iPod-R3 Maintenance/Generalization
100 T
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 Eden
ir"í~
100
.90^
SO-
TO
60
Logan
o
¡\
I ID 1 aiDí BI i l D!D>UlEli '-' """"uT
g, 100 .ft; «
¡80 i
170
j 11
60 ii>=« ¡I
50
40
30
20
10
O
Adam
100...
90,1
80.
70.,
60.
50-
40
30.^
20'
10
O Grace
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Sessions
Note. Closed data points = navigated route within appropriate time limits; Open data points = navigated route,
but not within appropriate time, limits; Route 1 = Z\ to and from Hunter Library and Moore Building; Route
2 = D to and from Natural Sciences Building and Student Catholic Center; Route 3 = O to and from Student
Recreation Center and Graham Building; O = Novel route without trainer; * = routes without researcher present.
467
Exceptional ChildrenGrace. During baseline, Grace's performance ing pictures to help them know where they were
was 0 for correct routes traveled. For percentage on campus and to get to where they needed to go.
of landmarks during baseline, Grace's scores re- Grace indicated she did not enjoy having help
mained stable and ranged from 0% to 9% with a with crosswalks and Adam did not enjoy having
mean of 3.8% correct. During intervention, for to ask for assistance if the iPod had to be cued
correct routes her scores ranged from 1 to 2 with back to the pictures.
a mean of 1.6 correct. The percentage of land-
In addition, social validity data were col-
marks indicated a small immediate change in level
lected from five undergraduate students majoring
and an increasing trend with a range of 24% to
or minoring in special education on their percep-
100% correct and a mean of 85-3% correct. By
her second route trained Grace was able to navi- tion of developing navigation routes using picture
gate using the iPod without the help of the prompts and the video iPod. These five students
• researcher. During maintenance, Grace's perfor- were paid to provide support to the participants
mance on the correct trained routes traveled for 10 to 15 hr per week in order to work on par-
remained stable at 2 for 223 days afi:er instruction ticipant goals developed in person centered plan-
on the route ended. The percentage of landmarks ning meetings. All five of them observed the
reached independently on trained routes also re- participants during route training but did not im-
mained stable at 100% correct. During general- plement training directly. At the end of the train-
ization, Grace was able to navigate for all trained ing session, a 4-poinc Likert scale questionnaire
routes with 100% correct pictured landmarks. was distributed and collected to evaluate the ap-
Grace was also able to use the video iPod to navi- propriateness of procedures, practicality, and rele-
gate to a novel location for half of the route inde- vance of using the iPod to teach pedestrian
pendently; however, she missed one turn within navigation skills. The mean ratings ranged be-
the route while navigating to Point A. After she tween 3.6 and 4.0. All items were rated as agree
received one prompt to revisit the pictured land- or strongly agree. The two items that were rated
mark missed, she was able to navigate back to the lower were developing landmarked routes and
starting location independently with 70% correct
confidence in creating materials for the iPod inde-
total landmarks for the entire route.
pendently, with mean ratings of 3.6. Based on
open-ended comments related to the training ses-
GENERALIZATION sion, students stated (a) the iPod training strategy
Overall, results for generalization showed that all was simple and practical for participants, (b) they
four participants could travel trained routes with- liked that it could be adapted to any variety of
out the researcher present. Also, three of the four tasks, (c) it was age-appropriate, (d) it allowed
participants were able to travel independently to participants to be more independent, and (e)
novel, untrained routes using only the support of technology could help ease difficulty of tasks. The
the video iPod, and one participant only needed undergraduate students also stated what they
one prompt from the researcher to navigate the liked least about the iPod travel training strategy
untrained route. were: (a) data collection procedures seemed con-
fusing at first, but once explained they were man-
SOCIAL VALIDITY ageable and made sense; (b) it appeared that the
Social validity data were collected from partici- strategy could be time consuming, especially if
pants at the end of the study. The mean racings you have to recreate the routes; (c) the fact that it
ranged between 3.5 and 4.0 (i.e., agree or strongly relied solely on pictures reduced the opportunity
agree). The lowest item rated was the picture for participants to practice reading; (d) training
prompts being easy to use when help was needed, included several strategies, such as posting pic-
with mean ratings of 3.5. Participants were also tures into the PowerPoint, thac were already
asked two open-ended questions related to what familiar; and (e) training focused on iPod use
they enjoyed most and least about using the iPod only, before talking about alternative ways to use
to travel. Participants indicated they enjoyed hav- picture prompts without a video iPod.
