Maori Leadership in Governance - Scoping Paper
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Scoping Paper:
Maori Leadership in
Governance
Professor Hirini Mead
Te Whare Wananga o Awanuiarangi Council
Shaan Stevens & John Third
Guinness Gallagher
Dr Brad Jackson & Dale Pfeifer
Centre for the Study of Leadership
Victoria University of WellingtonMaori Leadership in Governance
Table of Contents
Page
1.0 Background and Setting the Scene 3
2.0 Traditional Principles of Maori Leadership 4
3.0 International perspectives on Strategic 12
Leadership Development and Corporate
Governance
4.0 Situational Analysis in New Zealand 24
5.0 Bridging the Gaps 30
6.0 Recommendations 34
Please refer all comments to:
Dale Pfeifer
Centre for the Study of Leadership
Victoria University
(04) 463 5141
Dale.Pfeifer@vuw.ac.nz
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 21.0 Background and setting the scene
The 2005 Hui Taumata made a strong call for developing effective leadership and
governance throughout Maoridom. This is echoed in the Summary Report (2005) that
advocates for:
“… nurturing leadership potential in everyone, and growing in particular
the leadership potential of all our Rangatahi.” (page 15)
“… resourcing a leadership component in vocational education
pathways.” (page 15)
“… resources to establish a Maori Leadership institution and leadership
incubators.”
“… demystifying governance for whanau, to encourage their participation and
involvement.”
A project team was convened by the Hui Taumata Task force to conduct research and
author a scoping paper that investigated how it might best move forward on these
objectives. The project team was comprised of Professor Hirini Mead, Chairman of
the Te Whare Wananga o Awanuiarangi Council; Shaan Stevens and John Third of
Guiness Gallagher Accounting; and Dr Brad Jackson and Dale Pfeifer from the Centre
for the Study of Leadership, Victoria University of Wellington. The project team
took a partnership approach so that expertise could be freely drawn from the
members’ diverse backgrounds in order to develop “a model that incorporates tikanga
Maori into leadership in governance training”.
Over a period of three months the project team met on several occasions. The project
team was in strong agreement that the scoping paper be grounded in a thorough
understanding of traditional principles of Maori leadership. Moreover, the relevance
and validity of these principles should be critically assessed against the current and
future needs of Maoridom (refer to Section 2 of the report). The project team also
thought it was important that the paper take account of the key debates regarding
leadership and governance best practice that are taking place within the international
realm (refer to Section 3).
Having considered traditional Maori principles and international governance and
leadership models, the project team then investigated current generic leadership and
governance development practices in New Zealand from within the public, private
and tertiary sectors (refer to Section 4). Based on the understanding gained from
Sections 2, 3 and 4 of the paper, the project team was then in a position to identify the
most significant gaps in the provision of leadership and governance training and
development for Maori in Section 5 of the report. The closing section of the paper
(section 6) summarises the key recommendations for future action that the project
team wishes to make for the consideration of the Hui Taumata Task Force.
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 32.0 Traditional principles of Maori leadership
2.1 Introduction
Recently the notion of leadership has become very important and is now the subject of
many conferences around the world. Many conferences are concerned about
governance issues and so discussions about leadership are allied to concerns about
governance. Terms such as mandate, accountability and transparency are common
political issues that inevitably come down to how money is managed. While these are
also matters of concern to Maori communities the interest in leadership is more
fundamental and much broader than concerns focussing only on corporate matters. In
our world we tend not to talk about leaders but rather we focus upon chiefs or
rangatira. The word ‘rangatira’, meaning ‘chief’ is gender free but when we use the
English word ‘chief’ most people immediately assume that the word refers to a male.
It is important to make this point at the outset, namely that in the traditional setting a
rangatira could be male or female (Williams 1957:323). Most often however rangatira
were male. Rangatira are leaders but not all leaders are regarded as rangatira. This is
because the Maori system of leadership is based on cultural criteria such as kinship
ties, alliances with other kinship groups, appropriate whakapapa (genealogy) and
upon spiritual assets such as mana and tapu. The cultural criteria are still important
today, but they are not applied as strictly as used to be the case.
Survival in the contemporary world requires us now to consider the broad range of
other ideas about leadership because we are now part of the modern world. Being a
leader today is much more difficult and complicated. As a response to the different
cultural, social, political and economic environment in which we live there are now a
range of leaders rather than one all powerful single leader such as an ariki (paramount
chief) of traditional times. There are very few of them left today. Nonetheless many of
the values held to be essential in traditional times are still meaningful today.
2.2 What are the principles of traditional Maori leadership?
Maori leaders often did not know how they were regarded by their people until they
died. Then they are exalted and lauded in song and likened to a waka whakarei, an
ornamented canoe, as some beautiful object that the people could admire. Or the
leader might be described as a rata whakaruruhau, that is, as sheltering rata tree, as
leaders whose contribution was metaphorically described as providing protection and
sustenance for the people. Such leaders provided stability in their communities and
while active gave people a feeling of security. There was no doubt that good
leadership was recognised and appreciated by their communities and their families.
For example, consider these words of praise for Te Haupa, a high chief of Ngati Paoa
of Hauraki, in waiata 228 of Nga Moteatea (Ngata and Te Hurinui, Part 3, 1990,
pp126-129):
Taku ate hoki ra,taku rata tutahi, taku whakamarumaru, taku whare kii
tonu, taku tiketike ka riro, unuhia noatia te taniwha i te rua.
