Extract from: Area-based conservation as a key tool for delivering SDGs
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Extract from:
Area-based conservation
as a key tool for
delivering SDGs
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 I
© EQUILIBRIUM RESEARCH
SDG 11:
Sustainable cities and
communities
Summary for policy makers
Over half the world’s population now lives in cities, a dramatic
shift that still shows no sign of slowing down. Cities have huge
footprints in terms of resources and energy, and also face many
internal problems from urban pollution, inadequate water supplies,
poor sanitation, disaster risk and disease – all challenges that SDG 11
attempts to address. Effective area-based conservation offers many
options discussed, for instance, under SDGs 3, 6 and 13, but there are
several city-specific issues, including:
● Disaster risk reduction through using natural ecosystems for
coastal protection, soil stabilisation to prevent dust storms,
protection of steep slopes and wetlands and riverine habitats to
slow water flow and reduce soil sealing and flood risk
● Improving air quality through carefully planned vegetation and
the retention of parks and gardens
● Managing, expanding and to some extent rewilding green spaces
in cities to maximise their potential to supply areas for exercise,
relaxation and emotional wellbeing
● Sustainable livelihoods for communities by supporting local food
production, tourism, buffering against extreme weather, etc.
● Maintaining or restoring habitat connectivity within cities to
maximise benefits for both biodiversity and people.
Many protected and conserved areas contribute to sustainable
cities: nature reserves inside urban areas, larger protected
areas adjacent or nearby, and a wide variety of commons, parks,
watershed protection areas, zoos, botanical gardens and the
grounds of religious buildings, all integrated within a network of
green space.
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 179
SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities
What is the challenge? Cities cover 3 per cent of the Earth’s land,15
about 200,000 km2 in total, but have
We are becoming a global community of city unprecedented levels of consumption and
dwellers. This creates two challenges: how to waste.16 City dwellers, particularly in
address the needs of rapidly expanding cities developed countries, buy goods and energy
and how to support the smaller communities, that use resources and cause pollution and
which may themselves have changed climate change in many countries.17 More
dramatically through out-migration and an tightly packed people with higher wages18 also
aging population. change consumption patterns, with
increasing consumption of meat, dairy and
Today, for the first time in human history, processed foods taking up more land
most people live in cities. Many seldom ever resources.19 The footprint of the city – the
leave the city; many people will never move impact that it has beyond its boundaries –
away from the city in which they were born has components related to food, water,
and will have little interaction with the natural transport infrastructure, biodiversity and
world. Others, in all socio-economic classes, climate change. Cities cannot be self-
move between the city and the country on sufficient, but the way in which they are
a regular basis. The dramatic paradigm planned and developed can radically
shift from country to city has profound influence the size of their footprint.
implications for both rural and urban
populations. Within the city itself, there are multiple
challenges. Some of the most glittering city
Although cities have played a critical role in centres are surrounded by massive slums
civilisation since the 3rd millennium BCE, where people live desperate, dangerous lives
until very recently people lived mainly in rural of poverty and deprivation. East Africa’s slum
areas or small settlements. Before 1800, cities population tripled in the last 25 years,20 and
contained less than 2.5 per cent of the world’s includes 72 per cent of city dwellers in sub-
population.1 Industrialisation witnessed a Saharan Africa.21 Slums encourage crime,
massive increase, particularly in Europe and threatening everyone. Municipal authorities
North America, so that by 1900, a tenth of have not kept pace with provision of clean
the global population lived in cities,2 and by water, sanitation, housing, transport,
1960, a third.3 In 1990, there were still only healthcare or schools. Urban air pollution
10 cities with over 10 million inhabitants4 but causes global death tolls measured in hundreds
by 2017 there were 34,5 and by 2030, 13 new of thousands a year, driven by transport
megacities are expected to emerge.6 In the 21st pollution, unregulated industries and often by
century, cities are merging, forming massive use of woodfuel and charcoal. Woodfuel
urban, suburban or peri-urban sprawls.7 In collection is the largest cause of forest
2007, 5,000 years after the first cities, the degradation in Africa.22 Household air
global balance tipped, with more people living pollution from solid fuels causes more deaths
in urban than rural areas.8 than malaria,23 7,350-16,200 premature
deaths and six million asthma attacks every
This shift is likely to continue. Africa is the year in greater Delhi are due to particulate
fastest urbanising continent, from a situation pollution.24 Cities also act as centres for disease
in 1960 when there were only five cities in dispersal.25 Poor planning means many
sub-Saharan Africa with over half a million people – usually poor – are exposed to disasters
inhabitants to 2015 when there were 84; by caused by climate events or earthquakes in
2030 there will probably be over 140.9 Africa’s cities like Dhaka.26 Soil sealing – with concrete
urban population is expected to rise by over or tarmac – reduces soil life,27 changes surface
300 million between 2000 and 203010 and albedo (reflection) thus raising temperatures,28
to be 1.23 billion by 2050,11 with urban land and increases the chances of flooding29 with
cover likely to increase twelve-fold from 2000 stormwater contaminated with pollutants.30
to 2050,12 particularly in the east and west.13 Many cities are short of green spaces for
For now, this global trend seems irreversible.14 people to relax, leading to social tensions and
to nature deficit disorder, increasingly
recognised as a problem for today’s children.
180 SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021
SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities
Cities provide many benefits – better jobs, with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
education and lifestyle – which is why people Reduction 2015-2030. Target 11.4 is to
move there. They can also provide important “Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard
opportunities for sustainable living, with per the world’s cultural and natural heritage”,
capita resource consumption much less than which has a key place in our analysis but
it is in more dispersed populations.31 But this appears to be aimed at natural and cultural
assumes good planning and infrastructure World Heritage sites and seems an odd fit
and at present many cities continue the with the other parts of the target.
unsustainable use of ecosystems near and
far. Addressing these multiple obstacles
is the role of city planners and politicians How can effective area-
around the world – a task that is getting more
complicated all the time.
based conservation
help?
