Handmade and deadly Craft Production of Small arms in nigeria - Briefing Paper
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Briefing Paper
June 2018
Handmade and Deadly
Craft Production of Small Arms in Nigeria
Matthias Nowak and André Gsell
Craft Production of Small Arms in Nigeria 1
Credits and About the authors
contributors Matthias Nowak is a researcher at the Small Arms Survey. His research focuses on
documenting and researching the causes and mechanisms of illicit small arms
proliferation in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. His work includes develop-
ing and implementing capacity-building projects on topics ranging from measuring
the scale and scope of lethal violence and firearms-related conflict and crime to
Editor: Claire Mc Evoy physical security and stockpile management (PSSM). He holds a bachelor’s degree
Copy-editor: Alex Potter in Economic and Social History from the University of Geneva and a master’s in
(alex.potter@mweb.co.za) Development Studies from the Graduate Institute of International and Development
Studies in Geneva.
Proofreader: Stephanie Huitson
(readstephanie@ymail.com) André Gsell is a researcher at the Small Arms Survey, focusing on weapons and
ammunition management issues. Before joining the Survey he was seconded as an
Design and layout: Rick Jones expert on behalf of the Swiss Defence Department to various United Nations mine
(rick@studioexile.com) action programmes in Africa, working on PSSM issues in addition to information
management in mine action. He also served with the Swiss Armed Forces in Bosnia
Infographics: Daly Design
and Herzegovina. He holds a master’s in Public Management and Policy from the
(studio@dalydesign.co.uk)
universities of Berne and Lausanne, and is a Swiss Armed Forces captain in active
Cartographer: Jillian Luff, MAPgrafix reserve service.
(www.mapgrafix.com)
Printed by nbmedia in Geneva, Acknowledgements
Switzerland
This Briefing Paper has been made possible through the support of the German
Federal Foreign Office. It is the result of a coordinated effort among the Presidential
Committee on Small Arms and Light Weapons (PRESCOM), the Small Arms Survey,
and a number of national experts in Nigeria who facilitated access to field locations
and carried out fieldwork. The authors would like to thank all the partners involved
for the hard work and dedication that led to this final publication. In particular,
the authors are obliged to Ambassador Emmanuel E. Imohe and Dickson Orji of
PRESCOM for their continuous support for and interest in this work.
This research project would not have been possible without the invaluable contribu-
tions of Gerald Okafor, Paul Gwaza, and Professor Augustine Ikelegbe. Similarly,
our gratitude extends to Julcit Stolpe for her work on institutions in Nigeria, Gergely
Hideg for his analysis of the national survey data, and Nic Marsh and Matt Schroeder
for their reviews of an early draft. We are also indebted to Claire Mc Evoy, Olivia
Denonville, Emilia Dungel, and the entire Small Arms Survey team involved in the
editing and production of the Briefing Paper.
Front cover photo
Hunters armed with craft weapons are seen in
Adamawa state, before they move to the Nigeria/
Cameroon border to support Nigerian army fighting
against Boko Haram militants, December 2014.
Source: Mohammed Elshamy/Getty Images
2 Briefing Paper June 2018
Overview Introduction
In early 2018 Nigerian and Cameroonian
Craft weapons production in Nigeria is under-researched, yet troops launched ‘Operation Deep Punch II’
in Nigeria’s Borno state, taking the fight
it is highly relevant for any future actions to counter small arms against the Boko Haram insurgent group2
and light weapons proliferation.1 This Briefing Paper provides deep into the Sambisa Forest. Along the
Cameroonian and Nigerian border opera-
new research findings based on extensive fieldwork in four tions in late February led to the killing of
Nigerian states (Adamawa, Anambra, Benue, and Plateau). It 33 Boko Haram insurgents and the capture
of an important weapons cache, including
reviews demand and supply factors that shape the craft market 15 craft-produced weapons (Omonobi,
in Nigeria, finding that demand is driven by insecurity and con- 2018). This is just one of an ongoing
series of similar seizures.
flict, but also by cultural and societal factors. Supply is mostly Indigenous craft production is an
demand driven. The quality of the products and production important source of illicit weapons in
Nigeria, with armed actors of diverse
methods varies greatly across the surveyed states. Craft pro- backgrounds increasingly using locally
duction poses a significant challenge for the Nigerian state made weapons in the country’s many
armed conflicts.3 Research on craft pro-
and will require a mix of holistic measures to regulate or deter duction indicates that the practice is
it, ranging from improving security (and security perceptions) widespread, with Nigeria being one of
many centres of production in West and
and the relationship between security providers and commu- Central Africa.4
nities, to licensing, measures aimed at providing alternative On the demand side, a history of con-
flict and rampant insecurity combined
livelihoods for craft producers, and a more comprehensive with ineffective security provision in many
application of the relevant legal framework. parts of Nigeria has driven individuals
and communities to seek craft-produced
weapons. Cultural factors such as a proud
history of weapons production and the
traditional status symbol of weapons
ownership have driven demand in states
Key findings such as Anambra.5 Equally, the supply of
craft weapons is not limited to the lure
About one-fifth (17 per cent) of civilian, rural weapons of economic gain. Producers place great
value on the importance of keeping the
holders countrywide possess craft weapons and one-tenth tradition and the acquired skills alive and
in urban areas, according to preliminary findings from the within families. Producers also recognize
weapons as being important for the pro-
National Small Arms and Light Weapons Survey (NSALWS). tection of their communities from bandits
and in cases of armed conflict, including
Craft producers employ a range of blacksmithing techniques, the Boko Haram insurgency, farmer–herder
and the type and quality of their weapons vary greatly, conflicts, and inter-religious clashes.
Craft-production techniques, meth-
ranging from muzzle-loading ‘Dane guns’ to 9 mm semi- ods, and end products vary widely across
automatic pistols based on Beretta models, and to assault Nigeria. Traditional blacksmithing based
on crude techniques remains the most
rifles and sub-machine guns. Break-action shotguns and reported mode of production. Such pro-
pistols are the most popular craft weapons produced in ducers supply mostly single-shot muzzle-
loading weapons such as ‘Dane guns’.6
surveyed states. Yet other producers are focusing on
enhancing firing power and developing
Craft weapons are mostly purchased to protect and defend more sophisticated loading actions.
individuals and communities. Many producers are convinced Revolving loading mechanisms and break-
action—and in some cases pump-action—
that craft production is a form of community service in times models are among the most prevalent
of heightened insecurity. observed in this study (see ‘Terms, defini-
tions, and methods’). In one documented
Craft weapons are frequently purchased because of their case a group of young and talented pro-
ducers are applying modern welding
ease of access and reduced price, which is up to four times techniques to produce self-loading pistols
based on Beretta models. Automatic weap-
cheaper than their industrially produced counterparts.
ons are also being produced, similar in
appearance to AK-type or G3-type assault
Craft weapons are often produced in clandestine workshops rifles or Second World War-era sub-machine
that safeguard blacksmiths’ anonymity and safety. gun models.