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 4You were my heart, my solitary rata tree, my sheltering place, my
house of plenty, my elevated one now departed, withdrawn now is the
dragon from its lair.
These are powerful statements that give an indication of the values held about
leadership and the judgements made about individual leaders. The composer of
waiata 228, Puakitawhiti, a sister of the chief, specified one particular result of
admired leadership in these words:
No korua ra, nana i hora iho ka pai te whenua, ka moe nga patu ki te
whare.
It was you two who set about to calm the land and put weapons to
rest within the house.
The image of the sheltering rata tree emphasises the great value placed upon service
to the community that results in providing a sense of security and certainty for the
people, and allowing families to get on with their lives. Essentially it is about
engendering good feelings about themselves, having pride in their whanau, hapu and
iwi and being confident about life and the future.
Another image often used is that of the much admired and highly valued totara tree.
In waiata 233 (Ngata and Te Hurinui, Part 3, 1990, pp 158- 163) the great chief
Tukino Te Heuheu of Ngati Tuwharetoa is likened to a totara tree in this way:
Ka ngaro ra, e nga totara whakahae o te wao!
Gone alas are the cherished totara trees of the forest.
The totara tree was regarded as a strong and beautiful tree that often grew to great
heights. The tree was favoured for building canoes, both for war and domestic
transport purposes and for the carvings that were essential for a fully decorated
meeting house, a whare whakairo. Thus a leader should portray strength and when
fully costumed should present an awesome sight. Thus Tukino Te Heuheu was
portrayed in waiata 60 (Ngata 1959, Part 1, pp 190-195):
Haere ra e te nui, haere ra e te wehi.
Farewell, oh mighty one; farewell oh feared one.
When composers wanted to stress the values of steadfastness and commitment the
image used was that of a rock dashed by the waves of the ocean day in and day out
but still it stands. It is a striking image. Consider the lines in waiata 60:
Korero i o tohu, te kura takai puni,
Te toka tu moana, i te tukutahi whakarere;
Speak about your accomplishments, is it to be the onward charge,
The rock that stands in the ocean, against a tumultuous headlong rush;
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 5Another image often used in talking about chiefs is that of the canoe. The loss of a
leader is likened to a canoe floating unevenly, or leaning dangerously to one side. Or
it is said that canoe is cast upon the beach as its work is done. It may be upended to
emphasise the point. There are instances where the leaders’ canoe becomes his
memorial. The canoe is cut in half and inserted into the ground near the grave as a
reminder to everyone that the tribe has lost a valuable leader.
In the case of the whare whakairo, the carved house, the notion of the chief being
regarded as the symbol of the tribe is further emphasised. The chief is the totara tree
and the chief is also the tribe. The chief is the mountain and the mountain is also the
tribe. Consistent with this thinking the chief is also the carved house that he lived in
and the house is also the tribe. Formerly upon the death of the chief the house was
abandoned and allowed to crumble and die. A truly magnificent chief’s house was
recorded and painted by the artist-ethnographer G. F. Angas 1847 and he talks about
one of the houses he painted at Te Kuiti, in Volume 2 of his book Savage Life and
Scenes, pages 87 -89. These images point to a very dynamic relationship between the
leader and the people who provided the mandate, the workforce, the army and the
supporters of the leader.
Again the language of metaphor in songs and in orations emphasised the importance
to a group of people such as a whanau, or a hapu, or a tribe or the Maori people in
general of having dedicated leadership to guide them through the challenges of life.
The loss of a great leader is a tragedy and composers of songs used very striking
images to carry the message. The lighting flashes, the thunder resounds and these
images very clearly signal that the loss of a leader is an earthshaking event that causes
uncertainty about the future and may plunge the tribe into a period of internal unrest
during which there is bickering and jockeying for positions.
The traditional values referred to in traditional songs can be treated as principles.
These are:
1. A leader is a sheltering rata tree. This means:
a) dedicating ones life for the good of all the people
b) ensuring stability for the people
c) encouraging confidence about the future
d) standing tall at all times regardless of the challenges
e) being a person who cares about people.
2. A leader is a totara tree standing tall in the forest. This means:
a) standing tall as a leader
b) presenting oneself as a leader
c) dressing up rather than down
d) being a source of pride for the people because of skills and appearance
e) never sacrificing the people for personal gain.
3. A leader is a rock that is dashed by the waves of the sea. This means:
a) being steadfast and strong
b) being fully committed
c) going the extra mile and burning the midnight oil when required
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 6d) able to handle difficult situations and endure a fair bit of stress
4. A leader is a waka. This means:
a) ensuring essential services are maintained
b) ensuring that the status of the community is such that the people can
feel proud to belong
c) ensuring that the whole whanau, hapu or iwi is functional and able to
hold their own against or in comparison with others
d) ensuring that the symbols and icons of the group are respected,
maintained and enhanced.
2.2.1 The Pumanawa or Talents
There are two sources of traditional information about the eight talents required and
expected of chiefs. One is Te Rangikaheke of Ngati Rangiwewehi, Te Arawa. He
wrote “Te Tikanga o tenei mea te rangatiratanga o te tangata Maori” (The Principles
of chieftainship of Maori Society) submitted to Sir George Grey in 1850. The eight
principles are clearly set out in a Masters thesis submitted by the late Colonel Neil
Grove to Victoria University of Wellington in 1985. The other source was an article
entitled “Nga Pumanawa e Waru” written by Himiona Tikitu of Ngati Awa in 1897
and published by Elsdon Best (1898: 242, 1901: 8).