At the same time, communities outside cities
are facing different but related challenges. Area-based conservation provides many
Out-migration can alter power balances and of the ecosystem services that cities and
undermine traditional farming systems. Out- communities need to function, as described
migration of men from mountain villages elsewhere: for instance, for food security
has caused pasture degradation in Pakistan; (SDG 2), support for healthy living (SDG 3),
women, children and older people are unable to provide freshwater to urban areas
to enforce traditional user limits and outsiders (SDG 6), help mitigate climate change and
have been grazing large numbers of animals.32 disasters (SDG 13) and support biodiversity
In Nepal, an exodus from upland areas has conservation (SDGs 14 and 15). Some of the
meant farm soils in these areas are now less SDG 11 targets outlined above in effect repeat
fertile due to the fact that labour shortages these general aims through an urban lens,
have led to fewer livestock and less manure.33 others are focused more explicitly on needs
Demands from urban areas conversely put that are specific to cities. In all the cases
rural communities under pressure; there is an below, both fully protected areas and other
increasing disconnect between cities and their natural or semi-natural systems, including
surroundings.34 The rapid spread of cities OECMs, have benefits to offer.
means that peri-urban areas are often subject
to compulsory purchase, land acquisitions and Providing green space: Parks,
tenure changes that have damaging social and gardens and nature reserves within cities
environmental impacts.35 are increasingly recognised as vital safety
valves to allow space for relaxation, exercise
This SDG focuses on the massive task of and emotional wellbeing.36 But not all green
building safe, pleasant and resilient cities and space is equal. Parks with higher biodiversity
communities, with “participatory, integrated were found to provide greater restorative
and sustainable human settlement planning”. benefits, independent of age, gender or ethnic
Target 11.5 aims to reduce disasters, including background.37 While many urban parks will
water-related disasters, with direct links to be rather artificial environments and not
effective area-based conservation; this issue is suitable as protected areas, a growing number
examined under SDG 13. Target 11.6 aims to of municipal authorities are leaving parts of
“reduce the adverse per capita environmental the area to go back to nature, or with only
impact of cities, including by paying special light management, making them suitable
attention to air quality and municipal and as OECMs. Just as important, protected
other waste management”, while 11.7 focuses areas next to, close to or sometimes even
on “universal access to safe, inclusive and within a city provide important biodiversity
accessible, green and public spaces...”. 11.A conservation at the same time as providing
seeks better links between urban, peri-urban a wide range of other ecosystem services.
and rural areas and 11.B aims for “integrated Demand can be incredibly high: Bukhansan
policies and plans towards inclusion, resource National Park, outside Seoul, Korea, receives
efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to 5-10 million visitors a year.38
climate change, resilience to disasters” in line
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 181
SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities
Improving air quality: Green space in fast.50 Green infrastructure is identified as a
cities has an additional benefit: it can improve critical element in addressing soil sealing.51
air quality. Trees mitigate problems of urban Green spaces in cities can help to reduce
heat islands, sequester carbon dioxide and urban temperatures. Restoration often plays a
help to trap air pollutants on their leaves,39 critical role in urban DRR.52
although choice and location of vegetation
help determine its effectiveness in pollution Finally, it is important that urban protected
reduction.40 Urban parks, of varying degrees areas and other green spaces do not remain
of naturalness, can play an important role in as isolated “islands”, but are connected into
both reducing air pollution and in giving city a coherent network, ideally also linked to
dwellers cleaner environments in which to ecosystems beyond the city boundary. The
exercise.41 form and extent of these linkages will to some
extent be determined by the prior history
Sustainable livelihoods for and design of the city, although increasingly
communities: Protected areas and OECMs urban planners are trying to restore biological
also provide support for communities of corridors and other linking habitats.53 Such
any size; including direct provision of food links are not only important ecologically, but
from marine protected areas, various ways also help people living in cities to be more
of buffering communities against weather- closely connected to a wider environment
related problems and the role of tourism in beyond urban limits. Natural corridors like
boosting local income. These benefits have rivers are particularly important; survival or
been described in other sections, but have re-emergence of aquatic animals can provide
particular relevance to communities, and an important focus of public interest and
several of the case studies describe these. encourage water clean-up activities.
Disaster risk reduction and climate
adaptation: Most of the world’s megacities Approaches that
are located in coastal areas,42 and many are
therefore vulnerable to both sea-level rise
support SDG 11
and the increased storm events expected All the values described throughout this
under climate change.43 Settlements in report have relevance to communities
arid environments like Kuwait City44 suffer and these benefits can come from any
increasing dust storms resulting in increased management approach or governance type.
bronchial asthma and mortality.45 Soil sealing But in addition, there are several specialised
leads to measurable increases in the scale and protected and conserved areas that are
severity of flooding.46 Breakdown of ecosystem particularly suited to urban and community
services has been identified as the root of resilience:
many urban “natural disasters”, perhaps most
famously after Hurricane Katrina, which
Protected areas
devastated large areas of New Orleans after
the natural defences previously provided ● Urban nature reserves: Are critical
by coastal wetlands had been degraded and elements here and can exist successfully
destroyed.47 Increasingly, city residents are even in huge, crowded cities.54 Such places
appreciating the value of natural defences to will inevitably have limited biodiversity but
provide some or all of the buffering necessary provide learning places for children and
to prepare for extreme weather events or others. Larger animals that survive there
tsunamis:48 coastal mangroves and swamp can become locally famous, like the cougar
forests, coral reefs and wetlands, inland flood living in the Hollywood Hills of Los
plains, riparian forests, vegetation cover Angeles. Here the emphasis is less on
on steep slopes and stabilisation of soils in protecting intact ecosystems, which are
drylands. This can be as a stand-alone form unlikely to have survived within a town or
of protection or through integrating eco-DRR city, but to maintain or restore semi-
with engineering responses,49 and research natural areas that provide both some
suggests that interest in ecosystem-based biodiversity conservation and space for
disaster risk reduction for cities is growing people to appreciate nature.