Craft Production of Small Arms in Nigeria 3
Based on 82 in-depth interviews con- Categorizing craft weapons is chal- combinations of designs and calibres.
ducted between May and July 2017, this lenging, because they often fall outside The following refers to established, rather
Briefing Paper provides an overview of of established international definitions of vaguely defined small arms categories
small arms craft production in Nigeria with small arms.7 Manufacturing characteris- (Parker and Wilson, 2016, p. 14), but
a focus on demand and supply, including tics that are normally used for classifying includes a description of technical
the cultural, social, and economic factors weapons—such as rifled barrels8—lie design features, such as barrel length,
underpinning the thriving industry and outside local Nigerian craft-production ammunition calibre, and weapon actions,
the types of weapons produced. It pre- capabilities. The creativity of local pro- in order to highlight specific aspects of
sents possible pathways to the regula- ducers has further led to non-traditional Nigerian craft production.9
tion and control of craft production as a
means of countering illicit small arms
proliferation.
Box 1 Understanding the mechanics of firearms
Firearms work by expelling projectiles by a controlled explosion of a propellant charge.
Terms, definitions, The simplest design to achieve this is a muzzle loader, where the user manually loads
and methods the weapon by inserting propellant and then a projectile10 through the open end of the
barrel, before igniting the propellant and thus firing the weapon through a miniscule
Despite there being no universally flash hole in the closed breech (Knight, 1997).
agreed definition of craft weapons, this Breech-loading weapons, which have a simpler action, feature a barrel that has a
Briefing Paper uses the term to describe locking action at one end that seals the barrel around a wholly inserted cartridge that
the production of weapons that are fabri- combines a propellant charge and projectile (Bevan and Pézard, 2006, p. 20). The
cated outside state control, by hand, breech-loading action brings a round of ammunition into the chamber, locks the breech,
in small quantities, and with a reduced allows the user to trigger the explosion of the propellant, and ejects the spent cartridge.
capability, as opposed to their industri- Specific types of rounds with different projectiles exist depending on the effect sought,
ally manufactured counterparts (Berman, such as a single, solid projectile used for long-range shooting; a number of ball shots
2011, p. 1). The production of craft weap- for hunting (enhancing the chance of hitting a moving target); or no projectile at all for
ons ‘requires access to specialized tools training or ornamental uses (Knight, 1997).
and equipment as well as some technical Figure 1 below illustrates the different parts of a range of common firearms.
skill’ (Hays and Jenzen-Jones, forthcoming)
(see Box 1).
Figure 1 Parts of common firearms
Source: ATF (2018)
4 Briefing Paper June 2018
Handguns. Craft handguns use a Photo 3 A craft-produced shotgun Photo 6 A muzzle-loading ‘Dane gun’
single projectile round expelled out of with revolving loading mechanism ready for sale, undisclosed location,
industrially produced cartridges of less
seized by the Nigerian Police Force Nigeria
than 12.7 mm calibre fired through a bar-
rel of less than 25 cm in length. They are (NPF) in Plateau state, photographed
intended for single hand firing and there- in Jos
fore typically lack a shoulder stock. Rifled
barrels—a feature that is typical of indus-
trially produced handguns—were not
encountered during this study. Both self-
loading pistols,11 in which the chamber
is an integral part of the barrel, and
revolvers, featuring a cylinder containing
multiple rounds that rotates after each
firing, were encountered during fieldwork.
Source: Small Arms Survey (2017)
Photos 1 and 2 A craft-produced
self-loading pistol (top) and revolver Sub-machine guns. Craft-produced
showing its cylinder (bottom) as exam- sub-machine guns use industrially pro-
ples of the kinds of craft-produced duced, solid-projectile ammunition of
handguns that were observed, undis- less than 12.7 mm calibre and are capa-
ble of semi-automatic or automatic fire.
closed locations, Nigeria
Typically, a pistol round is employed: all
items encountered in this category used Source: Small Arms Survey (2017)
a 9 × 19 mm round.
Muzzle loaders. Craft-produced muz-
Photo 4 A craft-produced sub- zle loaders, often called ‘Dane guns’, have
machine gun seized by the NPF in a simple design and are not loaded with
cartridges. Rather, loose powder and a
Plateau state, photographed in Jos
projectile (a ball bearing or small scrap
parts are often used) are loaded through
the barrel mouth and the powder is ignited
through a flash hole. The source of ignition
varies and may include matches or flint
locks. Both long muzzle loaders (a barrel
length of more than 25 cm) and short ones
were observed during fieldwork.