Both authors listed eight talents or pumanawa. The number eight has a symbolic
significance attached to it and the phrase ‘Nga pumanawa e waru” has a ring of
authority about it. Both authors emphasised that the talents were inherited and came
from ‘te kopu o tona whaea’ (from the mother’s womb) according to Tikitu, Te
Rangikaheke attributed the talents to,
“Na te moenga rangatira ena mea.”
Those things come out of the chiefly marriage bed”. (Best 1898)
That is, the talents are inherited from a properly arranged marriage at the chiefly
level. The talents are not present among commoners. For Te Rangikaheke the
notion of the “chiefly marriage bed” is all important and is the source of inherited
talents.
On the other hand Himiona Tikitu was not so sure about this. He said that four of the
talents can be found among commoners but he did not say which ones. Children
coming out of a chiefly marriage bed and out of the mother’s womb are able to inherit
all eight of the talents. And so while a child born of chiefly parents had the advantage
of becoming a leader in later life, a commoner inheriting only four of the talents had a
much more difficult task of becoming a leader. But a commoner could become a
leader, according to Tikitu although it is fair to say he did not say so in his text.
The two chiefly writers are in general agreement about some of the listed talents.
They differ mainly in order of priority and in levels of intensity. In order to
understand the lists it is preferable to deal with them separately and to provide some
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 7background to the events affecting the lives of the people at the time the two chiefs
put their thoughts in writing.
This is not really the place to elaborate and compare. Instead what is proposed is to
focus upon Tikitu’s list and make some observations about the items he listed. Both
lists are presented and it will be noticed that Tikitu’s list is more clearly explained
than the other and more specific.
Te Rangikaheke’s List 1850
1. He toa, bravery
2. Korero taua, war speeches
3. Mahi kai, food procurement
4. Tangohanga, feasts of celebration
5. Pupuri pahi, restraining the departure of visiting parties
6. Korero Runanga, council speeches
7. Korero manuhiri, welcome guests
8. Atawhai pahi, iti, rahi, looking after visitors small or large.
Himiona Tikitu’s List 1897
1. He kaha ki te mahi kai, industrious in obtaining or cultivating food
2. He kaha ki te whakahaere i nga raruraru, abled in settling disputes, able to
manage and mediate
3. He toa, bravery, courage in war
4. He kaha ki te whakahaere i te riri, good leader in war, good strategist
5. He mohio ki te whakairo, an expert in the arts especially wood carving
6. He atawhai tangata, hospitability generous
7. He mohio ki te hanga whare rimu, waka ranei, clever at building houses,
fortified sites or canoes
8. He mohio ki nga rohe whenua, good knowledge of the boundaries of tribal
lands.
It will be appreciated that the pumanawa (talents) held to be important are meaningful
in terms of the prevailing of social, economic and political background. Te
Rangikaheke for example, gave priority to courage in times of war and the ability to
persuade others to follow the leader. During the time he wrote his words the country
was in a state of war over land. Food procurement was listed as number three in his
list. On the other hand the talents stressed by Tikitu were first, the ability to cultivate
and obtain food and feed the people. He was writing at a time after the land wars
when many Maori communities were finding it difficult to get food. Their lands had
either been sold or confiscated and their sources of food severely curtailed. An
important point is made here, namely that the priorities are sensitive to the survival
needs of the people. In other words there is a level of pragmatism evident here. The
list is not a wish list that bears no relationship to the needs of the people.
His second priority stressed the need for leaders to manage the people, to settle
disputes and to mediate where necessary. Again this is a pragmatic response to a felt
need. Maori communities were struggling to survive and they had begun to squabble
over land and resources. Many sub-tribes and family groups were decimated by
disease, demoralised by Government policies and fractionalised by arguments before
the Native Land Court. A leader needed to keep his or her followers together.