182 SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021
SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities
● Protected areas adjacent or near to Washington but retaining many natural
cities: A surprising number of cities have features of the original forest.
natural areas that have survived, or been ● Community conserved areas: The type
protected, nearby: famously this includes of governance involved is important in
places like Nairobi National Park, where these contexts as well. An increasing
visitors can see a fair proportion of Africa’s number of communities are setting up or
larger game animals with the skyscrapers managing their own protected areas, both
of Kenya’s capital in the background. But within cities and at the edges of smaller
many other cities have similar: places such communities. These places often do not
as Mumbai, Seoul, Helsinki, Rio de contain iconic wildlife or rare species but
Janeiro, Cape Town and Paris. Here have huge importance as daily places for
nature is likely to be wilder but although relaxation for local people. In the industrial
visitation can be high, they are one step city of Birmingham in the British West
less accessible to city dwellers and many Midlands, Mosely Bog is a Local Nature
will need encouragement to visit. Reserve, famous as the childhood play
● World Heritage sites: Rather space of JRR Tolkien, author of Lord of the
confusingly, SDG 11 also refers explicitly to Rings, and the wild areas remind fans of
World Heritage. Many natural World key images from the books.
Heritage sites are large, near-intact
ecosystems like Serengeti, and do not
Key complementary approaches
really fit the remit of this SDG. But many
urban or peri-urban World Heritage sites, These may be applied in protected areas,
particularly cultural sites, also have or OECMs, or in other effective area-based
important natural values, like the jungle strategies:
fragments around Angkor Wat in
Cambodia or the deserts surrounding ● Corridors: Many cities have the potential
Petra in Jordan. to maintain biological corridors using
existing features, such as natural habitats
along rivers, streams, coastline,
OECMs
mangroves, rocky outcrops or similar.
● Commons, nature parks, watershed Sydney maintains a protected area that
protection areas that qualify as functions as an effective corridor along
OECMs: Most cities contain other green several miles of its coastline, while
spaces of varying naturalness; one residents of Washington DC can walk out
important step in addressing sustainability of the city along the banks of the Potomac
can be to vary management in such places to natural woodland, even though this is
to encourage wildlife and increase the surrounded on both sides by urban sprawl.
potential emotional capital to be gained by
users. Such restoration efforts often need
careful stakeholder negotiations; city
dwellers are often wary of projects like
woodland restoration because of the
perceived risk that such places harbour
criminals, but many cities have
successfully undertaken restoration
activities over the last few years. In cities
that expanded very fast, as in much of
Europe and North America, former
parklands, commons or even natural
features not suitable for building have
been retained and provide important
green spaces. Ravenna Park in Seattle is a
half mile wooded ravine bought by the city
in 1911, now in a densely populated part of
the city close to the University of
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 183
Case study
A city in nature – Singapore’s vision of restoring
nature into the city
Co-benefit Network of urban nature reserves, parks and other green areas, Singapore
SDGs
Chee Chiew
Leong, Boyi Zhou
(National Parks
Board, Singapore
Botanic Gardens)
and Chris Hails.
© NPARKS
Background: One degree north of the Sustainability Challenge: Mr Lee Kuan
equator, Singapore is situated at the heart Yew had the daunting task of developing
of a region of high biodiversity. Before the a country which had no natural resources,
settlement of the British in 1819 led by Sir dominated by squatters and deplorable living
Stamford Raffles, Singapore was covered conditions; it had none of the traditional
with fairly intact tropical rainforest, swamps sources of income and its people were the
and mangroves. The naturalist Alfred Russel most precious resource. While preparing
Wallace visited the island in 1854 and to develop the city, Mr Lee Kuan Yew had a
described it as “a multitude of small hills still clear vision of the environment he wanted
covered in virgin forest”. to create, “I have always believed that
a blighted urban landscape, a concrete
A rapidly expanding human population soon jungle destroys the human spirit. We
took its toll, and most of the forests were need the greenery of nature to lift up our
cleared for agriculture and the creation of spirits”. He envisioned that a clean and
settlements. By 1900, 90 per cent of the green environment would enable Singapore
primeval forest had been cleared. While to “distinguish [herself] from other Third
the British made efforts to designate forest World countries” and gain a competitive edge
reserves and nature reserves, the efforts by encouraging “businessmen and tourists
waxed and waned, leaving only a few small [to make her] a base for their businesses and
forest reserves scattered across the island by tours of the region”. In order to achieve Mr
1936. It was not until the 1960s, that the then Lee’s vision, a balance between development
Prime Minister of independent Singapore, and the conservation of greenery was needed.
Mr Lee Kuan Yew, made a concerted effort
to green up Singapore under the Garden City
campaign.
184 SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021
Case study
Figure 11.1: Nature
Parks that buffer
the Central
Catchment Nature
Reserve and Bukit
Timah Nature
Reserve
Conservation Solution: In the early environment by signing several international
years, Singapore established clear parameters agreements including the Convention on
for greenery through park provision standards Biological Diversity, the UN Framework
and road codes, to ensure greenery was Convention on Climate Change and the
incorporated in the planning process. A UN Convention to Combat Desertification,
national tree planting campaign was launched which were opened for signature at the Earth
in 1963, and subsequently an ambitious Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Singapore
“Garden City Campaign” in 1967. The initial also became part of the UN Forum on
focus was on tree planting for greenery and Forests, and a signatory to the Convention on
shade, and by 1974 nearly 160,000 trees had International Trade in Endangered Species of
been planted. The activity became a community Wild Fauna and Flora.
affair engaging civil society groups, and
government and private developers were The Garden City established Singapore’s
required to include green areas and trees in all basic network of gardens, parks and greenery,
new construction schemes. linked by a network of green corridors called
Park Connectors. From this momentum, the
In the 1980s, the government commissioned a concept of the “Garden City” evolved into a
study which took a more ecological approach “City in a Garden”, which strived to make
to the conservation of remaining biodiversity- greenery even more pervasive island-wide.
rich habitats, urban and parks plantings, and The Park Connector Network was extended
the development of ecological corridors. Birds further. In the built environment, work began
were the indicator group around which these to simulate the services of tropical rainforest
initial plans were built: if habitats for birds by creating multi-layered vegetation both
could be conserved, created and connected, it in green space plantings and on buildings.
would be the first step towards an ecologically These initiatives improved the environment
sound planning system. and made Singapore more liveable amidst a
growing population.