Source: Small Arms Survey (2017) Craft production in
Assault rifles. The craft-produced
Nigeria: background
Source: Small Arms Survey (2017)
assault rifles encountered also use indus- The craft production of firearms in West
trially produced cartridges with solid Africa dates back to the introduction of
Shotguns. These weapons typically projectiles, feature automatic or semi- iron work several centuries ago (Ross,
fire ball shot cartridges through a smooth- automatic actions, and typically have 2002; Duquet, 2009, p. 176). In the
bore barrel and were encountered with a shoulder stock. The cartridge calibre periods during and shortly after colonial-
three distinctive features. The first is barrel
employed in these weapons is typically ism, craft-weapons production gained
length. Weapons featuring a barrel of less
below 8 mm in diameter. Prominent cali- momentum across the region, including
than 25 cm are considered short-barrelled
bres encountered during the field research in Nigeria. Anti-colonial struggles and
and weapons above that threshold long-
were 7.62 x 39 mm and 7.62 × 51 mm. civil wars were drivers of demand and
barrelled. A second feature is the action
of the weapon. Three types of actions provided the stimuli for technological
were encountered during fieldwork: break
Photo 5 An assault rifle in AK look- innovation. In Nigeria, the local craft
action, based around a hinge and lock alike style seized by the NPF in production of firearms increased signifi-
mechanism; revolving action, using a Plateau state, photographed in Jos cantly during the Biafran war (1967–70),
cylinder in which cartridges are stored concentrating mostly in Awka, Anambra
and fired; and pump-action shotguns, state. Weapons such as ‘hand grenades,
which use a lateral sliding movement.12 cartridges, mines and guns’ used by
A third feature was the number of barrels anti-government armed groups were all
present on break-action shotguns. The locally sourced (Umoh, 2011, p. 347). The
most prevalent category of craft-produced ensuing demand for weapons resulted in
firearms encountered during fieldwork the Biafran government organizing black-
was break-action shotguns, both single- smiths into cooperatives for the produc-
barrel and double-barrel models. Source: Small Arms Survey (2017) tion of arms and ammunition, explosives,
Craft Production of Small Arms in Nigeria 5
Photo 7 ‘Dane guns’ in the final
Box 2 Methodology for the study stage of production, undisclosed
The findings in this Briefing Paper are largely based on 82 in-depth interviews conducted location, Nigeria
with key informant interviewees in Adamawa, Anambra, Benue, and Plateau states, in
addition to the Federal Capital Territory of Abuja, between May and July 2017. These inter-
views were based on a semi-structured, exploratory, and open-ended questionnaire. Key
informants comprised 23 craft producers; 35 personnel from law enforcement agencies
(LEAs); and 24 other knowledgeable informants such as traditional leaders, members of
the Civilian Joint Task Force (CJTF),13 and field staff of non-governmental organizations
(referred to in Map 1 as ‘specialists’).14
Purposeful sampling techniques were used to select interviewees: expert sampling was
used to identify knowledgeable people and snowballing (or chain-referral sampling) to
identify and access producers of craft weapons. The selection of states reflects well-known
sources and traditional places of craft production (particularly Adamawa), as well as states
affected by the Boko Haram insurgency and farmer–herder conflicts.
The analysis also draws on preliminary findings from a nationwide household survey on
small arms and security perceptions conducted by PRESCOM in 2016 with the Small Arms
Survey (Small Arms Survey and PRESCOM, 2018). Photographic evidence of craft-weapons
production methods, materials, and weapons was collected during field visits.
To supplement the above, the Survey conducted a literature review and a media review
of six national and state-level newspapers over the period 2014–17, with an emphasis
on seizures of craft weapons and associated events (such as crimes, or confrontations
between armed elements and security personnel).15
Source: Small Arms Survey (2017)
and improvised explosive devices nick- drove them underground, while banning traditional rites and occupations such
named ogbunigwe (meaning ‘mass killer’), craft production (Ikelegbe, 2017, p. 28; as hunting, for example. These types of
with the aim of increasing production Umoh, 2011). firearms—which are symbols of power
quantity and speed, and ensuring steady Research indicates that there is still and prestige in traditional communities—
access to weapons.16 After the war, black- a strong cultural attachment to black- are available throughout the country
smiths were considered a threat to secu- smiths’ skills and the traditional weap- (Ikelegbe, 2017, p. 16).
rity and peace in Nigeria because of their ons they produce. ‘Dane guns’, which Preliminary data from the NSALWS
capacity to produce weapons, and the are used for both ceremonial and orna- indicates that 18 per cent of respondents
Federal Government disbanded them and mental purposes, continue to be used in countrywide consider craft weapons to be
Map 1 Areas of field research and number of key informant interviews conducted, Nigeria, 2017
NIGER
CHAD
PLATEAU STATE
LEAs: 6
Specialists: 5
Producers: 8 N I GE R I A
ADAMAWA STATE
ABUJA LEAs: 6
LEAs: 17 Specialists: 5
Specialists: 8 Producers: 5
ANAMBRA STATE BENUE STATE
LEAs: 1 LEAs: 5
Specialists: 6 Producers: 5
Producers: 5
CAMEROON
Law enforcement
300 km
LEA agency personnel
6 Briefing Paper June 2018
Figure 2 Number of weapons seized mentioning seizures of firearms during Demand for craft weapons
in Nigeria, by type, based on media police and military operations found
almost a three-to-one ratio of craft weap- The clandestine production of craft
review, 2014–17 (n = 283) weapons in Nigeria appears to be largely
ons seizures mentioned, compared to
Craft weapons seized (1,150) industrially made firearms (see Figure 2) demand driven. Research indicates that
Commercial weapons seized (409) (Small Arms Survey, 2017).20 there are two main lenses through which
Interviews inquired about the share to view the factors influencing demand.
of crimes committed using craft weapons These are:
in Nigeria. In Benue and Plateau states
insecurity and the need for protection;
craft weapons are believed to be used to
and
commit more than 50 per cent of crimes
(see Figure 3), although this finding should cultural, social, and economic needs.
be treated with caution due to the small
number of respondents (n = 59). Based
on the media review, the most common
Insecurity and the need
crimes associated with the carrying, for protection
Source: Small Arms Survey (2017) ownership, and use of craft weapons in
Demand for craft weapons is rooted in
Nigeria are armed robberies, kidnapping,
repeated cycles of conflict and rampant
and terrorism-related activities (Small
a source of civilian firearms.17 Among rural crime affecting many areas of the coun-
Arms Survey, 2017).21 try. With the exception of Anambra state,
weapons holders countrywide, about
one-fifth (17 per cent) possess craft weap- cycles of violence and criminality have
ons (10 per cent in urban areas) (Small contributed to an increase in demand for
craft weapons in—at least parts of—the
Arms Survey and PRESCOM, 2018).18 Mapping the craft- surveyed states due to people’s perceived
Data from the NPF confirms that a large
proportion of seized weapons are craft production market need to acquire arms for their personal
safety and collective security (see Table 1).
produced. The NPF seized a total of 584
weapons between January and May 2017,
in Nigeria In Anambra an improvement in security
and of these, 287 were reportedly locally The mapping conducted for this Briefing due to the increased presence of LEAs
made pistols and ‘Dane guns’, for exam- Paper is based on an analysis of the key and a related fear among producers of
ple (Ikelegbe, 2017, p. 14).19 Other sources drivers of demand for craft weapons, fol- getting caught has led to a reported
also indicate that a high number of craft- lowed by further analysis of supply factors. decrease in demand.
produced weapons are circulating in Understanding these is crucial to the Craft producers and LEAs discussed
Nigeria. A review of 283 newspaper articles overall arms control agenda in Nigeria. the following factors as being key drivers
of demand in surveyed states and in
Nigeria more generally:
Figure 3 Reported share (%) of craft weapons used to commit crimes involving
Boko Haram insurgency
firearms, according to LEA and specialist interviews, Nigeria, 2017 (n = 59)
Violence linked to the fight between
Crime in Adamawa Crime in Anambra Boko Haram and the Multinational
Craft weapons (32) Craft weapons (48) Joint Task Force (MNJTF)22 and civil-
Industrially made weapons (68) Industrially made weapons (52) ians caught in the middle reached
a peak in 2014 and 2015 (see Figure
4). At the height of the insurgency
between 2013 and 2015 more than
an estimated 20,000 people lost
their lives (ICG, 2017a, p. 26).