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 8His third and fourth talents related to war, to the chief being able to lead in times of war, to be courageous and to be a good strategist and win battles. Tikitu’s fifth talent requires the leader to be knowledgeable in the arts and to have some ability in this field. Chiefs were often wood carvers and tohunga-ta-moko (expert tattooists). The important point being made here is that leaders need to know about culture and have a broader knowledge than knowing about warfare and food. This is in fact, a very important pumanawa even though it is listed as number five. It is expected that the leader is an educated person who is able to articulate the aspirations of the people. For the sixth talent the chief is required to be hospitable and generous, a requirement also listed by Te Rangikaheke. So although leaders are expected to be able to fight and if necessary to kill in the context of warfare, when they behave in a domestic situation they are required to be hospitable, generous and caring. The seventh talent is also about knowledge and the development of skills. The chief should be able to manage and complete large-scale undertakings such as building meeting houses, building canoes and constructing fighting sites. This stresses the ability to rally a work force and of keeping them on the job for both short term and long term projects. It also hints at the necessity to learn and acquire skills and experience so one would know what to do. We now come to Tikitu’s eighth pumanawa. Knowledge is again the issue here; he identified the field of knowledge as knowledge of tribal boundaries. But this field is but a sub- division of cultural knowledge. A leader should know the history of the people, the stories told, the songs sung, the proverbs and even the life stories of important men and women of the community. So this talent and the one referring to the arts means that a leader is expected to be well versed in matauranga Maori, who well educated and well schooled in the branches of knowledge current in their day. Neither Te Rangikaheke or Himiona Tikitu wrote about the wider context in which leaders must act. They probably regarded as self-evident facts, that leaders act in accordance with the norms of their society with the rules and regulations that we call tikanga and with the values that are held to be important such as manaakitanga, whakapapa, respect for mana and tapu, aroha ki te tangata, caring for people and so on. Working within the religious system of Maori society is also a given part of the background. 2.3 In the contemporary context, which principles are the most critical? 2.3.1 The Pumanawa today There are several ways of looking at the traditional list of talents that Tikitu identified. The list could be dismissed as being relevant to circumstances and a time long passed. It should be discarded and forgotten, like the cast off fishing net left to rot on the beach. Another option is to recast the language of each pumanawa in order to fit the circumstances of today. A third way is to re-prioritise the list and to modernise the language used to describe each pumanawa. __________________________________________________________________ Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 9
The third option is preferred here because what we are dealing with in Tikitu’s list are
values and principles that are held to be important and valid today. Perhaps they are
held to be almost in the nature of covenants because our ancestors believed in them
and used them as guiding principles to plot their way through some challenging and
treacherous byways. We are here today because of their aspirations, their hopes, their
beliefs and their values.
2.3.2 The Eight Talents for Today
1. The ability to manage, mediate and settle disputes in the community so as to
uphold the unity of the whanau, hapu, iwi.
2. The leaders of whanau are able to ensure that every member of the unit is
provided with food that is geared to their needs and ensures their growth.
Leaders need to be able to look after their own families and meet this
obligation as well as leading the community.
3. Bravery and courage are required to uphold the rights of the hapu and the iwi.
The current fields of struggle and challenges are the Maori Land Court, the
High Court, the Waitangi Tribunal, Parliament and relevant divisions of the
United Nations. (It should be pointed out that there is always a field of
struggle and challenges because people are always struggling for a better way
of life, for peace and security.)
4. Generalship is now a matter of leading the community forward, of improving
its standing, its economic base and its mana.
5. Knowledge of the arts stresses the need for a leader to have a wider vision and
have a more general education than is required for every day matters.
6. The leader of today is still required to reflect the value of manaakitanga in the
way they work with the people and relate to others. Hospitability is still
important, not just for the leader but for the hapu or sub-tribe. These groups
still feel the stigma of whakama or shame when their hospitality is found to be
wanting, for example running out of food to feed the people at an important
hui.
7. The leader is able to lead the community to undertake and successfully
complete big projects such as building a marae, a wharekai, a wharenui, or a
waka ama, or a waka hourua, establish a kohanga reo, or a kura kaupapa.
8. A leader knows the traditions of their people, their culture, their reo, their
proverbs and have a good idea of the traditions of other iwi. They are well
versed in matauranga Maori.
2.3.3 Matters of Assessment
These talents as rephrased here have a meaning for us today. They represent values or
principles in addition to those already described above. Clearly a leader is a person
who is given the mandate to lead, by the people. The people become the client base
as it were and the supporters. While it is a great honour to have the support of the
people and to be ‘called’ by them to be their leader the honour has to be measured
against the demands of the position. The leader has to work at retaining the support of
the community. The mandate provided by the people comes with a heavy
responsibility that has to be carried for many years, and usually for life or when the
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 10health of a leader fails. During the term of one’s tenure as a leader, clear signals are given when performance fails to meet the needs of the people. Accountability is obviously towards the community, to the mandating group. As long as the leader is of the people and for the people that person can expect the support of the community. Dissatisfaction with performance may be shown by failure to stand up to sing a waiata for the leader or the people fail to give their support when requested. The community could be tolerant of faults and lack of dedication but only up to a point. This was true in traditional times when all the people had to do was fail to support their chief in a critical battle. Today dissatisfaction is shown by withholding support or by open criticisms at a meeting. Members of the community tended to speak up to criticise rather than to praise their leader. This phenomenon is often described as ‘crab antics’ as it has been noticed that when crabs are placed in a basket or bucket they pull down and the crab that tries to escape and they tend to be mean to one another. Crab behaviour is a metaphor for the ways in which some groups can be cruel to their leaders and to one another. The matter of transparency is not generally an issue about what the group and the leader are doing at their marae. Here being seen is an often articulated value. It is stated as kanohi-ki-te-kanohi, face to face, kia kite a-kanohi to be seen face to face. Most activities at a marae are of this nature. But there are other matters where transparency is not so obvious. Dealing with money has been a problem for some groups and continues to be an issue in some localities and especially with Trusts of various sorts such as Whanau Trusts. What this means is that discussions about leadership can be very useful in providing clearer goals and in guiding us through the challenges of the modern world. Leadership is an ongoing matter and it is ever changing. A proverb makes this point when it states mate atu he tetekura ara mai he tetekura, when the leaders die, other leaders emerge. So there are always new personalities emerging with their own unique styles of leadership. Those who led before are no longer seen and memories then fade. The community turns its attention to working with the new leadership in addressing the fields of struggle and challenges before them. Life goes on. __________________________________________________________________ Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 11