In 1990, the government formed the National
Parks Board (NParks), which in 1996 took In 2015, NParks launched a holistic Nature
over the management of all aspects of Nature Conservation Masterplan,55 which charts
Reserves and green spaces in the country. the course of Singapore’s future biodiversity
Singapore signalled its commitment to the conservation efforts through the four key
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 185
Case study
technology so that ecological corridors have
a sound scientific basis.59 To establish these
corridors, greenery along streetscapes are
intensified, resulting in multi-tiered planting
replicating the natural structure of forests,
known as Nature Ways. Nature Ways are
also planted with native flora, with a special
emphasis being placed upon food plants for
indigenous birds and butterflies to facilitate
the dispersal of native biodiversity. Further
extended walking and cycling trails for
nature and recreation, such as the Round
Island Route and the Coast-to-Coast Trail,
Figure 11.2: areas of (i) conservation of key habitats, help to strengthen the connectivity between
Replicating (ii) restoration, enhancement and species Singapore’s pockets of green spaces and create
the structure
of tropical recovery, (iii) research on conservation a more extensive Park Connector Network.
rainforests biology and planning, and (iv) public outreach
in the built and community stewardship. To ensure that the 2 million urban trees in
environment.
parks and streetscapes are healthy, NParks
Four nature reserves, two of which are listed has put in place a comprehensive tree
as ASEAN heritage parks (Bukit Timah Nature management regime that includes regular
Reserve and Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve), inspections and pruning, professional
currently provide the core refugia for certification of staff, and leveraging on
biodiversity, covering representative habitats technology. Advanced tree assessment is
such as lowland rainforests, freshwater carried out using diagnostic equipment such
swamp forest, mangroves and mudflats. The as the resistograph and tomograph. Drones
boundary between these reserves and the are used to conduct aerial inspections. Data
urban environment is often a sharp one, so a models, such as the Tree Structural Model,
series of “nature parks” are being established are used to project the stability of trees under
to buffer the nature reserves, to protect different wind speeds.
them against the impact of urbanisation,
and provide more space for nature-based Habitat enhancement and species recovery
recreation, such as hiking and bird watching. programmes have been put in place to further
These nature parks also help take the visitor conserve threatened, native biodiversity. For
pressure off core biodiversity areas. example, seamless water–land interfaces are
created by breaking open concrete canals
Beyond securing buffer parks adjacent to the and re-wilding of rivers. Together with the
Nature Reserves, NParks adopts a science- reduction of pollution and the cleaning
based approach to nature conservation. For of waterways, these efforts have resulted
instance, agent-based modelling predicting in a natural re-establishment of the once
the movement and settlement of coral extirpated Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogale
propagules56 helped validate the suitability perspicillata) with a population now
of Sisters’ Islands as Singapore’s first Marine numbering more than 80 individuals which
Park.57 The Mandai Mangrove and Mudflat have penetrated the city centre.
was recently identified for conservation as
a nature park following ecological studies Once locally extinct, a small group of 15
demonstrating the complementary role the Oriental Pied Hornbills (Anthracoceros
habitat played in providing a rich feeding albirostris) were discovered on an offshore
ground for migratory shorebirds roosting in island in 1994. This triggered trials with nest
Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve.58 boxes that eventually resulted in a healthy
population of these magnificent birds living
Within this matrix, ecological connectivity wild, right in the heart of the city, thriving off
between green spaces is being enhanced. the ecological corridors and green spaces and
“Least resistance” pathways for various the now-mature fruiting trees planted there.
fauna have been modelled using GIS Other species recovery programmes covering
186 SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021Case study
plants to invertebrates are underway covering The naturalising
marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. of a concrete
canal in Bishan-
Ang Mo Kio Park
Today, the City in a Garden is home to more through the
than 400 species of birds, 330 species of Active, Beautiful
and Clean
butterflies and over 250 species of hard (ABC) Waters
corals, accounting for more than 30 per programme.
cent of known global hard coral diversity. At
least 2,400 native vascular plants have also
been recorded, of which more than 1,845
species are classified as extant in Singapore.
NParks and its partners continue to monitor
© NPARKS
biodiversity closely through regular surveys,
in both terrestrial and marine areas. Since
2009, 225 species of native vascular plants
have been discovered or rediscovered, Biophilic design
including the endemic Singapore Ginger of the Learning
Forest in the
(Zingiber singapurensis), Hanguana rubinea Singapore Botanic
and Hanguana triangulata. Surveys in Gardens.
Singapore’s natural areas have also yielded
notable faunal records, including the
Neptune’s Cup Sponge (Cliona patera), which
was once presumed to be globally extinct
and Asiophlugis temasek, a species of katydid
new to science.
NParks has also started to introduce
© NPARKS
biophilic design in gardens and parks,
creating recreational spaces that support
both ecological and social communities.