Boko Haram’s stated goal is to ‘create
a strict Islamic state in the north that
it believes would address the ills of
society, including corruption and bad
governance’ (ICG, 2014, p. 9). In areas
Crime in Benue Crime in Plateau under its control the movement imple-
Craft weapons (62) Craft weapons (69) ments an ‘opportunistic protection
Industrially made weapons (38) Industrially made weapons (31) economy reinforced by violence, where
all goods . . . are taxed’ (Jesperson,
2017, p. 5). In response, Nigeria has
one of the largest deployments of mil-
itary operations in ‘peace time’ on the
continent (Abdu, 2013, p. 170). The
deployed task force is complemented
with the vigilante CJTF (see the section
on ‘Crime and protection from criminals:
vigilantes and self-defence groups’).
There has been significant progress
Source: Analysis of responses from producers, LEAs, and other specialists in tackling Boko Haram since 2015,
Craft Production of Small Arms in Nigeria 7
Table 1 Reported drivers of changes in demand for craft weapons, Nigeria, October 2016–October 2017
State Reported change in demand Reasons for changes in demand Main source of violence reported
Adamawa Strong increase Boko Haram conflict: the need to increase firepower for self- Boko Haram conflict
defence of communities from Boko Haram attacks
Anambra Strong decrease Increase in security; increased law enforcement; fear of LEAs Armed robberies, kidnapping
Benue Mixed changes Amnesty; more law enforcement presence; some areas remain Armed robberies, kidnapping
(increase and decrease) affected by attacks from herders
Plateau Some increase Intensified farmer–herder conflicts over the past years Farmer–herder conflicts
Source: Analysis of responses provided by producers in KIIs
leading to what is considered to be a Boko Haram fighters from key areas About 10 per cent of respondents
successful ‘containment’ of the group such as Maiduguri, the capital city of acknowledged that the main purpose
(ACLED, 2018). The years of insurgency the northern Borno state, in 2013, for of craft weapons was to commit crimes
led to a significant increase in demand example. The Nigerian army and the (Figure 5). This awareness among
for firearms, however, which are still MNJTF quickly realized the potential producers of their weapons’ use for
in circulation. Furthermore, the threat of the CJTF in the fight against the criminal purposes contrasts starkly
from the group in the north-east—and insurgent group and supported mem- with the ‘community-service’ argument
from splinter groups—remains, with bers’ arming and training (ICG, 2017a; made by those producing weapons
ongoing suicide bombings against civil- Cropley, 2017). for protection purposes.
ian and military targets, often in rural Security providers in Nigeria more or Conflicts between farmers and herders
villages and displacement camps, par- less accept vigilante groups, because Desertification and droughts, struc-
ticularly in Borno state (ACLED, 2017). they assist in the maintenance of tural changes in agriculture and pas-
Crime and protection from criminals: safety and order, and in some cases toralism, insecurity and conflict in
vigilantes and self-defence groups are reportedly allowed to equip them- the north, and the loss of traditional
Crime rates are notoriously high in selves with firearms—mostly locally mediation mechanisms among herd-
Nigeria. Home invasions, violent rob- produced craft weapons that are con- ers and farmers lie at the heart of the
beries, kidnapping for ransom, car- sidered to be affordable.24 In Anambra increasingly violent conflicts between
jackings, muggings, and homicides state each of the 181 communities these communities (ICG, 2017b, p. i).
are all frequently reported. Close to accounted for has a vigilante group of Traditionally, predominantly Fulani and
4,000 people were reportedly killed approximately 20 members to ensure Muslim herders sought grasslands in
in crime-related events in Nigeria protection against criminals and in case the central areas of Nigeria for pasture
during 2015 (NSRP, 2016, p. 11). of attacks, for example.25 Members of during the dry season (October–May)
these groups are reportedly registered in designated areas. Desertification
The Boko Haram insurgency, together
with farmer–herder (see below) and for the legal use of firearms in the per- and expanding population and farm-
other conflicts23 tend to obscure the formance of their activities. lands have reduced the size of these
criminal violence that occurs in Demand among such self-defence
Nigeria—yet this type of violence is groups was widely acknowledged in
key to understanding the prolifera- interviews with producers and LEAs Figure 5 Main intended purpose of
tion of community defence, neigh- (see Figure 5). Some producers said craft weapons (%), as reported by
bourhood watch, and vigilante groups they were making craft weapons as a key informant interviewees, Nigeria,
(Jesperson, 2017). The formation way of supporting their communities, 2017 (n = 74)
of these groups is viewed as a key as one blacksmith explained: ‘The
driver of demand for small arms, and production and repair of firearms is Individual and community self-defence and
especially for craft-produced fire- [sic] not about income for me, but for protection (41.9)
arms. The CJTF vigilante movement, protection from incessant attacks for Hunting (21.6)
reportedly involving close to 30,000 [sic] Fulani militia, and defence from Crime (9.5)
people, was pivotal to flushing out armed robbers’.26 Traditional use, festivities, ceremonies (9.5)
Conflict (6.8)
Politics and political thugs (5.4)
Figure 4 Fatalities due to ‘organized and collective violence’, Nigeria, 2009–17 Cultism (5.4)
Number of fatalities per year (thousands)
25
20
15
10
5
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year Source: Analysis of responses from producers, LEAs,
Source: ACLED (n.d.) and other specialists
8 Briefing Paper June 2018
grasslands, while conflicts and inse- Figure 6 Main sources of income (%) A comparatively high percentage of
curity (including cattle theft and the based on interviews with craft respondents said that the lower price
Boko Haram insurgency) are driving of craft-produced weapons vis-à-vis
producers (n = 23)
herders further south and for longer their industrially produced counter-
periods (ICG, 2017b, pp. 4–6). Main income from craft production (48) parts was a key factor in inducing
Predominantly Christian farmer com- Main income from other activities (52) people to buy them (see Figure 7).