Summer 2013DISCUSSION Third, although previous studies teaching
The purpose of this study was to investigate the new tasks have found video prompting more ef-
effects of using picture prompts displayed fective than picture prompting (Mechling &C
Gustafson, 2009; Mechling & Stephens, 2009),
through a video iPod on pedestrian navigation
this study supports findings that still photographs
with young adults with IDD (18-26 years old)
were effective for teaching new behaviors such as
participating in an inclusive individualized post-
pedestrian navigation. Previous research compar-
secondary program at a 4-year university. Find-
ing video and picture prompting have indicated
ings indicated a functional relation between the both are effective and efficient for teaching flinc-
picture prompts delivered through the video iPod tional skills such as using an automated teller ma-
and pedestrian navigation skills for all partici- chine (Cihak, Alberto, Taber-Doughty, & Gama,
pants. All four participants also used the video 2006). Despite the contrasting findings and con-
iPod to master the third training route on the first tinued need to explore video, picture, and audi-
attempt without help from the researcher. By the tory prompting (Lancioni, O'Reilly, & Emerson,
second or third walk with each route, all four par- 1996), it is more important to consider the
ticipants became more confident and did not rely choices of the participants and the task being
on the video iPod as much to complete routes taught (Taber-Doughty, 2004). It might be dan-
once they were learned. The iPod then served as a gerous to watch a video while trying to navigate
backup if they forgot a turn or piccured land- crosswalks or listen to auditory prompts delivered
mark. This indicated the iPod was used as a on an iPod if participants need to be alert to on-
prompting device, but participants could also coming traffic.
navigate independently after receiving explicit in- Last, this study extends research by using pic-
struction delivered through the iPod. ture prompts of actual landmarks, providing stim-
Overall, results of this study support previous uli closer to natural environments, and extending
research related to travel training and technology. travel training research beyond cardboard simula-
First, current findings suggested young adults tions and dolls used in earlier studies (Neef et al.,
with IDD can learn to travel with greater inde- 1978; Page et al., 1976). Together, this study and
pendence when explicitly taught before entering findings from Marchetti et al. (1983) indicate
and/or within natural environments (Batu et al., community training can be effective. Generaliza-
2004; Coon et al., 1981; Mechling & O'Brien, tion data from this study extends previous re-
2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011; Sowers et al., search by addressing navigation to and from
trained and untrained routes. All previous re-
1979).
search had only taught participants to navigate to
Second, this study supports previous research
locations on trained and untrained routes without
that used high-tech handheld devices displaying
teaching navigation back to starting locations.
pictures or low tech picture prompts printed out
Maintenance data from this study were posi-
and used in photo albums to teach complex tasks,
tive and similar to maintenance data collected in
such as bus riding behaviors (LaDuke &C LaGrow,
previous travel training research (Coon et al.,
1984), recognizing bus stops (Mechling &c 1981; Kubat, 1973; Mechling &c O'Brien, 2010;
O'Brien, 2010; Welch et al., 1985), and using Neef et al., 1978; Welch et al., 1985). Two out of
landmarks to recognize pedestrian routes (Mech- three travel training and technology studies re-
ling & Seid, 2011). More recent studies (e.g.. Van ported positive maintenance data from 1 week to
Laarhoven, Johnson, Van Laarhoven-Myers, 67 days after intervention had ended (Mechling
Grider, & Grider, 2009) have also found similar & O'Brien, 2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011). This
results for using video iPods indicating these study collected maintenance for a longer time pe-
devices can be powerful instructional tools for riod of up to 232 days. Problem-solving skills for
helping individuals with disabilities to acquire street crossing were addressed throughout this
new skills. This study extends this research to travel training study similar to street crossing be-
teaching a new behavior (i.e., pedestrian naviga- haviors (e.g., pushing the crosswalk button and
tion skills) using iPod technology. recognizing the walk signal or flashing to hurry)
Exceptional Children 469taught in previous research (Horner, Jones, &i beyond the iPod was provided during generaliza-
Williams, 1985; Vogelsburg & Rusch, 1979). tion measures co ensure participants could cravel
However, this study extended previous research independently using che "following procedure"
because street crossing skills were embedded for safecy suggesced by Groce (2000). Third, chis
within actual pedestrian navigation routes. Many study used che iPod, which was a practical scrac-
routes used in this study involved different types egy and a nonincrusive supporc thac looked very
of crosswalks with and without crosswalk buttons typical to others in a university setting. It was easy
to provide greater generalization opportunities. to create and allowed participants to be alert to
their surroundings when traveling. Last, the iPod
Participants indicated they were device and digital camera used to create the routes
more confident in their ability to travel were more economical than the PDA Gyrano
Communicator device used in Mechling and Seid
independently to other destinations on
(2011) with comparison coses of S 1,300 for che
campus using iPod support. This is one PDA Gyrano Communicator versus $130 to
of the first studies that gathered $299 for the video iPod device used in chis study.