The Learning Forest is a 10-ha secondary more than 1,500 community gardens across
forest that lies within the buffer zone of Singapore, including outdoor and indoor
the Singapore Botanic Gardens UNESCO gardening groups. Similar to CIB, Community
World Heritage site. Using historical maps in Nature (CIN) is a national movement to
and spatial modelling, NParks restored connect and engage different groups in the
the original extent of freshwater swamp community to conserve Singapore’s natural
in the area and extended the forest buffer heritage. NParks involves schools, volunteers
around them using the framework species and partners for its CIN programmes that
reforestation methods. The landscapes in promote and raise awareness of biodiversity
the Learning Forest, such as the Discovery and conservation. More than 4,300 citizen
Wetlands and the Walk of Giants, were scientists have participated in NParks’
designed to provide immersive experiences in biodiversity surveys, and more than 400
nature. Today, the Singapore Botanic Garden schools and 58,000 students have taken part
stands out as the world’s premier tropical in CIN programmes.
botanic garden, with its newly developed Seed
Bank and arboretum of dipterocarp trees, Next steps: In March 2020, Singapore
playing a vital role in safeguarding plant announced its new vision of City in Nature.
biodiversity in Southeast Asia. This new vision builds on what Singapore
has achieved as a biophilic City in a Garden,
NParks developed active outreach to strengthen Singapore’s distinctiveness as
programmes for communities. For example, a highly liveable city, while mitigating the
the Community in Bloom (CIB) gardening impacts of urbanisation and climate change.
movement fosters community spirit and As Singapore moves towards becoming a
brings residents together to develop a sense City in Nature, NParks will further restore
of ownership of the greening. Today, there are nature into the urban fabric. Singapore’s
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 187Case study
transformation into a City in Nature will to health and wellbeing. NParks has also
be guided by four key strategies – (i) the launched the OneMillionTrees movement to
protection and expansion of Singapore’s plant a million trees across Singapore between
natural capital, (ii) intensifying nature in 2020 and 2030. Communities will also be
gardens and parks, (iii) restoring nature into invited to take part in the design, building
the built environment, and (iv) strengthening and management of more than 50 parks. The
connectivity between Singapore’s green current nature volunteer base of 48,000 is
spaces. targeted to expand to 70,000 by 2030.
To protect and extend its natural capital, Lessons Learned: The lesson from
Singapore will expand its Nature Park Singapore is that a small land-constrained
Network to our nature reserves, increasing island state of 721.5 km2, with a population
the land area of nature parks by over 50 per of 5.6 million people, can remain rich in
cent by 2030. Landscapes in gardens and biodiversity and have a community of
parks will be curated to make them more partners and stewards in nature combined
natural, bringing forth benefits to health and with exceptional economic development.
wellbeing. As part of this effort, our gardens From the early years of its independence,
and parks will serve as nature-based solutions forward planning and concerted efforts
for flood mitigation around coastal and to green up the city allowed Singapore to
riverine areas through the naturalisation of become one of the greenest cities in the world,
waterbodies. NParks will also work to restore according to the MIT City Lab Treepedia
nature into the built environment to mitigate Index.61 A home-grown Singapore Index on
the harshness of the urban environment, Cities’ Biodiversity,62 which serves as a self-
through intensifying the implementation assessment tool to monitor progress of their
of Nature Ways and skyrise greenery, with biodiversity conservation efforts, has been
a focus on greening the hotter areas on the adopted by 30 cities in the world. In addition,
island, including industrial estates. Skyrise NParks has been awarded the UNESCO Sultan
greenery has been found to be capable of Qaboos Prize for Environmental Preservation
reducing ambient temperatures by 1.5oC and in 2017 and the Stephen R. Kellert Biophilic
surface temperature by 18oC.60 Connectivity Design Award in 2019.
between Singapore’s green spaces will
be further strengthened such that every This has been a huge achievement from such
household will be within a 10-minute walk of a challenging start only a little over 50 years
a park by 2030, making gardens and parks ago and has placed Singapore as a global
even more accessible. NParks also aspires to leader for integrating modern city living with
make every road a Nature Way. biodiversity conservation.
A City in Nature will enable the community to
forge closer bonds through active stewardship
of the environment. Therapeutic gardens and
nature play-gardens will bring Singaporeans
closer to nature, thereby bringing benefits
188 SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021Case study
Community conserved areas as building
blocks for sustainable communities
Community-conserved areas, State of Nagaland, India Co-benefit
SDGs
© SIDDHARTH EDAKE
“We are now so used to seeing the youth of Sustainability challenge: Despite
the villages observing wildlife and plants, its rich natural forested landscapes, the
that we make a point of guiding them to the local biodiversity in Nagaland in Northeast
areas where we see something interesting!” India is threatened by hunting, tree felling
– By the women of the villages – and habitat destruction through reduced Yoji Natori (Akita
fallow shifting cultivation (or “jhuming”). International
University and
“On my exposure tour to Pakke in Arunachal Hunting is an important part of the culture Conservation
Pradesh I was amazed to see so many wild of Naga people; as one Naga man told us, International
hornbills. It was then that the conservation “we, the Nagas, eat everything that moves”. Japan). Pia Sethi,
(Centre for Ecology,
message really hit me.” Species such as the hornbill are iconic in Development
– Bokato Muru – Naga attire and folklore. The local tribe and Research –
of Sumi traditionally used a variety of CEDAR). Siddharth
Edake and Yatish
Background: The case study site is located traps and snares to hunt. However, guns
Lele (The Energy
in the mountainous state of Nagaland in and destructive fishing practices, such as and Resources
Northeast India, bordering with Myanmar. dynamite and electric currents, replace Institute – TERI).
The communities in Nagaland have full traditional hunting methods today. This has
ownership of the land, which is unique in led to alarming declines in wildlife to the
India. Faced with the destructive way of point the Naga people themselves notice
hunting and fishing practised in recent years, empty forests and degradation of their
the people of three villages (Sükhai, Kivikhü culture by their own actions.
and Ghükhüyi in Zunheboto district) have
taken a bold decision to protect parts of Jhuming is a traditional land use which
their land from hunting, and use them as was sustainable in that the land produced
the nucleus of alternative livelihood sources sufficient agricultural produce for families
based on ecotourism. Around this activity, without external nutrient inputs in
new scientific information is generated and rotation cycles as long as 15-30 years.
social infrastructure is being developed. Due to increasing village population sizes,
cultivation now occurs in shorter rotational
cycles (half the traditional duration or
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 189Case study
less).1 The losses of productivity in crops, archive the information. The feedback from
forests and soil erosion have become major the experts creates incentive for the youth
sustainability concerns. to continue the biodiversity documentation
activities and improve their skills, while the
Conservation solution: In Nagaland, database is updated at the same time. As of
traditional conservation and wise-use 2019, 222 species of bird, 31 species of reptile,
practices helped protect biodiversity over the 11 species of amphibian, 200 species of
centuries. butterfly and more than 200 species of moths
have been recorded.