munities in the central belt and south The availability of craft weapons was
see incursions and attacks from these also widely cited, indicating that they
Muslim herder groups as a ‘hidden may be easier to obtain than indus-
form of jihad’ and clashes occur fre- trially produced weapons.
quently along ethno-religious lines,
particularly in Benue, Plateau, and
Kaduna states (Ikelegbe, 2017; ICG, Supply of craft weapons
2017b; Krause, 2011, p. 27). In 2016
alone these conflicts may have caused in Nigeria
as many as 2,500 deaths in Nigeria The following analysis focuses on the
(ICG, 2017b, p. 7). Source: Analysis of responses provided by producers
supply of craft weapons, including pric-
in KIIs
As a response to the escalating vio- ing and the production techniques that
lence and its geographical spread producers use. The acquisition of related
from the middle belt (to a dozen states across the country chiefs and war- knowledge and skills, and their dissemi-
as of 2018), farming and herding riors fire shots in the air (mostly just nation are also discussed.
communities are gathering funds to a powder load: no projectile is fired)
buy weapons (Ikelegbe, 2017).27 One as part of celebrations such as wed-
producer explained that ‘the increase dings, burials, or the ascensions of
Weapons and ammunition
in the attacks on communities around chiefs (Ikelegbe, 2017, p. 26). It is Photographic evidence and interviews
[locations withheld] made people also not uncommon for blacksmiths show that producers make craft weapons
seek for means of self-protection and to be paid to produce weapons for of varying levels of sophistication and
[self-]preservation’.28 traditional chiefs or to provide their quality, catering to the needs of different
emirs and chiefs with craft guns as clients. ‘Dane guns’ and long-barrelled
gifts for these purposes (Ikelegbe, shotguns are generally produced for cul-
Cultural, societal, and 2017, p. 26).30 tural displays and hunting (Ikelegbe, 2017,
economic needs Economic needs and reasons for p. 16). Shorter-barrelled weapons such
craft production as handguns and short-barrelled shot-
Craft weapons are also symbols of status, guns are more popular with customers
wealth, and power in Nigeria. Their pro- Income generation and the related
seeking personal security and those who
duction is a highly respected skill, and lack of job opportunities constitute
are involved in small-scale criminal activ-
is often passed on from one generation an additional important factor shap-
ity (see Box 3). Automatic weapons, in
to the next within the same family. ing demand for craft-produced small
contrast, are produced for larger informal
Understanding the cultural and social arms. Of the 23 producers interviewed,
security providers as well as organized
factors that underpin craft production is 11 confirmed that their main income-
generating activity was the production criminals and various perpetrators of
crucial to understanding the deep roots armed violence, specifically actors
these weapons have in Nigerian commu- of firearms (see Figure 6).31
involved in militancy, insurgencies, and
nities, particularly among hunters and as terrorism (Ikelegbe, 2017, p. 32).
part of cultural festivities. None of the interviewed producers
Figure 7 Main reasons cited for the
indicated that he currently produces
Hunters purchase of craft-produced weapons
ammunition. Several reported that con-
Hunters are found in many rural areas by number of mentions, Nigeria, 2017 flict zones were sources of ammunition,
of Nigeria. Hunting can be an impor- (n = 53; up to three responses allowed) due to members of security institutions
tant source of protein and revenue in selling their stocks, or seizures by non-
LEAs/Specialists
rural and remote villages, in particu- Producers
lar; in arid areas the hunting season
Number of mentions
typically coincides with the dry season. Photo 8 A selection of craft-produced
30
Research indicates that hunters are handguns, undisclosed location,
the second most important group of 25
Nigeria, 2017
‘clients’ for (or buyers of) craft weap- 20
ons (at 22 per cent) (see Figure 5).29 For
15
those who cannot afford an industrially
produced hunting weapon, the alter- 10
native is a locally made smoothbore 5
shotgun or muzzle-loading ‘Dane gun’.
0
Cheaper Ease of Cultural
Ceremonial use and status symbols access reasons
Traditional and cultural festivities are Main reason for buying
heavily associated with the produc- craft weapons mentioned
tion of craft weapons, particularly Source: Analysis of responses provided by producers
‘Dane guns’. In traditional societies and LEAs in KIIs Source: Small Arms Survey (2017)
Craft Production of Small Arms in Nigeria 9
Photo 9 A ‘frame form’ cut out of flat steel before welding
Box 3 Spotlight on craft-
produced self-loading pistols
‘In December 2016 I travelled to
Lagos to produce for customers,
and I produced up to 30 Berettas.’
A cluster of producers were interviewed
in one surveyed state32 who focus on
producing self-loading pistols. The
pistols, which draw heavily on Beretta
models, feature a magazine with a
capacity of between eight and 12 rounds
and are sold on the local market for
between NGN 25,000 (USD 74) and
NGN 60,000 (USD 177).
One interviewee33—whose main source
of income was producing craft weap-
ons—said that in December 2016 he
had temporarily relocated from the
state where he lived to Lagos due to
surging demand for self-loading pis-
Photo 10 Various parts of a craft-produced self-loading pistol during production
tols. Acquiring the knowledge and skills
to produce these weapons took him
more than a year of training. Working
within a hierarchical network of pro-
ducers, he was trained by an experi-
enced and reputed producer. Three
individuals have since completed their
training under the guidance of the
interviewee, while two are currently
undertaking apprenticeships. All
trainees are carefully vetted to ensure
secrecy and protection from LEAs.
Describing the production techniques
employed, another respondent34
explained that the process began by
cutting a number of ‘frame forms’
(see Photo 9) out of sheet metal and
welding them together. He said the
slide is crafted out of iron (such as
that found in old beds). A nail is filed
into shape to serve as a firing pin.
Wire mesh from truck tires produces
recoil and magazine springs. The bar- Photo 11 After the metal work is Photo 12 Two finished craft-
rel is a piece of pipe that is widened completed, minor wood crafting produced self-loading pistols
by drilling to accommodate the cham- still needs to be done on this self-
ber. Production takes less than one
working day. loading pistol
A third respondent35 stated that he
sources original Beretta magazines—
because these are difficult to repro-
duce—and builds the rest of the
weapon around them. He described
the process of hardening a piece of
pipe with gas to make it strong enough
to serve as a barrel.