3.0 International perspectives on leadership and governance 3.1 Introduction Developing leadership is a complex and uncertain process. It’s a phenomenon that every one has an opinion on but no one can agree what exactly it really is. Bernard Bass (1990) has famously observed that, “there are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define it”. Best estimates indicate that we can find well over 5,000 different definitions of leadership in the burgeoning leadership literature. Judging by the number of books on leadership that are currently on the market, there has never been greater interest in understanding and acquiring leadership skills. For example, Grint (2005) notes that there were 14,139 items relating to ‘Leadership’ on Amazon.co.uk on October 29, 2003. On January 17, 2006, just over two years later, this had increased to 19,625 items. The hunger and quest for leadership knowledge appears to be insatiable. It would appear that the more we learn about leadership the more we realise what we have and want to learn. However, for the purpose of this report, addressing the entire contents of this large body of literature would not be particularly useful. This section will scope the international terrain for some of the ripest fruit for nurturing successful Maori leadership and corporate governance. While recognising its importance to the broader Maori community, this report will only focus on developing strategic leadership and corporate governance. This was recognised by Materoa Dodd (2004) when she suggested, “strategic leadership is key to creating Maori social and economic development success.” As good strategic leaders will nurture leadership within others, both within their organisation and the wider community, it is envisaged that developing these leaders will lead to enhanced leadership throughout Maoridom. In this section you will find some of the current key debates on strategic leadership and corporate governance and will explore: • leadership and strategic leadership; • strategic leadership development; • corporate governance; • strategies to integrate leadership and governance. __________________________________________________________________ Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 12
3.2 Leadership and strategic leadership
3.2.1 Leadership
A widely used definition amongst leadership scholars is that leadership is “the process
of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting
and goal achievement” (Elkin et al, 2004). There are three key components of this
definition that are worth emphasising: it is an interpersonal process between one
person and a group; you cannot have ‘leaders’ without ‘followers’; and the criterion
for effective leadership is goal achievement.
It is especially important to see leadership as something that is produced and jointly
created by leaders and followers. Leaders obviously play a central role in initiating
and fostering this relationship, but we should not lose sight of the important role that
followers need to play in creating leadership.
Grint (2005) suggests that leadership has traditionally been understood in four quite
different ways:
• Leadership as Person: is it WHO ‘leaders’ are that makes them leaders?
• Leadership as Results: is it WHAT ‘leaders’ achieve that makes them leaders?
• Leadership as Position: is it WHERE ‘leaders’ operate that makes them
leaders?
• Leadership as Process: is it HOW ‘leaders’ get things done that makes them
leaders?
In his view, each of these ways of thinking about leadership is valid and potentially
useful. However, the fact that we look at leadership in these different ways goes some
way towards explaining why we have so much trouble explaining leadership, trying to
understand it and trying to teach or reward it.
Paradoxically, the importance of leadership tends to be both over-estimated as well as
under-estimated (Jackson & Parry, 2001). On the one hand, we tend to exaggerate the
importance of a leader’s interventions at either end of the success or failure spectrum.
When things are going either very well or when they are going very badly we look to
leaders for the causes when perhaps extenuating circumstances beyond the leader’s
control might have been more significant. This attributional process has been dubbed
the ‘Romance of Leadership’ by Meindl et al (1985).
One school of thought suggests that we over-emphasis the importance of individual
leaders and an individual might step up and display leadership characteristics or step
back and let someone else take the lead depending on the moment. In this way,
leadership is broadly distributed amongst organisational members who gain their
platform to lead due to their unique perspectives, capabilities, and knowledge (Pearce
and Conger, 2002).
Additionally, the constantly evolving organisational context impacts significantly on
leadership. In fact, Perrow (1970) put forward that ‘leadership style is a dependent
variable… the setting or task is the independent variable’. This suggests that
leadership will be extensively shaped by organisational characteristics.
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 13While the importance of the role of individual leaders tends to be over-estimated the significance of leadership itself should never be underestimated. Grint (2005) believes we have become overly pre-occupied with individual leaders when, in fact, we should have been focusing more on leadership. As a result he urges us to “put the ship back into leadership”. An important means of doing this is to recognize that leadership is a dynamic relationship between leaders and followers that is constantly being negotiated, maintained, challenged, threatened and dissipated. It is not something that, once it has been created, has been achieved. Leadership can be both a very fragile and a highly durable thing. Much depends on the followers. As a result, the influence of a leader can be felt both before they assume the role and long after they have left it. This tendency has been graphically displayed on a global basis with the recent passing of Pope John Paul II. 3.2.2 The changing nature of leadership As our environment, both locally and globally, is constantly in a state of flux leaders require a diverse range of competencies to successfully negotiate their way. Leaders are required that are able to walk in many worlds, constructively engaging with diverse stakeholders that hold quite different cultural values and norms without compromising their cultural philosophies. Graen and Hui (1999) argue that the perceptions of what it means to be a ‘global leader’ are changing. No longer are ‘geocentric globetrotters’ who are transferred from country to country to manage foreign operations seen as being the exemplar of the global leader. Instead, they argue that the new global leader will need to be what they describe as a ‘transcultural creative leader’. In societies such as New Zealand which have become increasingly culturally diverse it is important that this new generation of leader be developed to not only work internationally but also within their own national contexts (Thomas, 2001). Transcultural creative leaders are people who can learn how to transcend their childhood acculturation and respect very different cultures; they can build cross- cultural partnerships of mutual trust, respect, and obligation; they actively engage in cross-cultural problem-solving conflicts; and they help to construct new cultures in various operations. Maori leaders have the added challenge of negotiating the dynamically interacting influences of traditional Maori values and leadership principles and those of mainstream contemporary society. With the benefit of a lifetime negotiating a plural existence in NZ, Maori may have built considerable capacity in the area. Anecdotal evidence suggests that Maori exporters for example have gained traction more quickly due to their transcultural creative leadership capabilities. Whatever the case, Maori that lead through traditional principles while managing this interface may be the mark of leadership success. __________________________________________________________________ Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 14
3.2.3 Traditional principles in contemporary leadership
If we are going to consider international leadership models to help develop Maori
leaders, it is important to access these models to see where they fall short along these
principles. Possibly the most impressive contemporary international leadership model
was developed by the GLOBE Project (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta,
2004). It attempts to develop a truly international theory of leadership, measuring
culture (along nine dimensions) and its impact on leadership (which is measured
along with six major dimensions and 21 sub-scales). A representation of the GLOBE
model can be seen below1.