The revival of traditional conservation
practices through the creation of The National Biological Diversity Act 2002
Community-Conserved Areas (CCAs) offers mandates the preparation of People’s
hope for conservation, as communities set Biodiversity Registers (PBRs). The villages
aside parcels of forests within productive, prepared Nagaland’s first three with
jhum landscapes. the support of TERI researchers. The
production of PBRs is significant as they are
To ensure the future of Nagaland’s CCAs a documentation of traditional ecological
and thereby its biodiversity, a multi-pronged knowledge from an oral culture. These
approach has been taken, which includes publications have become not only great
alternative livelihood opportunities through sources of information on biodiversity and
the development of wildlife ecotourism, traditional knowledge and practices, but
legal recognition, ecological restoration and also the references for other communities to
ecological monitoring. follow, as well as a pride of the community.
They also act as a starting point for access and
The villages of Sükhai, Kivikhü and Ghükhüyi benefit sharing arrangements for the local
in Zunheboto district of Nagaland have people.
respectively established CCAs and brought
them together to jointly establish the Tizü Two of the CCAs of Sükhai and Ghükhüyi
Valley Biodiversity Conservation and have CCA patches that comprise abandoned
Livelihood Network (TVBCLN). A total of jhums. In the case of Sükhai, many of the
939 ha of forest are protected by revived village people do not have the time to jhum
traditional resource management methods. in distant areas of the forest. Some of the
TVBCLN decided to ban any form of hunting, village people, for example, use cars to reach
tree felling, collection of non-timber forest farm sites, but the more distant areas are
products and destructive forms of fishing permanently abandoned back to forest.
in the CCAs. They also worked with the Population size of the village is dwindling as
state government to have the CCA formally people move out; hence smaller jhumed areas
recognised, so that administrative support are probably sufficient for meeting people’s
becomes available. The village councils went agricultural needs. Moreover, following the
beyond CCA boundaries and banned hunting start of community conservation, the people
and destructive fishing in all land within their are now cultivating each jhum patch for
territory, totalling 3,751 ha. three years instead of just two (Ivan Jhimo,
personal comment).
Researchers from The Energy and Resources
Institute (TERI) helped villagers to build a Measures put in place at CCAs to support
biodiversity database of the area.63 Members conservation and sustainability objectives
of village youth have been trained in wildlife include:64
photography and videography so that they
can document the wealth of local biodiversity. ● Useful skills and knowledge for ecotour
A WhatsApp group provides a platform for guides are being built through the training
them to share the photos and videos and for of youth in photography and videography
experts to correctly identify the species and to and through the access to expert feedback
from online platforms. [SDG 4; Target 4.4]
1
Though there is some evidence that jhuming may
be reducing and/or occurring closer to villages as
populations migrate out.
190 SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021Case study
● CCA regulations protect a stretch of in wildlife documentation through the
the Tizü river to restore the freshwater monitoring activities function as ecotourism
ecosystem. [SDG 6; Target 6.6] guides. Youth, women’s groups and the
● CCAs contribute to preservation of the marginalised members of the community
Naga culture and natural heritage of reported increases in their household income
Nagaland. [SDG 11; Target 11.4] including through the sale of traditional
● Ecotourism revenues contribute to those products and handicrafts. The protection of a
who are economically disadvantaged. stretch of the Tizü river provided by the CCA
[SDG 10] has increased the fish catch downstream.
● Protection of forest contributes to climate
change mitigation as forests here store Interaction with ecotourists increases the
carbon, estimated at 120.77tC/ha. Besides villagers’ ecological awareness, and further
TVBCLN, there are 407 CCAs in Nagaland, leads to better management of common
82 per cent of which, covering more resources, such as jhum practices. The
than 1,700 km2, enforce conservation conservation initiative has also spurred
regulations including logging bans. additional related livelihood activities
TVBCLN as a model can lead the work of including the sale of local produce from
REDD+ in India (North-eastern states homestead gardens, handicrafts and the
account for 25 per cent of India’s forest learning of new skills such as pebble art.
cover). [SDG 13]
● CCAs directly contribute to conservation Lessons learned: The creation of
of terrestrial ecosystems. [SDG 15; Targets community-conserved areas generated
15.1, 15.2, 15.4, 15.5, 15.7] benefits not just for biodiversity, but also
in livelihood and cultural aspects. The
Key benefits to sustainability: Article involvement of communities, through local
371A of the Indian Constitution respects champions and stimulating local initiatives,
Naga’s customary laws and processes, and has been key for successful mainstreaming
traditional rights, including land ownership, of nature in sustainable development and
are fully protected. Village councils have enhanced awareness of sustainability.65
full control over how to manage their land.
Thus, all decisions regarding the CCAs are ● If communities are well-informed and
made by TVBCLN which also has members empowered, they can take steps to protect
of the Village Councils on board. Decisions their natural resources and use them
are discussed regularly in village meetings judiciously.
so that the entire community knows what is ● Having local champions is key to give
happening. PBR preparation, participatory thrust to the initiative and for the
planning and mapping generated awareness communities to own it. This also leads
and ownership of CCA activities. to rapid spread of such conservation
successes and sustained motivation.