Interviewed producers in this state
revealed a number of trends—includ-
ing mobility in response to demand,
the incorporation of industrially pro-
duced parts into craft production,
and the passing on of skills and
knowledge within an organized
group—which could be relevant to
other regions and should be moni-
tored closely.
Sources (Photos 9–12): Small Arms Survey (2017)
10 Briefing Paper June 2018Figure 8 Categories of craft weapons made by producers (n = 23; multiple responses allowed)
Mention by producers making each category of weapon
15
12
9
6
3
0
Short, Long, Assault Self-loading Muzzle Short, Revolving-action Revolvers Sub-machine Long, Pump-action
double-barrel, single-barrel, rifles pistols loaders single-barrel, shotguns guns double-barrel, shotguns
break-action break-action break-action break-action
shotguns shotguns shotguns shotguns
Category
Source: Analysis of responses provided by producers in KIIs
state armed groups, such as Boko Haram, ally produced weapons. Multiple produc- clients seeking repairs of craft weapons
from state-owned stocks (Ikelegbe, 2017, ers said that repairs were of less interest that the producers themselves had not
p. 36). Licensed dealers and smuggled to them, however, due to lower profit produced, because they feared entrap-
ammunition from Ghana and Togo are margins and the risk of prosecution. ment by LEAs. One said that approval by
other prominent sources for shotgun Craft producers appear to be sought a traditional leader for repairs of specific
ammunition (Ikelegbe, 2017, p. 33). out for repairs because of the limited types of weapons was necessary, due to
availability of licensed service providers. the government ban on repairing weapons.
One producer indicated that law enforce- Producers reported frequent defects
Repairs and other services ment officials entrusted their weapons with craft-produced firearms due to a lack
In addition to making new firearms, pro- to him for servicing. At the same time, of servicing (particularly the cleaning and
ducers also apply their skills to servicing multiple producers indicated that they lubrication of weapons) and the absence
and repairing existing craft- and industri- were often wary when approached by new of high-quality parts, particularly springs.
Figure 9 Maximum and average production time per craft-weapon category, Nigeria, 2017 (n = 23; multiple responses allowed)
Note: In total, 23 producers responded with production times for 85 items.
Source: Analysis of responses provided by producers in KIIs
Craft Production of Small Arms in Nigeria 11Prices for repairs appear to be flexible and Figure 10 Manufacturing technology rating of surveyed craft-weapons producers
based on the relationship with the client: in Nigeria, 2017 (N = 23)
multiple producers said that bartering
and customer loyalty were important fac- Adamawa state (n = 5) Anambra state (n = 5)
tors in the determination of price. Village blacksmith (0) Hand tools (2) Village blacksmith (0) Hand tools (3)
None of the respondents mentioned Craft workshop (3) Machine tool workshop (0) Craft workshop (2) Machine tool workshop (0)
the conversion of blank-firing weapons
or other replicas, which appear to be
difficult to source (see Florquin and King,
2018). The reactivation of non-functional
weapons (such as burned weapons) does
occur, however, often by copying damaged
wooden parts or by recasting appropriate
metals into the required shape.
Production processes,
Benue state (n = 5) Plateau state (n = 8)
techniques, and tools Village blacksmith (0) Hand tools (0) Village blacksmith (3) Hand tools (0)
Break-action shotguns and pistols are Craft workshop (0) Machine tool workshop (5) Craft workshop (1) Machine tool workshop (4)
the most popular craft weapons pro-
duced (see Figure 8). These weapons are
of medium sophistication and can there-
fore be manufactured by rural producers
who lack more advanced equipment, while
still being attractive for manufacturers
who are able to fabricate more sophisti-
cated designs. On average, producers
make an average of four categories of
weapons (see the categories in Figure 8),
indicating their versatility. Source: Analysis of responses provided by producers in KIIs
The reported production times for
craft-produced small arms vary widely,
depending on the producer’s experience single batch, and a machine tool workshop the manufacturing technology scale.
and equipment, the technical complexity is able to produce fully interchangeable Religious and other community leaders,
of the weapon, and the expectations of parts between batches. As shown in Fig- and most notably firearms dealers, tend
the client. Figure 9 indicates the manu- ure 10, makers of craft-produced firearms to buy from producers who make more
facturing time distribution per weapon in Benue state are better equipped and sophisticated designs.
category, in addition to the median pro- trained, whereas producers in Anambra
duction time. This illustrates that simple state have a more limited set of skills.
designs such as muzzle loaders or single- Producers use materials that are gen- Photo 13 A muzzle-loading handgun
barrelled shotguns are generally produced erally available in local markets; none and a simple manual furnace
very quickly, whereas more complex indicated that there was a shadow market
designs such as revolving shotguns or for industrially produced weapons mat
blower, typical of a low score on the
automatic weapons require a produc- erials or parts. Wooden parts are carved manufacturing technology scale,
tion time of weeks rather than days. from local wood. General construction location withheld, Nigeria
Production times vary greatly among supplies (such as water pipes for barrels,
producers, depending on their level of and home-supply bolts or nails for firing
training, experience, and equipment. pins) are converted and parts of automo-
The manufacturing techniques used tive chassis or packaging material may
to produce craft weapons also differ across also be used as source materials. Heat
surveyed states and are influenced by treatment may be applied to metal in order
the skills and equipment of producers, to convert water piping into gun barrels.
and the quality aimed for and profitability Locally available tools and machines
of a given item. By examining the descrip- are used. Major items include furnaces
tions of their products and production and drilling machines. More sophisticated
techniques, producers have been rated on items may require the use of gas or elec-
a qualitative manufacturing technology tric welding. One producer indicated that
scale. This scale begins with the village for demanding metal work he used the
blacksmith, who produces parts that are facilities of an educational institution.
unique in shape and size. On the next As discussed above, different producers
level, a producer employing hand tools also cater to different customer groups.