Figure 1. The GLOBE leadership model
Although not a direct fit, some of the GLOBE’s dimension and sub-scales may have
some affinity to the Pumanawa model as described in section 2.0. Some aspects of the
Pumanawa model have not been considered by the GLOBE model, which indicates a
possible contribution that Maori leadership thinking can make to international
leadership theory.
1
The Charismatic III (self sacrificial) sub-scale is not included in this diagram.
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 15Comparison between the Pumanawa model and the GLOBE model
The Pumanawa model The GLOBE model
1 Manage, mediate and settle disputes to Diplomatic: Win/win problem solver
uphold unity of the group and mediator.
Collaborative team orientation: Group-
orientated, collaborative, consultative
and mediator
2 Ensure every member of the group is
provided base needs and ensures their
growth
3 Bravery and courage to uphold the
rights of hapu and iwi
4 Leading the community forward, Visionary: Foresight, future orientation,
improving its economic base and its prepared, anticipatory, plans ahead,
mana able to anticipate
5 Need for a wider vision and a more Visionary: Foresight, future orientation,
general education than is required for prepared, anticipatory, plans ahead,
every day matters able to anticipate
6 Hospitality Humane orientation: Generous
7 Led and successfully complete Administratively competent
community projects
8 Know the traditions and culture of their Team integrator: Informed
people, and the wider community
Peter Cammock, a New Zealand scholar captures the essence of leadership that future
leaders will need to recognise and master when he states, “Leadership is a dance, in
which leaders and followers jointly respond to the rhythm and call for a particular
social context, within which leaders draw from deep wells of collective experience
and energy, to engage followers around transforming visions of change and lead them
in the collective creation of compelling futures” (2002).
3.2.4 Strategic leadership
Strategic leaders are those situated at the organisational apex, with overall
responsibility for the organisation, its members, and its relationship with the wider
community. This includes the CEO, directors, top-level managers and board
members. Only a small proportion of the leadership research (less than 5%) explores
executive-level leadership - most focus on leadership at lower organisational levels
assuming the process of leadership is the same at both levels (Zaccaro and Horn,
2003). However, what it suggests is that strategic leadership is distinct and needs to be
approached differently.
One key difference is that the strategic leadership process is usually carried out by a
team, not a single leader (Story, 2005). Driven by the realisation that one person may
not possess all the required knowledge, this team leads collectively. Different team
members take the lead depending on the moment and their areas of expertise. In this
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 16way, the leadership practices of the whole leadership team supports the figurehead of the organisation. This concept of leadership as a collective process brings to the forefront a new set of issues for leadership effectiveness. Paramount is the leader’s fit, both formally and informally within the collective. Fit includes both complementary areas of expertise and the interpersonal relationships between team members. This is made more difficult as due to an organisation’s ambiguous environment, the high stakes that are played for these relationships are typically contentious and conflict often arises. Handling conflict in a healthy, open manner by facilitating appropriate debate is an essential for leadership effectiveness. Healthy relationships between members of the leadership team are also pivotal to the strategic leadership process. This is particularly important as the need for strategic leadership is often discussed in terms of status and character a leader can bring to an organisation. Story (2005) refers to this as reputation capital and suggests that how stakeholders perceive an organisation’s figurehead can have a marked effect on organisation performance. In this respect leadership’s significance is difficult to overstate. The social construction of these leaders through role-modelling and distance leadership (symbolic behaviour, stories, myths and rhetorical skills) is critical, and the leadership team plays an essential role by engaging in distance leadership and image building. 3.3 Strategic leadership development ‘Are leaders born or made?’ This fundamental question still stimulates debate within the leadership community, and the jury is still out. However, exploring this question doesn’t help us move forward on the issue at hand: namely, how to go about developing the next generation of leaders? With respect to the ways in which leadership is developed, it is widely acknowledged that leadership is something that can be learned, primarily through experience. While often unobserved, past leadership tasks and relationship experiences mould leadership capacity, knowledge acquisition and the way leaders engage in the leadership process. Unfortunately, there are no short cuts when it comes to experience, although it’s clear that some experiences can be managed in such a way that leaders can gain more insight and knowledge. Leadership development has become a multi-billion global industry, with estimates of between $36 and $60 billion US dollars expended annually on management and leadership development (Burgoyne, 2004). However only a small proportion of this seems to be directed at strategic-level managers who are much less likely to undertake leadership development than their more junior colleagues (Zaccaro and Horn, 2003). The evaluation of the impact of this training is scant, and the research that has attempted to do just this has by no means been definitive in its evaluation of the effectiveness of leadership development or able to isolate what types of leadership development are most effective. What’s more, no general models for the development of leadership skills exist. __________________________________________________________________ Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 17
Leadership development within organisations has tended to take two major
approaches: (1) formal intervention (2) informal activities.