Alternative livelihood means that ● Providing the right incentives is critical.
compensating the lack of income by giving Developing working, alternative
up hunting is a priority for TVBCLN. The conservation-linked livelihoods is the
village people are developing nature and lifeline of conservation initiatives that
cultural ecotourism. Due to the remoteness incur financial burdens. A platform that
of the site (7-hour drive from the nearest motivates stakeholders to participate
airport on rough terrain), it is intended, at facilitates the impact of capacity building
least for now, for committed ecotourists. activities to last and expand.
Nonetheless, an increasing number of ● Tapping into traditional knowledge
ecotourists are attracted to the site for its and drawing upon the rich cultural
diversity of birds and butterflies, scenic views, traditions and biological heritage of
cultural practices and the presence of rare local communities gives them a sense
species. The biodiversity monitoring, which of pride in their heritage and enhances
is an important aspect of CCA management conservation outcomes. Documentation of
from the ecological perspective, also enriches the PBR by Sükhai village was an excellent
the ecotourism experience. Villagers trained entry point for enhanced conservation
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 191Case study
Figure
11.3.Boundaries of
the Community
Conserved Areas
discussed in the
case study.
© TERI
activities. All the neighbouring villages the next steps are to expand conservation
wanted to document their biodiversity too. education activities amongst villages
● A good conservation success story can across the landscape. Creation of People’s
work as a model for other communities Biodiversity Registers is required across
to emulate leading to the spread of such villages so that the rich tribal knowledge is
activities. documented at the earliest. The marketing of
● Conservation can be at the nucleus ecotourism is to be strengthened so that the
of related livelihood activities. The ecotourist footfall is enhanced. In the future,
people are now tapping additional local two steps are urgently warranted a) tapping
entrepreneurial opportunities on a small into PES mechanisms such as REDD+ and
scale. others and b) developing access and benefit
● Cohesive social capital and active local sharing opportunities based on PBRs.
institutions promote speedy decision
making and ensure community support Information linked to this case study can
and involvement. also be found through the PANORAMA
initiative.
Next steps: Local communities interact
across the landscape depending on interlinked
resources. The health of one community,
therefore, depends on well-functioning
ecosystems across the landscape. In
particular, the TVBCLN depends on the Tizü
river, but while they protect their stretches
of the river, other villages use batteries and
destructive fishing methods. At the same time,
neighbouring villagers and outsiders illegally
hunt in the network’s landscapes. Therefore,
192 SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021Case study
Combining conservation and cultural
tourism to support local livelihoods
Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park, Jamaica Co-benefit
SDGs
Susan Otuokon
(Jamaica
Conservation and
Development
Trust).
© ANDREW P. SMITH
“The work of managing the Blue and John Background: The Blue and John Crow
Crow Mountains National Park and World Mountains National Park established in
Heritage site has consistently been focused 1993 is 41,198 ha and protects rain and cloud
towards the preservation and promotion forest on the central ridge of three mountain
of the cultural heritage of the Maroons, ranges in eastern Jamaica. Within 2 km of its
in conjunction with conservation of the boundary, there are about 50 rural farming
flora and fauna of the site. The Jamaica communities with a population of just
Conservation and Development Trust (in over 52,000. Three of these (Moore Town,
collaboration with the Government of Charles Town and Scotts Hall) are formally
Jamaica), continues to lead in this, with recognised Maroon communities with their
a focus on sustainable use of the national own leadership, maintaining the traditions
park and World Heritage site through of the escaped, enslaved Africans who mixed
local community engagement, promotion with the first peoples of the island, the Taino.
and support of cultural heritage through The way the Maroons used the mountains,
training, festivals and employment, all of streams, flora, fauna and natural landscape
which redound to the benefit of Maroon and to secure their freedom and sovereignty from
other local communities.” British colonial powers in 1740 is recognised
– Debra-Kay Palmer, Director, World Heritage and in the inscription of the Core Preservation
Cultural Conventions, Ministry of Culture, Gender, Zone of the National Park as a World
Entertainment and Sport, Jamaica –
Heritage site in 2015. The main recreation
area “Holywell” is located just 25 km from
Jamaica’s capital with a population of almost
1 million. Kingston is a UNESCO Cultural City
recognised particularly for its music including
reggae and dancehall.
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 193Case study
Sustainability challenge: Many of culture have long been part of management of
the rural communities around the park are the Blue and John Crow Mountains National
shrinking and cultural heritage is being lost Park. Aside from the involvement of Maroon
due to migration of youth to cities, seeking communities, formal celebrations started
employment as there are very limited in 2000 with the first hosting of Misty Bliss
income-generating opportunities in their – a cultural festival at Holywell in honour
communities. Consequently, in order to keep of the anniversary of the designation of
Maroon communities alive, there is a need to the National Park. Maroon drummers and
find attractive and viable means of livelihood dancers have always been a major part of
for people in the area. There are also issues the entertainment package along with the
with unsustainable land management sale of traditional food and craft – from the
practices around the park area undermining Maroon and other communities. A music
both conservation efforts and long-term festival featuring reggae and other music
sustainability of local communities. While the genres was held at Holywell in 2014 and 2015.
park has proven to be a significant contributor The Kongkongkraba (Abeng) Symphony was
to sustainability (see below), funding for its performed by the Immaculate Conception
management is limited as the Government High School Symphony Orchestra at Holywell
of Jamaica provides only about 30 per in 2018 to celebrate the 25th Anniversary
cent of recurrent operational expenditure of the National Park. In addition, Park
and other more general support through management supports the festivals of the
relevant agencies. In addition, through a co- Maroon communities – helping to seek
management agreement, the non-government sponsorship and promote the events. JCDT
organisation manager (Jamaica Conservation is working with Maroon communities and
and Development Trust – JCDT) is allowed those near to the National Park’s recreation
to retain user fees collected at the two areas to build their capacity for tourism and
recreational areas – Holywell and the Blue hospitality through planning, training and
Mountain Peak Trail. Funds are needed for marketing.