is able to produce similar parts, which Figure 11 shows that farmers, hunters,
may serve as spare parts for items from and vigilante group members tend to
the same batch. A craft workshop makes equip themselves from producers mak-
parts that are interchangeable within a ing simple craft weapons according to Source: Small Arms Survey (2017)
12 Briefing Paper June 2018Figure 11 Top three customer groups per producers’ manufacturing technology rating, Nigeria, 2017 (n = 23)
Hunters Vigilantes Private individuals Community leaders Dealers
Number of mentions
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Village blacksmith Hand-tool producer Craft workshop Machine-tool workshop
Category
Source: Analysis of responses provided by producers in KIIs
when analysing supply methods. Craft
Training and spread This is part of a more mobile and ‘modern’
transmission of knowledge. Surprisingly, producers distribute their products to
of knowledge only a few producers in one state men- clients either through direct producer–
The skills needed for craft production are tioned the internet as a source of knowl- client contact; community-based distri-
acquired and transmitted in a number of edge. These were young and had been bution via friends, family, and trusted
different ways. In Adamawa state (the trained in general metalworking skills connections; or arms dealers who
home of ‘Awka-made’ firearms) craftsman- in technical training facilities. They use move the weapons to other communi-
ship is often transmitted via traditional, the internet to fine-tune their crafts ties.41 Overall, it appears that distribu-
generational, and family-based methods, manship and said they were eager to tion tends to be mostly community
with little mobility to acquire new skills.36 exchange techniques and lessons learned based and for limited local consump-
Adamawa producers spoke of their pride with others.40 tion, involving hunting rifles or ‘Dane
in their craft-production skills and the guns’. Many producers viewed this as
role of family heritage in passing these a response to local demand. Some pro-
skills on. Distribution methods and ducers using this type of distribution
model reported that they would return
In Anambra and Benue states skills sales prices of craft weapons to their ‘usual’ blacksmithing activities,
and technical knowledge are also passed
on through local and family-based tradi- Price and the means of getting a product such as making agricultural tools, if
tions and transmission of skills, aided to a client is an additional consideration security improved.42
by the mobility of some producers who
acquire and transmit new skills and tech-
niques by travelling outside their commu- Photo 14 A producer's workshop with selected hand tools,
nities to visit producers in other states. undisclosed location, Nigeria
In both states (in Anambra in particular)
there is a strong cultural attachment to
craft production and blacksmiths’ ances-
tral skills. Some blacksmiths said it was
‘an obligation’ to ensure the continuity of
their family and community craftsmanship.37
Plateau state producers are reportedly
more mobile than those in other states.
Producers reported that they travel to
other parts of the state to acquire knowl-
edge and train with experienced produc-
ers, and similarly travel to areas where
clients require their skills and knowledge.38
In contrast, in one location where self-
loading pistols are made—these pistols
are called ‘Beretta’ locally and are based
on 9 × 19 mm Beretta handguns—craft
producers acquire welding and metal-
work skills in official training facilities.39 Source: Small Arms Survey (2017)
Craft Production of Small Arms in Nigeria 13Photo 15 A craft-weapons workshop hidden in the bush in an undisclosed Responding to craft
location. The workshop is as far as possible from the producer’s home for
safety reasons. He hides weapons under construction by burying them
production in Nigeria
This section of the Briefing Paper exam-
ines the current legal and institutional
framework governing small arms craft
production in Nigeria, as well as possible
control measures.
Legal and institutional
framework regulating small
arms in Nigeria
Legal framework
A number of legally binding instruments
regulate small arms production, transfers,
and ownership in Nigeria and are there-
fore relevant to craft production (see
Source: Small Arms Survey (2017)
Parker and Wilson, 2016, pp. 27–59).45
International legal framework
Some producers set up their craft for a self-loading pistol. Lower-end craft UN Protocol against the Illicit Manu-
workshops in secluded, difficult-to- weapons, in contrast, cost an estimated facturing of and Trafficking in Fire-
access areas to avoid detection, and in NGN 25,000 (USD 74) for a single-barrel arms, Their Parts and Components
case the workshop is raided, to avoid shotgun and NGN 10,000 (USD 30) for and Ammunition (UNGA, 2001a). The
any links to family and community mem- a ‘Dane gun’. Table 2 illustrates that legally binding ‘Firearms Protocol’
bers. This kind of production is more often industrially produced firearms and requires states to criminalize the
aimed at ‘outsider’ clients, who range shotguns (single or double barrelled) illicit manufacture of firearms, their
from hunters and vigilantes to criminals. can cost up to four times as much as a components, and ammunition, and
These producers rely more heavily on craft-produced weapon with similar char- provides a broad definition of the
dealers, or a network comprising family acteristics.43 illicit manufacture of firearms as
members and trusted acquaintances, who While ammunition is generally thought the production ‘without a licence
assist in the distribution of weapons to to be readily available in Nigeria, prices or authorization from a competent
potential buyers. per round fluctuate from NGN 150 to 500 authority of the State party’ and
The prices of craft weapons are com- (USD 0.44–1.48) for a shotgun shell and ‘without marking the firearms at the
paratively lower than for industrially from NGN 250 to 500 (USD 0.74–1.48) for time of manufacture’ (UNGA, 2001a,
produced weapons in Nigeria. High-end a 9 mm or 7.62 mm round. Analysis of pro- art. 3(d)(ii)–(iii)). Nigeria ratified the
industrially made weapons prices on the ducer responses shows that the average Firearms Protocol in 2006.
black market are reportedly in the range price for a shotgun shell is approximately ECOWAS Convention on Small Arms
NGN 350,000–450,000 (USD 1,034– NGN 300 (USD 0.89), while 9 × 19 mm and Light Weapons, Their Ammuni-
1,330) for an AK-47-type assault rifle and and different types of 7.62 mm rounds tion and Other Related Materials
NGN 180,000–250,000 (USD 532–739) average around NGN 425 (USD 1.26).44 (ECOWAS, 2006). At the regional level
the ECOWAS Convention is the key
Table 2 Differences in minimum and maximum black-market prices reported instrument regulating (and prohibit-
ing) transfers of small arms, ammuni-
for craft-produced and industrially made firearms in Nigeria, 2017 (n = 86; tion, and other related materials to
multiple responses allowed) or from the territories of ECOWAS
member states.46 It defines control
Type of weapon Craft production Industrial production
standards for the manufacture of
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum small arms and provides a framework
(NGN) (NGN) (NGN) (NGN) for action to reduce civilian posses-
sion of small arms in the West Africa
Assault rifle 45,000 60,000 350,000 450,000 region.47 The convention is a legally
(AK-47-type semi-automatic) (USD 133) (USD 177) (USD 1,034) (USD 1,330)
binding instrument (FES, 2010, p. 3).