participants'perceptionsfi)rusing
the iPod to travel independently L I M I TAT IONS AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR
Based on social validity data from partici- FUTURE RESEARCH
pants, it appears participants felt explicit travel
training allowed them to explore college activities This study had several limitations and implica-
to greater degrees than they would have without tions for future research. There is limited general-
instruction. Participants indicated they were more icy of findings. Fucure research should continue co
confident in their ability to travel independendy invescigace che use of iPods as well as other cech-
to other destinations on campus using iPod sup- nologies (e.g., iPads) to teach pedestrian naviga-
port. This is one of the first studies that gathered tion skills and other functional skills to
participants' perceptions for using the iPod to individuals with varied disabilities and in a variety
travel independently. All participants also indi- of community settings.
cated they enjoyed using the iPod to learn new Second, participants in this study seemed to
skills, which was similar to social validity findings have more confidence and comfort in traveling
in previous research using iPods to deliver independently because chey had been living on
prompts for completing vocacional casks (Van che college campus prior co che implementation
Laarhoven ec al., 2009) and using iPods during of che study. However, it was still important to
independenc leisure time (Hammond, Whadey, consider street crossing attentiveness before allow-
Ayres,& Gast, 2010). ing independent navigacion at busy crosswalks
Social validity data were collected to evaluate (Groce, 2000; Vogelsburg & Rusch, 1979). Fu-
fucure teachers* perceptions of acceptability for ture research should examine comfort levels be-
using the iPod strategy. Results indicated that un- fore independenc travel is incroduced co avoid
dergraduate students perceived the iPod training anxiety or fear wich craveling alone.
and strategy co be an effeccive mechod for reach- Third, this study did not address indoor
ing individuals wich IDD how co navigate inde- travel training due to the skill sets thac would
pendently. These findings are similar to social have been required for teaching number recogni-
validity data collected from teacher perceptions in tion, elevator or stairwell navigation, and having
previous research (Mechling & Seid, 2011). more than one destination within a rouce. Fucure
The results of this study make several unique research should address componencs of combined
concributions to research related to travel training indoor and outdoor travel training and add more
and technology. First, it addressed cravel training stops within the route. In this present study, par-
CO include navigacion co a specific location and ticipants were taught to navigate to the entrance
back to a starting location. Second, no assistance of a building.
Summer 2013Fourth, using this technology has some dis- Fourth; teachers must also be prepared when
advantages. Traveling in the rain and bright sun- teaching travel training to use permanent land-
light made it difficult to see pictures displayed on marks that will not be moved. Pictures taken for
the video iPod. Participants wete taught to find any type of insttuction should closely match tar-
shade if they could not see the pictutes due to the geted stimuli. For example, if taking pictures of
sunlight and were taught to carry an umbrella and landmarks or outdoors, it is important to consider
the iPod when it was raining. Future studies the weathet and seasons to closely match targeted
should considet weather, address protective de- landmarks and not take the pictures too fat in ad-
vices in harsh weather, and find ways to display vance (e.g., in winter, trees should be bare in the
pictures in bright sunlight. pictures). Considerations must also be made fot
Last, social validit;»' measures were gathered people or cars in the pictures. If you take picture
from undergraduate special education majors and prompts to include different objects (e.g., cars,
minors who also provided paid support for the people) it is important during training to discuss
program working dii:ectly with patticipants on a how these items might not be in the pictute when
weekly basis. Therefore, these individuals were they actually get to complete the routes in natural
not naive to the sttidy because they wotked with environments or try to take pictures that do not
participants directly when participants navigated include these items. This teaches individuals to
some of the campus routes. attend to the important details or landmarks and
ignore extraneous images or items in the picture
prompts (Mechling, 2008b). In addition, with
I M P L I C A T I O N S FOR P R A C T I C E each picture taken for travel training, it is impor-
tant to consider the visible landmark as well as
There are several implications fot practice based how to appropriately add the directional arrows.