3.3.1 Formal interventions
Formal leadership development strategies take two approaches.
1. Behavioural skills and awareness training that often incorporates behavioural
psychology and includes developing effective communication, interpersonal
behaviour, decision-making and attitude.
2. Management development education that includes courses such as MBAs,
executive programmes, short courses, coaching, mentoring, 360-degree
appraisal mentoring, experiential development, action learning and
organisational development.
It’s important to recognize that you cannot train leaders. You can, however, help to
develop certain behaviours and skills that can assist individuals in leading others.
Training in interpersonal communication skills, presentations skills, decision-making
skills and facilitation skills can be very helpful. But these are merely means to an end.
Many leaders have got by without fully (or even partially!) developing these skills.
What’s really important is the ability to continually learn from ones experiences.
Education can play a part here in that it can provide us with new and challenging
ways of looking and conceptualising our and other’s experiences. But, like training,
it’s better treated as a means not an end to leadership development. It also needs to be
situated in a planned and integrated model of leadership development (Cacioppe,
1998).
There has been a move towards leadership development that focuses on interpersonal
development within organisations, particularly that which fosters frequent activity and
interaction (Day, 2000). Such development emphasises an ‘anywhere-any time’
approach (James & Burgoyne, 2001), and includes processes that ensure that learning
is organisationally focused and aligned with corporate strategy (Fulmer & Wagner,
1999; Fulmer et al. 2000) such as: action learning, coaching and mentoring.
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 18Key formal leadership development interventions
Mentoring Mentoring involves leaders receiving support, either formally or
informally, from someone who has more experience or knowledge
within the organisation or community. Research indicates that those
who are mentored subsequently gain in competency (Wales, 2003) and
get more promotions (Darwin, 2000). Ways that mentors pave the way
for their protégés’ success include: providing them with opportunities,
suggesting strategies to achieve work objectives, helping them avoid
situations that might be risky for their careers, offering emotional
support and building their confidence.
Coaching Coaching involves custom-tailored one-on-one leadership development.
This may be aimed at addressing a specific issue or as an on-going
continuous process. It usually involves an assessment of the leader’s
strengths and weaknesses along with a comprehensive plan for
improvement. Research suggests that following up a standardised
training programme with customised one-on-one coaching is highly
beneficial (Olivero, Bane & Chapman, Best).
Action Action learning is a continuous process of learning and reflection that is
Learning supported by organisational stakeholders. Its emphasis is on getting
things done by focusing leadership learning on real organisational
scenarios (Marquardt). Its underlying assumption is that leaders
develop most effectively when they are working on real organisational
problems. Action learning involves a leader coming together with a
group of colleagues and working on a real problem facing the
organisation. After a solution is agreed upon, the leader puts it into
action. A coach often facilitates this process.
3.3.2 Informal activities
Much of the skills essential for effective leadership are learned from experience rather
than formal training programes (McCall et al, 1988). This on-the-job leadership
learning may be through experiences encountered due to leadership roles,
responsibilities and tasks, or naturalist learning through emergent or unintended
events. Several studies have shown that learning from experience is affected by the
amount of challenge, variety of task or assignments, and the quality of feedback that
is received by the participants. Organisations that facilitate diverse experiences,
people to observe, and roles to enact excel provide a good backdrop for informal
leadership learning (Conger, 2004).
Three major activities that facilitate leadership learning experiences have been
identified by McCall, Morrison and Lombardo (1988): job assignments (60% of
lessons), notable people (20% of lessons) and hardship (20% of lessons).
Contextualising informal leadership learning with formal interventions such as
mentoring or coaching is likely to result in effective leadership development and to
enhance learning (James & Burgoyne, 2001).
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 19Informal activities that facilitate leadership learning
Job Leadership development often occurs when leaders are given tasks
assignments beyond their current capabilities (Smith and Morphey). Receiving
challenging job assignments requires leaders to learn and extend their
current knowledge or skill base to meet the requirements of the
assignment. The more challenging the job assignment, the more likely
the leader will develop, moving beyond their existing skills and
knowledge (McCauley, 1986). This may be due to new circumstances,
lack of current knowledge or skills, pressure or interpersonal conflict.
Challenges may include: being challenged to fix a problem, managing a
task force, having a change in scope of job responsibilities, building
something from nothing, switching from a line to a staff position and
job rotation.
Notable Observing and interacting with notable people assist with leadership
people development as they may develop a greater understanding of key
leadership competencies, values and politics.
Leadership development can occur when leaders face hardship.
Hardship Learning occurs when a leader confronts these adverse circumstances
by being reflective, which may result in a heightened awareness of their
shortcomings, a clearer view of themselves, compassion and tolerance
of others’ shortcomings, and an effort to redirect oneself. Hardships
may include: personal trauma, career setbacks, changing jobs, business
mistakes and subordinate performance problems.