Pistol 90,000 120,000 180,000 250,000 National legal framework
(Beretta-type, self-loading) (USD 266) (USD 355) (USD 532) (USD 739)
The main national instrument govern-
Single-barrel shotgun 14,000 25,000 40,000 50,000 ing the manufacture, possession, use,
(USD 41) (USD 74) (USD 118) (USD 148) and transfer of small arms in Nigeria
is the Firearms Act of 1959 (Nigeria,
Double-barrel shotgun 30,000 120,000 60,000 120,000 1959). Subsidiary laws contributed to
(USD 89) (USD 355) (USD 177) (USD 355) the Firearms Act in 1984, 1990, and
Source: Analysis of KII responses containing pricing information
14 Briefing Paper June 20182000.48 The 1984 Robbery and Firearms half of the producers who responded Institutional framework
(Special Provisions) Decree No. 5 sub- to a question about regulation were
stantially increased the penalties for unaware of the legal provisions gov- The key state institutions52 involved in
the use of a firearm in the context of erning their trade, or ways of regis- enforcing control of small arms are the
crimes such as robberies and intro- tering for a licence (see Figure 12), NPF, which is the principal law enforce-
duced the death penalty for such although some were aware of the ment agency in Nigeria (Stolpe, 2017,
offences, for example (Nigeria, 1984; legal framework regulating small p. 23); the State Security Service, which
is charged with the prevention and detec-
Chigozie, 2010, p. 56). But the main arms more generally.
tion of any crime threatening the internal
body of law regulating small arms Complicating matters, there is some security of the country (Nigeria, 1986,
still resides in the 1959 legal text, evidence of licences to own craft weap- sec. 2(3)); and traditional institutions.53
which is considered to be ‘obsolete’ ons being granted to vigilante groups Traditional rulers play a key role in regu-
(PRESCOM, 2014). acting in support of the Nigerian state. lating firearms, especially craft weapons,
The Firearms Act states that individu- It has become common to see groups including by providing government secu-
als may possess ‘personal firearms’ such as the CJTF openly displaying rity agencies with information regarding
if they secure a licence from the their muzzle-loading ‘Dane guns’ as the manufacture and trafficking of weap-
inspector-general of police (Nigeria, proof of their willingness to engage ons to and from their communities.54
1959, para. 4). Personal firearms in the fight against Boko Haram, for Fieldwork indicates that in the past
include shotguns (excluding auto- instance (Hays and Jenzen-Jones, forth- there were associations of craft produc-
matic and semi-automatic models and coming, p. 49). At least some members ers in Anambra state, but LEAs pursuing
shotguns with any kind of mechani- of the CJTF in Borno and Adamawa craft producers have disbanded them,
cal action49); sporting rifles (that is, have reportedly been licensed to pur- especially in Awka.55 Interviewees indi-
‘rifles of calibres other than those pro- chase mostly craft-produced weapons cated that informal community-based
hibited in item 6 of Part I’) (Nigeria, from local blacksmiths (ICG, 2017a, associations of craft producers still exist,
1959, Schedule I, Part II.1–II.2); and p. 11). In February 2018, however, the but that their purpose now is to share
‘Air-guns, air-rifles or air-pistols’ information on law enforcement activi-
inspector-general of the NPF ordered
(Part II.3). Prohibited weapons include ties and to warn their members about
all security forces to recover illegally
‘Military rifles, namely those of cali- such activities.56
held weapons in Nigeria, including
bres 7.62 mm, 9 mm, .300 inches and A final institution that is key in Nigeria’s
those held by vigilante groups and
.303 inches’ (Part I.6). A licence is also struggle to prevent and reduce the illicit
neighbourhood watch members proliferation of firearms is the Presiden-
required to own muzzle-loading fire- (Sahara Reporters, 2018). It remains
arms such as ‘Dane-guns’ (Part III.1). tial Committee on Small Arms and Light
to be seen how this will be imple- Weapons (PRESCOM).57 The committee
The guiding rules for the manufacture mented in practice. was inaugurated by former president
and repair of firearms are also pro- Goodluck Jonathan in April 2013 with a
vided in the Firearms Act. Section 28 To conclude, craft-weapons production
mission to reduce the proliferation of
(iv) states that anyone who manufac- poses serious challenges to the implemen-
small arms, to create awareness on the
tures, assembles, or repairs small arms tation of and compliance with relevant impact of small arms abuse, to stop the
unlawfully shall be liable to a minimum legal instruments. As part of an under- illegal importation of small arms, and to
sentence of ten years’ imprisonment cover, hidden economy, countries often arrange for the safe disposal of excess
(Nigeria, 1959).50 The act gives the struggle to gain control over this illicit stockpiles of such weapons.58
inspector-general of police the power activity. In Nigeria’s case, this difficulty is
to—with the consent of the governor exacerbated by strong demand for these
of a state—grant a permit to any per- weapons and the de facto endorsement Addressing demand for
son to carry out the business of man- by the Federal Government of some forms
ufacturing and repairing firearms. The of armed vigilantism. craft weapons: security,
inspector-general is mandated to sensitization, trust
maintain a register of such permits
in force (Nigeria, 1959, sec. 6, paras. Figure 12 Craft producers’ awareness Research indicates that there are a num-
22–25). This means that craft produc- of Nigerian laws and regulations on ber of possible ways in which demand
ers may—at least in theory—register for craft weapons might be reduced.
craft production, 2017 (n = 23)
their businesses legally and receive Improve security. A paramount con-
an official authorization to conduct No: no knowledge (11)
Yes: some awareness of legislation and regulation (6)
cern for interviewees is the current
their businesses. context of conflict and insecurity in
Yes: aware of licensing possibility and obligations (5)
Information on such registries and No response (1) Nigeria and the need for protection
licences is difficult to come by, how- and self-defence. Preliminary data
ever. Currently, craft producers do from the NSALWS indicates that 49
not appear to receive the required per cent of respondents nationwide
authorization, and licences are no who own a firearm do so for personal
longer provided to blacksmiths for protection (53 per cent in urban areas;
the repair and manufacture of craft 46 per cent in rural) and 28 per cent
weapons, to the authors’ knowledge. for the protection of property (includ-
None of the producers in the states ing livestock) (Small Arms Survey and
surveyed for this Briefing Paper was PRESCOM, 2018).59
registered by his state’s authorities There is strong evidence to suggest that
and licensed, for example.51 Indeed, Source: Analysis of producers’ responses in KIIs both actual and perceived insecurity
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