on findings from this study. First, when using When making the pictured routes, capture pic-
technology with individuals with IDD it is im- tures where individuals will have to make deci-
portant to consider physical and fine motor skills sions for turning on the toute. When adding the
needed to opetate iPod devices. Practitioners directional arrows, it is important fot the individ-
should try out the device to see if it must be uals navigating to learn how to walk to the end of
adapted ot modified because one system may not the arrow displayed in the pictute and then push
fit all students. When considering which techno- "forward" on the iPod to get to the next pictured
logical devices or strategies to use it is important landmark. When developing training materials,
to find ways to address the unique needs of indi- be sure not to put the end point of the directional
viduals with disabilities and accommodate indi- arrow in the middle of a crosswalk or intersection.
vidualized strategies when possible (Cihak, Most importantly, a support system such as a vol-
Kessler, & Alberto, 2007). Second, it is important unteer walker should use the pictures from the
for practitioners to stay abreast of technology re- video iPod at least once a week to check routes for
search and collaborate with assistive technology changes with landmarks and notify the researcher
experts who keep devices circulating (rather than of any changes so the route can be modified.
sitting on shelves) because technology can facili- Last, with minimal preparation time, picture
tate increased learning or independence for indi- prompts can also be used to teach rriany func-
viduals with disabilities (Mechling, 2007). Third, tional or academic skills beyond pedestrian navi-
it is important to consider the behaviors to be gation as they have in similar studies related to
taught before choosing an intervention. Consider- independent living or vocational skills (Copeland
ing the use of auditory or video prompting and & Hughes, 2000; Riffel et al., 2005; Wacker &
modeling paired with travel ttaining is impottant Berg, 1984). If video iPods are not available,
due to limited alertness or safety concerns. Partic- photo albums or rings of pictures can also be used
ipants can be more alert with cars without audi- to help with navigation or prompting of other
tory prompts. In this study, picture prompting skill sets (Mechling, 2008a). Although iPods are
with directional arrows allowed participants to be age-appropriate, there are other ways to deliver
alert to the surroundings. picture prompt instruction while still ptoviding
Exceptional Children 471explicit instruction and stimuli closer to natural struction on generalization to the natural environment.
environments. It is important to remember an ad- Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 6,
varitage of using multimedia instruction (e.g., 46-53.
videos or pictures) is that it can provide repeated Cooper, J. O., Heron, T E., & Heward, W. L (2007).
practice, teach several trials, and provide over- Applied behavior analysis (2"'' ed.). Upper Saddle River,
learning in many emergency and nonemergency NJ: Pearson.
situations (Mechling, 2008b). By using technol- Copeland, S. R., & Hughes, G. (2000). Acquisition of
ogy and picture prompts, individuals with disabil- a picture prohipt strategy to increase independent per-
ities are not exempt from travel training if they formance. Education and Training in Mental Retarda-
are unable to read or tell tiitie consistently. tion and Developmental Disabilities, 35, 294-305.
. Teaching pedestriaii navigation skills using Fickas, S., Sohlberg, M., & Hung, P (2008). Route-fol-
picture prorhpts displayed on a video iPod appears lowing assistance for travelers with cognitive impair-
to be a promising support for expanding access to ments: A comparison of four prompt modes.
employment, recreational opportunities, and in- International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 66,
creasing independent travel for young adults with 876-888. doi:lÖ.l0l6/j.ijhcs.2008.07.006
IDD. When using video iPods,- it is irhpörtant to Goodkin, H. F. (1977). Transportation accessibility. In
consider how to teach these explicitly in an age- The White House Conference on Handicapped Individu-
appropriate way while keeping individuals alert to als: Vol. J. Awareness paper. Washington, DC: The
their surroundings. This study was designed to Clearing House on the Handicapped, Office for Hand-
demonstrate the use of handheld devices to teach icapped individuals.
pedestrian navigation skills to individuals with Groce, M. (1996a). A model of a travel training pro-
IDD. Although results from this study were posi- gram: The New York City board of education travel
tive, this is only the third study that has paired training program. NICHY: Transition Summary, 9,
handheld technology with pedestrian navigation 10-13.
skills (Fi'ckas, Sohlb'erg, & Hung, 2008; Mechling Croce, M. (1996b). An,introduction to travel training.
& O'Brien, 2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011). NICHY: Transition Summary, 9, 2-5.
Therefore, additional research is needed before Groce, M. (2000). Travel training: Getting out and
using picture prompts displayed on video iPods to about without fear. Exceptional Parent, 30, 26-30.
teach pedestrian navigation skills cari be consid-
Hammond, D. L., Whatley, A. D., Ayres, K. M., &
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teach iPod use to students with moderate intellectual
disabilities. Education and Training in Autism and De-
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