3.4 Corporate governance
Like leadership, corporate governance has also experienced a recent boom. It is the
subject of wide academic pursuit culminating in numerous books, journals,
conference papers, encyclopedias, and degrees. Also a hot topic in business, it has
generated many consultancies, and at a national level, the OECD (2003) advises that
almost all of its member nations are currently revising their corporate governance
practices or have recently done so. All of this activity, at many levels and spanning
over many fields, has blurred exactly what the term corporate governance entails.
The huge array of definitions of corporate governance definitions, each influenced by
the authors various perspective and discipline demonstrates this. One broad definition
often seen in the literature suggests corporate governance is “a set of relationships
between a company’s management, its board, its shareholders and other stakeholders.
Corporate governance also provides the structure through which the objectives of the
company are set, and the means of attaining those objectives, and monitoring
performance are determined” (OECD, 1999). Components of this definition that are
worth emphasising are: corporate governance is relational; it exists between a broad
group of organisational stakeholders; and the criterion for effective corporate
governance is effective goal setting, implementation, and monitoring for compliance
and accountability.
One important area this definition does not touch on is an organisation’s ethic and the
culture promoted by the leadership team. Good corporate governance will provide a
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Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 20structure that encourages open and honest communication between those within the system. Fostering a climate of social responsibility can be an effective tool for ensuring the success of a corporate governance system, however there is no assurance of this. Corporate governance structures only act as a safety net, aligning stakeholder activities with organisational objectives and ensuring compliance. As current business trends and the focus for Maori economic development look increasingly to the international market, it seems appropriate to consider international governance systems for Maori organisations. However, governance must be attuned to cultural factors and these models do not take into account the unique set of operating factors facing Maori in governance such as institutional/circumstance-related idiosyncrasies that change the landscape for Maori, e.g. Maori land regimes. International models are likely to be in discord with these factors that must be successfully negotiated and incorporated within corporate governance structures. As Kevin Keasey, Steve Thompson, and Mike Wright’s (2005) note, “good governance… is an abstraction that commands near-universal respect but diverse interpretation”. Considering the different types of corporate governance internationally may be useful benchmarking activity for identifying what type of the structure will best meet the unique requirement for Maori governance. In the past, one distinct characteristic of North American organisations’ corporate governance structures was the conflation of the leadership positions of a board’s Chair and CEO. Those advocating this governance structure suggest that effective organisations lodge ultimate leadership and accountability in a single place, and that any reduction in the power of the CEO may result in risk adversity. Financial fraud and asset misappropriation at companies such as Enron have caused the re-evaluation of this system. Along with a range of financial reporting checks and balances, new requirements imposed on public companies include increasing the number of independent board members. As Maori organisations embark down an increasingly corporate track, exploring the various forms of corporate governance structures is of direct importance to the Maori experience, now and in the future. Another governance structure, also spawned by corporate collapse and scandals, public companies in the UK are required to have clear divisions of responsibilities at the top of their organisations. By and large their boards include a balance of executive and non-executive directors and an independent audit committee is required. This aims to stop an individual from becoming too dominant, safeguarding the organisation from potential opportunism. However, there is no evidence confirming that separating these leadership roles ensures a more effective organisation overall. In the Harvard Business Review, William T. Allen and William R. Berkley argue that boards can enhance CEOs accountability without diminishing their role. They suggest “separating the roles of chief executive and chairman of the board may harm the very stakeholders advocates hope to protect” (p. 24). This is because it views corporate governance only as a performance monitoring system. It neglects to consider it as a wider system embodying a wide range of activities including setting organisational objectives and the means to attain those objectives. __________________________________________________________________ Hui Taumata Leadership in Governance Scoping Paper 21
International organisations2 have carried out benchmarking exercises reconciling the
internationally these type of internationally diverse opinions. Instead of exploring
each of these principles, they are synthesized and presented in the following table.
Guiding corporate governance principles
Organisational transparency – ensuring the timely and accurate disclosure of all
organisational concerns including financial situation, performance, ownership
and governance.
Protection and enforceability of all shareholders’ rights, equitable treatment and
prerogatives.
Recognising the rights of stakeholders established by law or through mutual
agreements and encouraging active co-operation between corporations and
stakeholders in creating wealth, jobs and the sustainability of financially sound
enterprises.
Directors capable of independently approving the corporation's strategy and
major business plans and decisions.
The independent hiring of management, monitoring of management's
performance and integrity, and replacing management when necessary.
Ensuring the company’s strategic guidance, the board’s effective monitoring of
management, and accountability to the company and the shareholders by the
board.
3.4.1 A basic corporate governance framework
The OECD offers a basic framework for effective corporate governance developed by
its member nations. This framework provides some useful guidelines for developing
corporate governance structures.
The corporate governance framework should be developed with a view to its
impact on overall economic performance, market integrity and the incentives it
creates for market participants and the promotion of transparent and efficient
markets.
The legal and regulatory requirements that affect corporate governance practices
in a jurisdiction should be consistent with the rule of law, transparent and
enforceable.
The division of responsibilities among different authorities in a jurisdiction
should be clearly articulated and ensure that the public interest is served.
Supervisory, regulatory and enforcement authorities should have the authority,
integrity and resources to fulfil their duties in a professional and objective
manner. Moreover, their rulings should be timely, transparent and fully explained.
(OECD, 2004, p. 17).
2
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), ECGI (European Corporate
Governance Institute) and the World Bank are presented in the table below.
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