ongoing community outreach, particularly
aimed at changing land management These events and the newly established
practices to more environmentally sustainable Discovery Centre help promote Maroon
ones, for restoration of degraded lands and heritage and build pride in their contribution
enforcement of related legislation. to the protection of the forests of the Blue
and John Crow Mountains. This has led to
Key benefits for sustainability: an interest in visiting Maroon communities
The National Park safeguards and promotes thus helping their tourism businesses to grow.
the cultural heritage of the Maroons of Since the promotion of Maroon heritage
Jamaica, intrinsic to which is their reverence through the Park’s events and more so since
for the mountains as the fortress which the World Heritage site inscription, Maroon
supported their ancestors’ successful freedom communities have seen increased visitation.
fight and as the burial ground for many of Young, local entrepreneurs, in particular,
those who lost their lives. Furthermore, have been able to organise guided tours and
the National Park protects rich biodiversity a tour company which helps ensure income
including the unique Greater Antillean generated remains within the communities.
broadleaf cloud forest that also provides In addition, recreation and tourism are an
water and green space for the Greater important source of funding for the park,
Kingston Metropolitan Area.66 especially as the organisation can retain
legislated user fees and any other income
Conservation solution: Tourism and earned at recreation areas (e.g. for guided
recreation as well as educational opportunities tours, accommodation and events).
for students have been identified as a way to
address the above challenges. At the same time, JCDT aims to keep the user
entry fees low enough to keep access inclusive.
A range of activities have been initiated by Schools are targeted for educational tours and
the park to promote tourism and related with a recent change in school curricula, there
livelihoods in the area. Celebrating nature and has been an upsurge in demand. Despite this,
194 SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021Case study
© UTECH JOURNALISM SOCIETY
Kongkongkraba
Symphony
at Holywell
celebrating
Maroon heritage
and the Blue
and John Crow
Mountains.
few inner-city and local, rural community Next steps: As income from the National
schools were found to be visiting and since Park’s Recreation and Tourism Programme
2019, a partnership has been formed with is used for the operation of the recreation
a private sector foundation to support the areas and management of the wider National
participation of 10 schools/year from these Park, support for marketing is a challenge.
low-income communities. JCDT involve volunteers to assist with social
media and other promotions and used
Lessons learned: Although the the 5th Anniversary of the World Heritage
populations of Kingston and St Andrew, who site inscription in July 2020 to highlight
are potential visitors to Holywell, are at least the significance of the site and encourage
300,000, the site has only about 16,000 visitation to the National Park and Maroon
visitors per year, mainly Jamaican residents. communities.
This indicates a need for enhanced marketing
and transportation improvements. Cultural This case study was prepared by the Executive
events in the natural setting of Holywell Director of the JCDT who was the Manager
attract a new public who have never been to of the National Park until August 2019.
the site and this leads to subsequent visits
to enjoy nature and learn about cultural Information linked to this case study can
heritage. Promotion of Maroon heritage on also be found through the PANORAMA
the National Park’s website and through initiative.
events and the new Discovery Centre has
increased visitation to Maroon communities
and hence business opportunities particularly
for the young who are willing to learn new
skills and livelihood options.
SDGs | Building on Nature | 2021 195Case study
Evolving management of protected areas
as a solution towards a resilient eco-city
Co-benefit Cham Island Marine Protected Area and Hoi An Biosphere Reserve,
SDGs Vietnam
The success of conservation initiatives
implemented by the MPA led the
neighbouring city of Hoi An to be nominated
by UNESCO as a World Biosphere Reserve in
2009. This status recognised the city’s unique
relationship with the Thu Bon estuary, and
its reliance on local mangrove, seagrass and
coral reef habitats. People in this area have
always lived in harmony with nature and
implemented sustainable livelihood practices.
To hold the UNESCO World Biosphere
Reserve certificate, Hoi An city had to adopt
global criteria that included requirements
on ecological and biodiversity conservation
© BUI KIEN QUOC
together with environmentally friendly
economic development.68
Geographically, Cham Island now falls under
the jurisdiction of Hoi An city, and the Cu Lao
“Effective management should come from Cham and Biosphere Reserve Management
the people. Without the people, the Cu Lao Board oversees both areas; the Vice-Chairman
Cham Marine Protected Area and Hoi An of the Hoi An People’s Committee plays a
Biosphere Reserve will not be successful crucial role in coordinating activities between
because they oversee a large geographic the two sites. The creation of the Biosphere
Chu Manh Trinh, territory, which makes it impossible for them Reserve necessitated innovative mechanisms
Research and to understand the unique context of each to manage natural resources and the distinct
International
Cooperation local area. Through asset-based community heritage of the region, while simultaneously
Division, (Cham development, people can combine science encouraging continued economic growth
Islands Marine with their own knowledge about the place through ecotourism and livelihood
Protected Area).
where they live and create strategies to development.
Ashley
Hollenbeck, promote conservation and socio-economic
Executive Director, development.” Cam Thanh is the name of one commune
(Institute for – Farmer, Thanh Dong Organic Garden – in Hoi An city that lies in the Thu Bon river
Village Studies).
mouth and is upstream of Cham Island
Background: The Vietnamese government (Figure 11.4). It includes 100 ha of nypa palm
began to work on Cham Island in 1999 to mangrove forest and is an ecological buffer
conserve dwindling fish populations. To zone for Cu Lao Cham Island and the Hoi An
overcome tensions between conservation Biosphere Reserve. This unique habitat is
efforts and local fisheries, key stakeholders home to approximately 10,000 people who
worked together between 1999 and 2005 rely on fishing, aquaculture, agriculture and
to create a co-management framework that tourist services for their livelihood. A plan
included government officials, scientists and to manage this sensitive ecological system
local people. As a result, the Cham Island was set up in 2015-2020 and included
Marine Protected Area (MPA) was created substantial participation from local people,
in 2005 with the long-term objectives to (i) conservationists, government managers and
protect natural resources and cultural and the private sector.
historical values of the Cham archipelago, and
(ii) stimulate socio-economic development.67
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